Allison P. Coudert from the Clitoris to the Breast

AllisonȱP.ȱCoudert (TheȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱatȱDavis)

FromȱtheȱClitorisȱtoȱtheȱBreast:ȱTheȱEclipseȱofȱtheȱFemaleȱLibidoȱin EarlyȱModernȱArt,ȱLiterature,ȱandȱPhilosophy

AsȱanȱundergraduateȱtakingȱaȱcourseȱinȱeighteenthȬcenturyȱEnglishȱliteratureȱI rememberȱwonderingȱhowȱitȱwasȱpossibleȱtoȱgoȱfromȱtheȱterrifyingȱdescriptionȱof libidinous,ȱ castratingȱ witchesȱ inȱ sixteenthȱ andȱ seventeenthȱ centuryȱ witchcraft treatisesȱtoȱtheȱmawkishȱsentimentalityȱofȱSamuelȱRichardson’sȱPamelaȱandȱJeanȬ JacquesȱRousseau’sȱJulie?ȱWhatȱhappenedȱtoȱtheȱrakishȱheroinesȱofȱRestoration drama,ȱandȱhowȱwereȱtheȱfeistyȱheroinesȱinȱAphraȱBehn’sȱcomediesȱofȱloveȱand intrigueȱtransmogrifiedȱintoȱthoseȱbloodlessȱ“angelsȱinȱtheȱhouse”ȱsoȱcelebrated byȱCoventryȱPatmore?1ȱAndȱwhatȱkilledȱoffȱcharactersȱlikeȱMollȱFlanders,ȱwhose viewȱofȱmotherhoodȱwasȱcasualȱinȱtheȱextreme,ȱonlyȱtoȱreplaceȱherȱwithȱGreuze’s “LaȱMèreȱbienȱaimée”ȱ(TheȱBelovedȱMother),ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱpopularȱpicturesȱat theȱ Salonȱ ofȱ 1765?2ȱ (Fig.ȱ 1.)ȱ Asȱ Diderotȱ commented,ȱ thisȱ pictureȱ isȱ “dramatic poetry”ȱthatȱinvitesȱ“us”—meaningȱhusbands—toȱaction,ȱtheȱactionȱofȱgivingȱone’s wifeȱ“asȱmanyȱchildrenȱasȱyouȱcan.”3ȱ Why,ȱinȱshort,ȱdidȱdiscussionsȱofȱtheȱirrepressibleȱandȱdangerousȱfemaleȱlibido soȱcommonȱinȱancient,ȱmedieval,ȱandȱearlyȱmodernȱliterature,ȱart,ȱandȱmedicalȱand scientificȱ treatisesȱ giveȱ wayȱ toȱ sentimentalȱ homiliesȱ aboutȱ theȱ marvelsȱ of motherhoodȱandȱpaeansȱtoȱtheȱfemaleȱbreast?4ȱAnd,ȱfurthermore,ȱwhatȱeffectȱdid thisȱhaveȱonȱtheȱactualȱlivesȱofȱwomen?ȱ

1 CoventryȱPatmore,ȱTheȱAngelȱinȱtheȱHouse,ȱBooksȱ1ȱ&ȱ2ȱ(London:ȱHaggerstonȱPress,ȱ1998). 2 Greuzeȱexhibitedȱaȱsketchȱofȱ“TheȱBelovedȱMother”ȱatȱtheȱSalonȱinȱ1765.ȱThisȱsketch,ȱwhichȱisȱnow lost,ȱprovidedȱtheȱbasisȱforȱGrueze’sȱsubsequentȱpaintingȱofȱtheȱscene.ȱAnȱengravingȱofȱthis paintingȱ(Fig.ȱ1)wasȱlaterȱproducedȱbyȱJeanȱMassardȱandȱpublishedȱinȱ1775. 3 DenisȱDiderot,ȱSalons,ȱed.ȱJeanȱSeznecȱandȱJ.ȱAdhémarȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1975),ȱI,ȱ233,ȱII, 155.ȱCitedȱinȱCarolȱDuncan,ȱ“HappyȱMothersȱandȱOtherȱNewȱIdeasȱinȱFrenchȱArt,”ȱTheȱArt Bulletinȱ55ȱ(1973):ȱ570–83;ȱhereȱ570. 4 Onȱtheȱdangersȱofȱfemaleȱlibido,ȱseeȱLyndalȱRoper,ȱOedipusȱ&ȱtheȱDevil:ȱWitchcraft,ȱSexuality,ȱand ReligionȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEuropeȱ(NewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1994);ȱeadem,ȱWitchȱCraze:ȱTerrorȱand FantasyȱinȱBaroqueȱGermanyȱ(NewȱHavenȱandȱLondon:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004). Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 1/12/2017 1:37 PM via UNIV OF GEORGIA AN: 259667 ; Classen, Albrecht.; Sexuality in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times : New Approaches to a Fundamental Cultural-Historical and Literary-Anthropological Theme Account: uga1 838 AllisonȱP.ȱCoudert

Itȱisȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱthisȱpaperȱtoȱshowȱhowȱattitudesȱtowardȱmaleȱandȱfemale sexualityȱchangedȱduringȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱ“longȱeighteenthȱcentury”ȱ(1660–1800)ȱas aȱnewȱformȱofȱessentialismȱcameȱtoȱdefineȱtheȱsexes,ȱrestrictingȱwomenȱtoȱthe domesticȱrealmȱmoreȱcloselyȱthanȱeverȱbefore.ȱAsȱmanyȱscholarsȱhaveȱpointedȱout, theȱdefinitionȱofȱwomenȱinȱtermsȱofȱmarriageȱandȱmotherhoodȱwasȱmoreȱthanȱa domesticȱmatter,ȱforȱitȱreflectedȱsocial,ȱpolitical,ȱandȱeconomicȱdevelopmentsȱinȱthe worldȱatȱlarge.ȱCapitalism,ȱnationalism,ȱandȱcolonialismȱallȱcontributedȱtoȱeclipse theȱfemaleȱlibidoȱasȱtheȱbreastȱtookȱprecedenceȱoverȱtheȱclitorisȱandȱnursingȱover orgasms.5ȱ Duringȱtheȱeighteenthȱcenturyȱtheȱideaȱfirstȱaroseȱthatȱtheȱtrueȱwealthȱofȱnations layȱinȱitsȱpopulation.6ȱConsequently,ȱtheȱfemaleȱreproductiveȱbodyȱwasȱinȱeffect colonizedȱforȱtheȱgoodȱofȱtheȱMotherȱCountry.ȱJustȱlikeȱagriculturalȱland,ȱmothers wereȱ enclosed,ȱ andȱ motherhoodȱ wasȱ conceptualizedȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ increased productionȱ andȱ equatedȱ withȱ theȱ capitalizationȱ ofȱ agricultureȱ andȱ the industrializationȱofȱmanufactures.7ȱJohnȱWesleyȱaptlyȱcommentedȱthatȱdescribing childbirthȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ “reproduction”ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ “generation,”ȱ asȱ itȱ had traditionallyȱbeenȱcalled,ȱturnedȱwomenȱintoȱproductiveȱunitsȱmuchȱlikeȱ“beasts” asȱwellȱasȱ“nettlesȱorȱonions.”8ȱInȱsoȱfarȱasȱscientistsȱandȱmedicalȱpractitioners collaboratedȱinȱthisȱtransformationȱofȱwomenȱfromȱsexualȱbeingsȱtoȱmothersȱwrit large,ȱthisȱessayȱprovidesȱoneȱmoreȱexampleȱofȱhowȱtheȱscientificȱideasȱofȱeveryȱera inevitablyȱreflectȱlargerȱsocialȱrealities.9ȱ Twoȱ lastȱ pointsȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ made.ȱ First,ȱ theȱ ideologyȱ ofȱ motherhoodȱ that developedȱfromȱtheȱlateȱseventeenthȱtoȱtheȱnineteenthȱcenturiesȱwasȱclassȱspecific, applyingȱsolelyȱtoȱtheȱminorityȱofȱwomenȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱandȱupperȱclassesȱwho hadȱtheȱincomeȱandȱleisureȱnotȱtoȱwork.ȱAndȱsecond,ȱitȱwasȱaȱprescriptiveȱideology thatȱmaskedȱtheȱveryȱrealȱfearȱofȱfemaleȱsexualityȱandȱtheȱcontemptȱforȱwomen andȱmotherhoodȱthatȱappearsȱinȱmuchȱofȱtheȱfiction,ȱart,ȱmedical,ȱscientific,ȱand philosophicalȱwritingȱofȱtheȱperiod.10ȱForȱallȱtheȱrhetoricȱglorifyingȱmotherhood

5 Forȱanȱinsightfulȱstudyȱofȱfemaleȱlibido,ȱorȱdesire,ȱinȱtheȱtwelfthȱcentury,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱto thisȱvolumeȱbyȱJuanitaȱRuys. 6 LisaȱFormanȱCody,ȱBirthingȱtheȱNation:ȱSex,ȱScience,ȱandȱtheȱConceptionȱofȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱBritons (OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2005),ȱ20–21. 7 RuthȱPerry,ȱȈColonizingȱtheȱBreast:ȱSexualityȱandȱMaternityȱinȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱEngland,Ȉ JournalȱofȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱSexualityȱ2ȱ(Februaryȱ1992):ȱ204–35;ȱrpt.ȱinȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱLifeȱ16ȱ(1992): 185–213. 8 CitedȱinȱCody,ȱBirthingȱtheȱNation,ȱ20–21. 9 HelenȱE.ȱLongino,ȱScienceȱasȱSocialȱKnowledge:ȱValuesȱandȱObjectivityȱinȱScientificȱInquiryȱ(Princeton: PrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1990). 10 AsȱweȱhaveȱlearnedȱfromȱPeterȱGayȱamongȱothers,ȱforȱallȱtheȱtalkȱaboutȱtheȱsexlessȱangelsȱin nineteenthȱcenturyȱhouseholds,ȱpassionate,ȱorgasmicȱsexȱforȱbothȱmalesȱandȱfemalesȱdidȱnot vanish.ȱPeterȱGay,ȱTheȱBourgeoisȱExperience:ȱVictoriaȱtoȱFreudȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress, 1984). Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

andȱpraisingȱ“angelic”ȱwives,ȱtheȱoldȱimageȱofȱtheȱlibidinous,ȱcastratingȱwitch lingeredȱonȱlikeȱaȱdarkȱshadowȱdoggingȱtheȱnewȱ“CultȱofȱWomanhood.”ȱAsȱtoȱthe questionȱ ofȱ whetherȱ orȱ notȱ theȱ ideologyȱ ofȱ motherhoodȱ wasȱ goodȱ orȱ badȱ for women,ȱscholarsȱprofoundlyȱdisagree,ȱasȱweȱshallȱsee.ȱ Inȱ viewȱ ofȱ ourȱ society’sȱ penchantȱ forȱ demonizingȱ certainȱ womenȱ asȱ “bad mothers,”ȱitȱmayȱbeȱhardȱtoȱbelieveȱthatȱjudgingȱwomenȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheirȱmaternal andȱnurturingȱqualitiesȱisȱaȱrelativelyȱmodernȱphenomenon.11ȱAȱwomen’sȱstatus didȱnotȱdependȱonȱherȱreputationȱasȱaȱgoodȱorȱbadȱmother.ȱInȱfact,ȱbeforeȱthe eighteenthȱcenturyȱmothersȱwereȱprettyȱmuchȱleftȱoutȱofȱliteraryȱworksȱandȱeven autobiographies.12ȱ Louisȱ Montroseȱ commentsȱ onȱ theȱ absenceȱ ofȱ mothersȱ in Shakespeare,ȱandȱoneȱwouldȱhardlyȱknowȱfromȱreadingȱtheȱautobiographiesȱof Richardȱ Baxterȱ andȱ Johnȱ Lockeȱ thatȱ theyȱ wereȱ “ofȱ womanȱ born.”13ȱ Jonathan GoldbergȱnotesȱtheirȱabsenceȱfromȱStuartȱfamilyȱportraitsȱasȱwell.14ȱTheȱexistence ofȱsuchȱaȱthingȱasȱaȱ“maternalȱinstinct”ȱwasȱflatlyȱdeniedȱbyȱLockeȱonȱtheȱsame groundsȱthatȱheȱrejectedȱtheȱnotionȱofȱinnateȱmoralȱlawsȱofȱanyȱkind.ȱAsȱheȱsays inȱhisȱEssayȱonȱHumanȱUnderstanding:ȱ

Ifȱanyȱ[rule]ȱcanȱbeȱthoughtȱtoȱbeȱnaturallyȱimprinted,ȱnone,ȱIȱthink,ȱcanȱhaveȱaȱfairer Pretenceȱ toȱ beȱ innate,ȱ thanȱ this;ȱ Parentsȱ preserveȱ andȱ cherishȱ yourȱ children.ȱ When thereforeȱyouȱsay,ȱThatȱthisȱisȱanȱinnateȱRule,ȱWhatȱdoȱyouȱmean?ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[Forȱweȱdoȱnot needȱto]ȱseekȱsoȱfarȱasȱMingreliaȱorȱPeru,ȱtoȱfindȱinstancesȱofȱsuchȱasȱneglect,ȱabuse,ȱnay andȱdestroyȱtheirȱchildren;ȱorȱlookȱonȱitȱonlyȱasȱtheȱmoreȱthanȱBrutalityȱofȱsomeȱsavage andȱbarbarousȱNations,ȱwhenȱweȱremember,ȱthatȱitȱwasȱaȱfamiliar,ȱandȱuncondemned PracticeȱamongstȱtheȱGreeksȱandȱRomans,ȱtoȱexpose,ȱwithoutȱpityȱorȱremorse,ȱtheir innocentȱInfants.15ȱ

11 Ruthȱ H.ȱ Bloch,ȱ “Americanȱ Feminineȱ Idealsȱ inȱ Transition:ȱ Theȱ Riseȱ ofȱ theȱ Moralȱ Mother, 1785–1815,”ȱFeministȱStudiesȱ4,ȱno.ȱ2ȱ(June,ȱ1978):ȱ100–26:ȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱinȱseventeenthȱandȱearlyȱeighteenthȬ centuryȱliteratureȱwrittenȱandȱreadȱinȱAmerica,ȱmotherhoodȱwasȱsingularlyȱunidealized,ȱusually disregardedȱasȱaȱsubject,ȱandȱevenȱatȱtimesȱactuallyȱdenigrated”ȱ(100).ȱTheȱsameȱheldȱtrueȱfor England.ȱInȱtheȱDunciadȱ(1728),ȱforȱexample,ȱAlexanderȱPopeȱdescribedȱtheȱmotherȱandȱnovelist Elizaȱ Haywoodȱ (ca.ȱ 1693–1756):ȱ asȱ beingȱ “Withȱ cowȬlikeȱ udders,ȱ andȱ withȱ oxȬlikeȱ eyes.” AlexanderȱPope,ȱTheȱDunciad,ȱed.ȱValerieȱRumboldȱ(NewȱYork:ȱPearsonȱEducationȱLimited,ȱ1999), Bk.ȱ2,ȱii,ȱl.ȱ164. 12 Forȱ remarkableȱ exceptionsȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Marieȱ deȱ France’sȱ twelfthȬcenturyȱ lais,ȱ seeȱ the contributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱMollyȱRobinsonȱKelly. 13 Louisȱ Montrose,ȱ “Aȱ Midsummer’sȱ Night’sȱ Dreamȱ andȱ theȱ Shapingȱ ofȱ Elizabethanȱ Culture: Gender,ȱPower,ȱForm,”ȱRewritingȱtheȱRenaissance;ȱTheȱDiscourseȱofȱSexualȱDifferenceȱinȱEarlyȱModern Europe,ȱed.ȱMargaretȱW.ȱFerguson,ȱMaureenȱQuilliganȱ&ȱNancyȱJ.ȱVickersȱ(Chicago:ȱChicago UniversityȱPress,ȱ1986);ȱLevinȱL.ȱSchücking,ȱTheȱPuritanȱFamily:ȱAȱSocialȱStudyȱfromȱtheȱLiterary Sources,ȱtrans.ȱBrianȱBattershawȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSchockenȱBooks,ȱ1979),ȱ85ff. 14 JonathanȱGoldberg,ȱ“FatherlyȱAuthority:ȱTheȱPoliticsȱofȱStuartȱFamilyȱImages,”ȱRewritingȱthe Renaissance,ȱ3–32. 15 JohnȱLocke,ȱAnȱEssayȱConcerningȱHumanȱUnderstanding,ȱed.ȱPeterȱH.ȱNidditchȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendon Press),ȱ1979,ȱBkȱI,ȱiii,ȱ73–74. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Theȱideaȱthatȱfemalesȱwereȱinnatelyȱ“motherly”ȱandȱ“nurturing”—inȱaȱword, “doting”—ȱonȱeitherȱanȱindividualȱorȱcosmicȱlevelȱwasȱnotȱanȱassumptionȱinȱthe medievalȱorȱearlyȱmodernȱperiods.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱtoȱdenyȱthatȱparentsȱinȱeveryȱperiod lovedȱtheirȱchildren,ȱinsteadȱitȱisȱsimplyȱtoȱsayȱthatȱbeforeȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury motherȱ loveȱ wasȱ notȱ singledȱ outȱ asȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ defining characteristicȱofȱwomen.16ȱAsȱKatharineȱParkȱhasȱshown,ȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱperiod thereȱwasȱnothingȱparticularlyȱnurturingȱaboutȱfemaleȱ“Natura.”ȱSheȱcreatesȱinȱan androgynousȱmannerȱbyȱengagingȱinȱactivitiesȱgenerallyȱassociatedȱwithȱmales suchȱasȱspeaking,ȱmolding,ȱcarving,ȱorȱforging.17ȱInȱtheȱRenaissanceȱnatureȱappears inȱaȱnewȱguiseȱasȱaȱ lactatingȱorȱmanyȱbreastedȱwoman.ȱThisȱdepictionȱmight appearȱtoȱmoveȱcloserȱtoȱtheȱidealȱofȱtheȱ“doting”ȱmother,ȱbut,ȱasȱParkȱargues, suchȱaȱdepictionȱhadȱitsȱrootsȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱtropesȱofȱprincelyȱgenerosityȱand, inȱ anyȱ case,ȱ encapsulatedȱ theȱ ideaȱ thatȱ natureȱ wasȱ aȱ purelyȱ creativeȱ force, indifferentȱtoȱtheȱsubsequentȱwellȬbeingȱofȱherȱindividualȱcreations.18ȱ TheȱRenaissanceȱandȱearlyȱmodernȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱfertilityȱofȱnatureȱrather thanȱ herȱ nurturingȱ qualitiesȱ isȱ reflectedȱ inȱ contemporaryȱ literatureȱ which emphasizesȱfemaleȱsexualityȱratherȱthanȱmaternity.ȱAlthoughȱThomasȱLacquerȱhas beenȱcriticizedȱforȱignoringȱhistoricalȱcomplexityȱasȱwellȱasȱchronology,ȱhisȱclaim thatȱmedicalȱopinionȱmovedȱfromȱwhatȱhasȱbeenȱcalledȱaȱ“oneȱsexȱmodel”ȱtoȱa “twoȱsexȱmodel”ȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱeighteenthȱcenturyȱhasȱmerit.19ȱAccordingȱto theȱ“oneȱsexȱmodel,”ȱmalesȱandȱfemalesȱwereȱviewedȱasȱexistingȱonȱaȱcontinuum withȱ malesȱ onȱ theȱ highȱ endȱ andȱ womenȱ onȱ theȱ low.20ȱ Thisȱ continuumȱ was

16 Onȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱparentalȱloveȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȱmodernȱperiod,ȱseeȱChildhoodȱinȱthe MiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissance:ȱTheȱResultsȱofȱaȱParadigmȱShiftȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱMentality,ȱed. AlbrechtȱClassenȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2005).ȱThereȱareȱactuallyȱmanyȱnew studiesȱonȱmotherhoodȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱClarissaȱW.ȱAtkinson,ȱTheȱOldest Vocation:ȱChristianȱMotherhoodȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Ithaca:ȱCornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1991),ȱbutȱthis mayȱbeȱevidenceȱofȱaȱmodernȱpreoccupationȱmoreȱthanȱaȱmedievalȱone.ȱ 17 KatharineȱPark,“NatureȱinȱPerson:ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱAllegoriesȱandȱEmblems,”ȱTheȱMoral AuthorityȱofȱNature,ȱed.ȱLorraineȱDastonȱandȱFernandoȱVidalȱ(ChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱUniversity ofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ50–73;ȱhereȱ54. 18 Ibid.ȱCf.ȱAndreasȱGoesch,ȱDianaȱEphesia:ȱIkonographischeȱStudienȱzurȱAllegorieȱderȱNaturȱinȱderȱKunst vomȱ16.–19.ȱJahrhundert.ȱEuropäischeȱHochschulschriften.ȱReiheȱXXVIII:ȱKunstgeschichte,ȱ253 (Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1996);ȱJamesȱIȱofȱEnglandȱappliedȱtheȱimageȱofȱa lactatingȱmotherȱtoȱhimselfȱasȱanȱindicationȱofȱhisȱgenerosityȱtoȱhisȱsubjects.ȱHeȱdescribedȱhimself asȱ “aȱ lovingȱ nourishȬfather,”ȱ whoȱ providedȱ hisȱ subjectsȱ withȱ “theirȱ ownȱ nourishȬmilk.”ȱ See StephenȱOrgel,ȱ“Prospero’sȱWife,”ȱRewritingȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱ50–64. 19 ThomasȱLaqueur,ȱMakingȱSex:ȱBodyȱandȱGenderȱfromȱtheȱGreeksȱtoȱFreudȱ(Cambridge:ȱHarvard UniversityȱPress,ȱ1990).ȱForȱcritiquesȱofȱLacquer,ȱseeȱMichaelȱStolberg,ȱ“AȱWomanȱDownȱtoȱHer Bones:ȱTheȱAnatomyȱofȱSexualȱDifferenceȱinȱtheȱSixteenthȱandȱEarlyȱSeventeenthȱCenturies,”ȱIsis 94ȱ(2003):ȱ274–99;ȱKatherineȱParkȱandȱRobertȱA.ȱNye,ȱ“DestinyȱisȱAnatomy,”ȱNewȱRepublicȱ204 (1991):ȱ53–57. 20 Accordingȱtoȱtheȱoneȱsexȱmodel,ȱgenderȱwasȱbyȱitsȱveryȱnatureȱunstable,ȱwhichȱmadeȱanyȱsignȱof Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

reflectedȱinȱmaleȱandȱfemaleȱgenitalia,ȱwhichȱwereȱconceptualizedȱasȱbeingȱmirror imagesȱofȱeachȱother.ȱThisȱwasȱVesalius’sȱview.ȱAsȱhisȱstudentȱBaldasarȱHeseler wrote:ȱ“Galenȱsaysȱthatȱtheȱorgansȱofȱprocreationȱareȱtheȱsameȱinȱtheȱmaleȱandȱin theȱfemale,ȱonlyȱthatȱinȱtheȱfemaleȱallȱisȱreversedȱtoȱtheȱmale,ȱinȱwhomȱthatȱwhich isȱinsideȱinȱtheȱfemaleȱisȱoutside.ȱAndȱagainȱinȱtheȱmaleȱallȱisȱcontraryȱtoȱthe female.ȱForȱifȱyouȱturnȱtheȱscrotum,ȱtheȱtesticlesȱandȱtheȱpenisȱinsideȱutȱyouȱwill alsoȱhaveȱallȱtheȱgenitalȱorgansȱofȱtheȱfemale,ȱlikeȱtheyȱareȱinȱtheȱmale.”21ȱTheȱ“one sexȱmodel”ȱreflectedȱtraditionalȱpreȬCopernicanȱwaysȱofȱorganizingȱexperienceȱin termsȱofȱaȱverticalȱhierarchyȱofȱinterlockingȱrungs—theȱ“GreatȱChainȱofȱBeing,”ȱso famouslyȱdescribedȱbyȱArthurȱLovejoy—inȱwhichȱeveryȱrungȱsharedȱtheȱsame qualitiesȱbutȱdifferedȱinȱtermsȱofȱqualityȱandȱquantity.22ȱ Thusȱwomenȱwereȱlikeȱmen,ȱonlyȱlessȱso.ȱTheȱGalenicȱassumptionȱthatȱboth sexesȱhadȱtoȱachieveȱorgasmȱtoȱproduceȱtheȱsemenȱnecessaryȱforȱconceptionȱwas characteristicȱ ofȱ thisȱ “oneȱ sexȱ model,”ȱ inȱ whichȱ sexualȱ pleasureȱ wasȱ deemed essentialȱforȱbothȱpartners.ȱTheȱ“oneȱsexȱmodel”ȱwasȱnot,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱonlyȱmodel availableȱbeforeȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury,ȱasȱLacquerȱmistakenlyȱcontends.ȱAristotle providedȱanȱalternativeȱ“twoȱsexȱmodel”ȱbasedȱonȱhisȱconvictionȱthatȱwomenȱwere incapableȱofȱproducingȱsemen.ȱConsequently,ȱneitherȱsexualȱpleasureȱnorȱorgasm wereȱessentialȱforȱfemalesȱtoȱconceive.ȱInȱdefenseȱofȱLacquer,ȱhowever,ȱitȱshould beȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱpopularȱsexȱmanualsȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodern periodȱwasȱtitledȱAristotle’sȱMasterȬPiece:ȱOr,ȱtheȱSecretsȱofȱGenerationȱDisplayedȱin AllȱtheȱPartsȱThereofȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ:ȱVeryȱNecessaryȱforȱallȱMidwives,ȱNursesȱandȱYoungȬMarried, evenȱthoughȱitȱespousedȱtheȱGalenicȱ“oneȱsexȱmodel.”23ȱThisȱwork,ȱwhichȱwas revisedȱandȱreprintedȱinȱmanyȱversions,ȱinsistedȱonȱtheȱnecessityȱofȱfemaleȱorgasm forȱconceptionȱandȱarguedȱthatȱorgasmȱwasȱfacilitatedȱbyȱclitoralȱstimulation.ȱ Inȱ Theȱ Midwivesȱ Book,ȱ Orȱ theȱ Wholeȱ Artȱ ofȱ Midwiferyȱ (1671),ȱ Mrs.ȱ Janeȱ Sharp endorsedȱ theȱ oneȱ sexȱ modelȱ andȱ claimedȱ thatȱ withoutȱ clitoralȱ stimulationȱ a womanȱcouldȱnotȱbecomeȱpregnant:ȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthisȱClitorisȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱmakesȱaȱwomanȱlustfull andȱtakeȱdelightȱinȱcopulation,ȱandȱwereȱitȱnotȱforȱthisȱtheyȱwouldȱhaveȱnoȱdesire norȱdelight,ȱnorȱwouldȱtheyȱeverȱconceive.”24ȱTheȱessentialȱconnectionȱbetween

effeminacyȱinȱmenȱallȱtheȱmoreȱtroubling.ȱOneȱreasonȱwhyȱPuritansȱwereȱsoȱagainstȱtheȱtheater wasȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱmenȱplayedȱwomen’sȱparts.ȱThisȱwasȱplainlyȱaskingȱforȱtrouble.ȱLaura Levine,ȱ“MenȱinȱWomen’sȱClothing:ȱAntiȬTheatricalityȱandȱEffeminizationȱfromȱ1579–1642,” Criticismȱ28ȱ(Springȱ1986):ȱ121–43. 21 BaldasarȱHeseler,ȱAndreasȱVersalius’ȱFirstȱPublicȱAnatomyȱatȱBolognaȱ1540:ȱAnȱEyewitnessȱReport,ȱed. andȱtrans.ȱRubenȱErikssonȱ(Uppsala:ȱAlmquistȱ&ȱWiksells,ȱ1959),ȱ181. 22 ArthurȱJ.ȱLovejoy,ȱTheȱGreatȱChainȱofȱBeing:ȱTheȱHistoryȱofȱanȱIdeaȱ(Cambridge:ȱHarvardȱUniversity Press,ȱ1936). 23 ThisȱworkȱwentȱthroughȱatȱleastȱsixtyȬsevenȱeditionsȱbetweenȱ1684ȱandȱ1794.ȱHereȱcitedȱafterȱthe Londonȱeditionȱ(London:ȱT.B.,ȱ1699). 24 Mrs.ȱJaneȱSharp,ȱTheȱMidwivesȱBook.ȱOrȱtheȱWholeȱArtȱofȱMidwiferyȱDiscoveredȱ(London:ȱS.ȱMiller, 1671),ȱ43–44.ȱ Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

femaleȱsexualȱpleasureȱandȱconceptionȱappearsȱinȱotherȱstandardȱworksȱasȱwell. Forȱexample,ȱinȱTheȱCompleteȱMidwife’sȱPracticeȱEnlargedȱ(1680)ȱtheȱauthorȱclaims thatȱ aȱ womanȱ firstȱ “apprehends”ȱ sheȱ isȱ pregnantȱ “ifȱ afterȱ sheȱ hathȱ hadȱ the companyȱofȱherȱHusband,ȱsheȱhathȱreceivedȱmoreȱcontentȱthanȱordinary.”ȱ25 Duringȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱclitorisȱwasȱincreasinglyȱleftȱoutȱof theȱsexualȱpictureȱasȱtheȱ“oneȱsexȱmodel”ȱwasȱeclipsedȱbyȱtheȱ“twoȱsexȱmodel,” andȱfemalesȱorgasmsȱwereȱdeemedȱunnecessaryȱforȱconception.ȱ“Women,”ȱas Felicityȱ Nussbaum,ȱ saysȱ “becomeȱ theȱ objectȱ ofȱ impregnationȱ ratherȱ than participantsȱinȱreproduction.”26ȱNotȱonlyȱwereȱwomen’sȱgenitalsȱnowȱthoughtȱto beȱofȱanȱentirelyȱdifferentȱnatureȱthanȱthoseȱofȱmen,ȱbutȱtheȱentireȱanatomyȱofȱthe twoȱsexesȱwasȱincommensurateȱbecauseȱeachȱbone,ȱsinew,ȱmuscle,ȱbloodȱvessel, andȱorganȱwasȱitselfȱgendered.ȱJohnȱBarclay’sȱAnatomyȱofȱtheȱBonesȱofȱtheȱHuman Bodyȱ (Edinburgh,ȱ 1829)ȱ illustratesȱ theȱ genderedȱ natureȱ ofȱ maleȱ andȱ female skeletons.27ȱFromȱtheȱlargeȱsizeȱofȱtheȱpelvis,ȱtheȱnarrowȱshoulders,ȱandȱtheȱsmall headȱinȱFig.ȱ2ȱitȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱobviousȱtoȱBarclay’sȱcontemporariesȱthatȱthis depictsȱaȱfemale. AsȱLondaȱSchiebingerȱhasȱpointedȱout,ȱhowever,ȱBarclayȱdistortedȱhisȱdrawing toȱ emphasizeȱ whatȱ heȱ wantedȱ andȱ expectedȱ toȱ see,ȱ namely,ȱ confirmationȱ of women’sȱprimaryȱandȱdivinelyȱordainedȱfunctionȱasȱbearersȱofȱchildren.28ȱThe emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ femaleȱ pelvicȱ areasȱ atȱ theȱ expenseȱ ofȱ theȱ femaleȱ brainȱ is underlinedȱbyȱtheȱostrichȱinȱtheȱbackgroundȱ—aȱ“birdȱbrain”ȱifȱthereȱeverȱwas one—placedȱthere,ȱoneȱcanȱonlyȱsurmise,ȱtoȱreinforceȱcontemporaryȱtheoriesȱabout theȱ innateȱ intellectualȱ inferiorityȱ ofȱ women.ȱ Barclayȇsȱ illustrationȱ ofȱ aȱ male skeletonȱ sendsȱ aȱ veryȱ differentȱ messageȱ (Fig.ȱ 3).ȱ Noteȱ theȱ muchȱ largerȱ head, smallerȱpelvis,ȱandȱtheȱproudȱandȱpowerfulȱhorse.ȱAndȱobserveȱtheȱhouseȱinȱthe background.ȱ Theȱ implicationȱ hereȱ isȱ thatȱ notȱ onlyȱ areȱ malesȱ kingsȱ ofȱ their respectiveȱcastles,ȱbutȱtheyȱproduceȱtheȱcultureȱthatȱconstructsȱtheseȱcastles. EvenȱinȱtheȱfaceȱofȱBarclay’sȱskeletons,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱhistoriansȱrejectȱtheȱideaȱthat theȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱtheȱsexesȱwasȱincreasinglyȱemphasizedȱinȱtheȱeighteenth andȱnineteenthȱcenturies.ȱInsteadȱtheyȱargueȱthatȱtheȱideaȱofȱsexualȱdifference actuallyȱ collapsedȱ underȱ pressureȱ fromȱ theȱ newȱ cultȱ ofȱ sensibilityȱ andȱ the “feminization”ȱofȱdiscourseȱandȱbehaviorȱthisȱentailed.29ȱTheȱallowanceȱgivenȱto

25 CitedȱinȱCody,ȱBirthingȱtheȱNation,ȱ32. 26 Felicityȱ A.ȱ Nussbaum,ȱ “’Savage’ȱ Mothers:ȱ Narrativesȱ ofȱ Maternityȱ inȱ theȱ MidȬEighteenth Century,ȈȱCulturalȱCritiqueȱ20ȱ(Winterȱ1991–1992):ȱ123–51;ȱhereȱ128.ȱ 27 LondaȱSchiebinger,ȱ“SkeletonsȱinȱtheȱCloset:ȱTheȱFirstȱIllustrationsȱofȱtheȱFemaleȱSkeletonȱin Eighteenthȱ Centuryȱ Anatomy,”ȱ Theȱ Makingȱ ofȱ theȱ Modernȱ Body:ȱ Sexualityȱ andȱ Societyȱ inȱ the Nineteenthȱ Century,ȱ ed.ȱ Catherineȱ Gallagherȱ andȱ Thomasȱ Laqueurȱ (Berkeley:ȱ Universityȱ of CaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1987),ȱ42–82.ȱ 28 Schiebinger,ȱ“SkeletonsȱinȱtheȱCloset.” 29 Douglas,ȱTheȱFeminizationȱofȱAmericanȱCultureȱ(NewȱYork:ȱAlfredȱA.ȱKnopf,ȱ1979);ȱMadeleine Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

theȱ“manȱofȱfeeling”ȱtoȱdisplayȱhisȱmostȱtenderȱemotionsȱwithinȱdomesticȱwallsȱas wellȱasȱwithoutȱhasȱledȱtheseȱscholarsȱtoȱquestionȱtheȱgenerallyȱacceptedȱideaȱthat “separateȱspheres”ȱforȱmenȱandȱwomenȱbecameȱtheȱnorm.30ȱInsteadȱofȱbeingȱa sanctuaryȱforȱwomen,ȱtheyȱcontendȱthatȱtheȱhouseholdȱbecameȱaȱplaceȱwhereȱmen andȱwomenȱbeganȱtoȱsocializeȱinȱwaysȱtheyȱneverȱhadȱinȱtheȱpast,ȱaȱplaceȱwhere husbandsȱandȱwivesȱate,ȱconversed,ȱandȱreadȱtogether,ȱandȱwhereȱbothȱparents tookȱonȱtheȱresponsibilitiesȱofȱcaringȱforȱchildren.ȱInȱthisȱatmosphere,ȱanȱentirely newȱdiscourseȱaroseȱbetweenȱtheȱsexesȱthatȱemphasizedȱtheirȱcommonality.ȱInȱthis revisionistȱhistoryȱtheȱincreasingȱprominenceȱofȱmaleȱmidwivesȱisȱseenȱasȱaȱsign ofȱtheȱgrowingȱawarenessȱthatȱmenȱsharedȱfundamentalȱhumanȱtraitsȱwithȱwomen andȱcouldȱempathizeȱwithȱtheirȱphysicalȱandȱemotionalȱexperiences.ȱ Whileȱthereȱisȱmuchȱtoȱbeȱsaidȱforȱthisȱrevisionistȱview,ȱIȱwouldȱargueȱthatȱthe veryȱ developmentsȱ encouragingȱ historiansȱ toȱ claimȱ thatȱ sexualȱ difference collapsedȱledȱtoȱnewȱstrategiesȱtoȱbolsterȱsexualȱdifference.ȱTheȱprominenceȱof maleȱ midwivesȱ offersȱ aȱ caseȱ inȱ point.ȱ Theirȱ existenceȱ wasȱ notȱ universally applaudedȱbecauseȱtheyȱseemedȱtoȱundermineȱclearȬcutȱdistinctionsȱbetweenȱthe sexes.ȱButȱevenȱthoseȱwhoȱcelebratedȱmaleȱmidwivesȱdidȱnotȱdoȱsoȱonȱtheȱgrounds thatȱmenȱandȱwomenȱwereȱalike,ȱbutȱonȱtheȱgroundsȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱfundamentally different.ȱMenȱmightȱwellȱshareȱtheȱsameȱemotionsȱandȱfeelingsȱasȱwomen,ȱbut theirȱintellectȱandȱknowledgeȱmadeȱthemȱbothȱdifferentȱandȱvastlyȱsuperior,ȱand itȱwasȱpreciselyȱthisȱmentalȱsuperiorityȱthatȱentitledȱthemȱtoȱtellȱwomenȱexactly whatȱtoȱdoȱwhenȱitȱcameȱtoȱbearingȱandȱrearingȱchildren.ȱThisȱpointȱwasȱmadeȱin noȱuncertainȱtermsȱbyȱtheȱphysicianȱWilliamȱCadoganȱ(1711–1797)ȱinȱAnȱEssay uponȱNursing,ȱandȱtheȱManagementȱofȱChildren,ȱFromȱTheirȱBirthȱtoȱThreeȱYearsȱofȱAge (1748):

ItȱisȱwithȱgreatȱPleasureȱIȱseeȱatȱlastȱtheȱPreservationȱofȱchildrenȱbecomeȱtheȱcareȱof Menȱ ofȱ Sense.ȱ Inȱ myȱ Opinion,ȱ thisȱ businessȱ hasȱ beenȱ tooȱ longȱ fatallyȱ leftȱ toȱ the

Kahn,ȱNarrativeȱTransvestism:ȱRhetoricȱandȱGenderȱinȱtheȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱEnglishȱNovelȱ(Ithaca: CornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1991);ȱWilliamȱM.ȱReddy,ȱTheȱNavigationȱofȱFeeling:ȱAȱFrameworkȱforȱthe HistoryȱofȱEmotionsȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2001);ȱG.ȱJ.ȱBarkerȬBenfield,ȱThe CultureȱofȱSensibility:ȱSexȱandȱSocietyȱinȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱBritainȱ(Chicago:ȱTheȱUniversityȱof ChicagoȱPress,ȱ1992);ȱRandolphȱTrumbach,ȱSexȱandȱtheȱGenderȱRevolution.ȱVol.ȱ1:ȱHeterosexuality andȱtheȱThirdȱSexȱinȱEnlightenmentȱLondonȱ(Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1998). 30 Amandaȱ J.ȱ Vickery,ȱ “Goldenȱ Ageȱ toȱ Separateȱ Spheres:ȱ Aȱ Reviewȱ ofȱ theȱ Categoriesȱ and ChronologyȱofȱEnglishȱWomen’sȱHistory,”ȱHistoryȱJournalȱ36ȱ(1993):ȱ383–414;ȱRobertȱShoemaker, GenderȱinȱEnglishȱSociety,ȱ1650–1850.ȱTheȱEmergenceȱofȱSeparateȱSpheres?ȱ(London:ȱLongman,ȱ1998). Newerȱscholarshipȱemphasizesȱtheȱseparationȱofȱtheȱsexesȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȱmodern periods:ȱAnthonyȱFletcher,ȱGender,ȱSex,ȱandȱSubordinationȱ(NewȱHaven:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress, 1975),ȱ257–79;ȱLauraȱGowing,ȱDomesticȱDangers:ȱWomen,ȱWords,ȱandȱSexȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱLondon (Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,1999);ȱDavidȱCressy,ȱ“GenderȱTroubleȱandȱCrossȱDressingȱinȱEarly ModernȱEngland,”ȱJournalȱofȱBritishȱStudiesȱ35ȱ(1996):ȱ438–65. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

ManagementȱofȱWomenȱwhoȱcannotȱbeȱsupposedȱtoȱhaveȱproperȱknowledgeȱtoȱfit themȱforȱsuchȱaȱTask,ȱnotwithstandingȱtheyȱlookȱuponȱitȱtoȱbeȱtheirȱownȱProvince.ȱ

Cadoganȱwasȱconvincedȱthatȱonceȱtheyȱhadȱreadȱhisȱbook,ȱ“mostȱNurses,ȱAunts, GrandȬMothers,ȱetc.”ȱwouldȱrealizeȱ“howȱmuchȱtheyȱhaveȱhithertoȱbeenȱinȱthe wrong.”31ȱRousseau’sȱJulieȱhasȱnoȱtroubleȱinȱacceptingȱtheȱviewȱthatȱmenȱknow moreȱaboutȱraisingȱchildrenȱthanȱwomen.ȱAsȱsheȱsays:ȱ“Iȱnurseȱchildren,ȱbutȱIȱam notȱ presumptuousȱ enoughȱ toȱ wishȱ toȱ trainȱ men.ȱ Moreȱ worthyȱ handsȱ willȱ be chargedȱwithȱthisȱnobleȱtask.ȱIȱamȱaȱwomanȱandȱaȱMotherȱandȱIȱknowȱhowȱtoȱkeep myȱ properȱ sphere.”32ȱ Asȱ femaleȱ midwivesȱ wereȱ replacedȱ byȱ maleȱ physicians, booksȱ writtenȱ byȱ maleȱ expertsȱ onȱ everyȱ aspectȱ ofȱ infantȱ andȱ childȱ care proliferated.33ȱAsȱBlochȱsays,ȱreferringȱtoȱCadoganȱamongȱothers,ȱ“AȱfewȱBritish physiciansȱ openlyȱ deploredȱ theȱ superstitiousȱ ignoranceȱ ofȱ mostȱ mothersȱ and believedȱ themselvesȱ toȱ beȱ onȱ aȱ missionȱ ofȱ scientificȱ enlightenment.”34ȱ Thus, howeverȱmuchȱmaleȱauthorityȱandȱtheȱpatriarchalȱstructureȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱmay haveȱchangedȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱpoliticalȱandȱeconomicȱdevelopmentsȱorȱchangesȱin tasteȱandȱfeeling,ȱmenȱdidȱnotȱceaseȱtoȱclaimȱtheyȱwereȱtheȱauthoritativeȱand rationalȱheadȱofȱtheȱfamily.35ȱTheȱonlyȱdifferenceȱwasȱthatȱmenȱcouldȱnowȱclaim toȱbeȱauthoritiesȱwhenȱitȱcameȱtoȱemotionsȱasȱwellȱasȱreason.ȱCodyȱemphasizesȱthis point:

.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱleadingȱmenȬmidwivesȱwereȱhappyȱtoȱdispenseȱadviceȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱmothers,ȱbut alsoȱtoȱmenȱaboutȱtheirȱdomesticȱroles.ȱLikeȱmenȬmidwives,ȱidealȱeighteenthȬcentury fathersȱwereȱnaturallyȱauthoritativeȱandȱrationalȱasȱtheyȱhadȱbeenȱforȱcenturiesȱasȱthe paterfamilias,ȱbutȱalsoȱcompassionateȱforȱwivesȱandȱchildren,ȱpaternalȱandȱloving,ȱso emotionalȱthatȱtheyȱcouldȱbeȱasȱquicklyȱmovedȱtoȱtearsȱasȱwereȱwomen.36

EighteenthȬȱ andȱ nineteenthȬcenturyȱ discussionsȱ ofȱ homosexualityȱ and hermaphroditismȱprovideȱfurtherȱevidenceȱthatȱtheȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtheȱsexes becameȱ moreȱ extremeȱ inȱ prescriptiveȱ literatureȱ evenȱ asȱ thisȱ distinctionȱ was underminedȱbyȱtheȱactualȱlivesȱofȱmenȱandȱwomen.ȱHenryȱFielding’sȱTheȱFemale Husband,ȱ whichȱ heȱ publishedȱ anonymouslyȱ inȱ 1746,ȱ wasȱ aȱ fictionalizedȱ and

31 CitedȱinȱRuthȱPerry,ȱȈColonizingȱtheȱBreast,Ȉȱ199. 32 CitedȱinȱDuncan,ȱ“HappyȱMothers,”ȱ582. 33 Forȱsomeȱrepresentativeȱtitles,ȱseeȱBloch,ȱ“AmericanȱFeminineȱIdealsȱinȱTransition,”ȱ123,ȱnȱ34. 34 Block,ȱ“AmericanȱFeminineȱIdeals,”ȱ111–12. 35 MichaelȱMcKeonȱdiscussesȱwhatȱheȱdescribesȱasȱtheȱ“founderingȱofȱpatriarchalȱauthority”ȱthat beganȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ seventeenthȱ centuryȱ asȱ theȱ growingȱ middleȱ classȱ rejectedȱ theȱ aristocratic ideologyȱthatȱfamilyȱinterestȱwereȱidentifiedȱwithȱtheȱmaleȱheadȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱidea thatȱhonorȱandȱpropertyȱmustȱbeȱtransmittedȱthroughȱprimogenitureȱandȱrestrictedȱtoȱmales.ȱBut olderȱideasȱofȱpatriarchyȱgaveȱwayȱtoȱnewerȱones.ȱSeeȱMcKeon’sȱarticleȱ“HistoricizingȱPatriarchy: Theȱ Emergenceȱ ofȱ Genderȱ Differenceȱ inȱ England,ȱ 1660–1760,”ȱ EighteenthȬCenturyȱ Studiesȱ 28 (Spring,ȱ1995):ȱ295–322. 36ȱ Cody,ȱBirthingȱtheȱNation,ȱ14. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

satiricalȱaccountȱofȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱfemaleȱtransvestiteȱMaryȱHamilton,ȱwhoȱdressed asȱaȱmanȱandȱassumedȱtheȱsexualȱroleȱofȱaȱhusband.ȱAsȱMarjorieȱGarberȱandȱTerry Castleȱhaveȱargued,ȱtransvestism,ȱalongȱwithȱhomosexuality,ȱbecameȱtopicsȱof considerableȱculturalȱanxietyȱbecauseȱtheyȱblurredȱtheȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱthe sexes.37ȱAsȱtheȱUniversalȱSpectatorȱdeclaredȱ(Decemberȱ14,ȱ1728),ȱ“Decencyȱrequires thatȱtheȱsexesȱshouldȱbeȱdifferenc’dȱbyȱDress,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱpreventȱmultitudesȱof Irregularitiesȱwhichȱotherwiseȱwouldȱcontinuallyȱbeȱoccasion’d.”ȱInȱhisȱpoemȱThe Masquerade,ȱFieldingȱmakesȱitȱclearȱexactlyȱwhatȱsortȱofȱ“irregularity”ȱwouldȱresult fromȱtoleratingȱtransvestismȱandȱhomosexuality:ȱnothingȱshortȱofȱtheȱendȱofȱmale dominanceȱandȱfemaleȱsubordination.ȱInȱtheȱpoemȱheȱrefersȱtoȱthoseȱ“littleȱapish butterflies,”ȱbyȱwhichȱheȱmeansȱeffeminate,ȱcrossȬdressingȱmen,ȱandȱcomments:

Andȱifȱtheȱbreedȱbeen’tȱquicklyȱmended, Yourȱ[meaningȱmen’s]ȱempireȱshortlyȱwillȱbeȱended: Breechesȱourȱbrawnyȱthighsȱshallȱgrace,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ. Forȱwhenȱmenȱwomenȱturn—whyȱthen Mayȱwomenȱnotȱbeȱchang’dȱtoȱmen?ȱ38

Likeȱ transvestismȱ andȱ homosexuality,ȱ hermaphrodismȱ becameȱ anotherȱ pushȬ buttonȱissueȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury.ȱAsȱFelicityȱNussbaumȱargues,ȱclarifying sexualȱ differenceȱ wasȱ anȱ eighteenthȬcenturyȱ preoccupationȱ andȱ required eradicatingȱanyȱambiguityȱbetweenȱtheȱsexes.ȱPeopleȱwereȱencouragedȱtoȱthink thatȱthereȱwereȱtwoȱsexesȱandȱonlyȱtwo,ȱandȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱwhatȱwasȱmaleȱand whatȱfemaleȱwasȱcenteredȱonȱtheȱclearȱandȱobviousȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱmaleȱand femaleȱgenerativeȱorgans.39ȱ Partȱ ofȱ theȱ attemptȱ toȱ makeȱ theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ maleȱ andȱ femaleȱ aȱ matterȱ of either/orȱ involvedȱ declaringȱ hermaphroditismȱ aȱ hoax,ȱ asȱ theȱ physicianȱ James Parsonȱ didȱ inȱ hisȱ treatiseȱ Aȱ Mechanicalȱ andȱ Criticalȱ Enquiryȱ intoȱ theȱ Natureȱ of Hermaphroditesȱ (London:ȱ J.ȱ Wathoe,ȱ 1741).ȱ Thereȱ couldȱ beȱ noȱ middleȱ ground betweenȱmaleȱandȱfemale;ȱeachȱwasȱselfȱcontainedȱandȱdistinct.ȱTransvestism, homosexuality,ȱandȱhermaphroditismȱwereȱhotȱtopicsȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury becauseȱtheyȱthreatenedȱtoȱrevealȱthatȱsocialȱorderȱwasȱaȱhumanȱconstructȱandȱnot

37 MarjorieȱB.ȱGarber,ȱVestedȱInterests:ȱCrossȬDressingȱandȱCulturalȱAnxietyȱ(London:ȱRoutledge,1992); Terryȱ Castle,ȱ Theȱ Apparitionalȱ Lesbian:ȱ Femaleȱ Homosexualityȱ andȱ Modernȱ Cultureȱ (Newȱ York; ColumbiaȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993). 38 Fielding,ȱTheȱMasquerade,ȱcitedȱinȱTerryȱCastle,ȱTheȱFemaleȱThermometer:ȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱCulture andȱtheȱInventionȱofȱtheȱUncannyȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1995),ȱ95.ȱ 39 Theȱstruggleȱconcerningȱhowȱtoȱidentifyȱsexualȱrolesȱobviouslyȱharksȱasȱfarȱbackȱasȱtheȱearly MiddleȱAges,ȱifȱnotȱlongȱbefore,ȱprobablyȱbecauseȱambivalenceȱandȱtransgressionȱinȱthisȱregard seemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱaȱconstantȱfactorȱinȱhumanȱhistory—see,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthis volumeȱbyȱAsaȱSimonȱMittmanȱandȱSusanȱM.ȱKim.ȱIȱamȱsimplyȱarguingȱinȱthisȱessayȱthatȱtheȱissue ofȱsexualȱidentityȱbecameȱespeciallyȱproblematicȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱandȱnineteenthȱcenturiesȱfor theȱreasonsȱIȱoutline. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

theȱproductȱofȱaȱ“natural”ȱandȱdivinelyȱordainedȱplan.ȱToȱdefendȱagainstȱthis unsettlingȱpossibility,ȱnewȱ“natural”ȱbarriersȱwereȱerectedȱbetweenȱtheȱsexes,ȱand thisȱbringsȱusȱbackȱtoȱBarclay’sȱskeletons.ȱ AsȱLudmillaȱJordanovaȱhasȱpointedȱout,ȱscientificȱthinkingȱhasȱaȱdeeperȱkinship withȱtheȱhumanitiesȱthanȱisȱgenerallyȱrecognizedȱinasmuchȱasȱscientificȱdiscourses andȱscientificȱillustrationsȱareȱneverȱsimpleȱdepictionsȱorȱrepresentationsȱofȱan actualȱ stateȱ ofȱ affairs.ȱ Inȱ theirȱ useȱ ofȱ rhetoricȱ andȱ verbalȱ andȱ visualȱ devices, scientificȱtextsȱareȱrepresentativeȱofȱprevailingȱworldȱviews.40ȱBarclay’sȱskeletons illustrateȱ thisȱ point.ȱ Weȱ canȱ discernȱ theȱ sameȱ effectsȱ ofȱ ideologyȱ inȱ other purportedlyȱobjectiveȱmedicalȱworksȱasȱwell.ȱForȱnotȱonlyȱwereȱskeletonsȱofȱmen andȱwomenȱincreasinglyȱgenderedȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱandȱnineteenthȱcenturies,ȱso tooȱwasȱtheȱwholeȱofȱhumanȱanatomy.ȱTheȱnervousȱsystem,ȱforȱexample,ȱwas feminized,ȱwhileȱtheȱmusculatureȱwasȱdeclaredȱmasculine.41ȱJordanovaȱprovides anȱ insightfulȱ discussionȱ ofȱ howȱ maleȱ andȱ femaleȱ waxȱ models,ȱ whichȱ became popularȱteachingȱdevices,ȱillustrateȱtheȱprevailingȱideologyȱofȱgender.ȱFemaleȱwax modelsȱareȱnotableȱforȱtheirȱrealism.ȱTheyȱpresentȱtheȱfemaleȱbodyȱoftenȱlyingȱon aȱvelvetȱcushionȱwithȱflowingȱhair,ȱpearlȱnecklaces,ȱeyelashes,ȱeyebrows,ȱandȱflesh realisticallyȱpaintedȱtoȱlookȱ“alive.”ȱAllȱtheseȱdevicesȱreinforceȱtheȱideaȱthatȱthe viewerȱisȱsimplyȱseeingȱanȱindependentlyȱexistingȱreality.ȱTheseȱfemaleȱmodelsȱare completelyȱcoveredȱwithȱflesh,ȱbutȱremovableȱpartsȱallowȱoneȱtoȱpenetrateȱintoȱthe internalȱorgansȱandȱevenȱuncoverȱsmallȱfoetuses.ȱAccordingȱtoȱJordanova,ȱmale waxȱmodelsȱareȱmuchȱlessȱrealistic;ȱsheȱclaimsȱsheȱhasȱyetȱtoȱseeȱoneȱinȱeitherȱa recumbentȱpositionȱorȱcompletelyȱcoveredȱwithȱflesh.ȱClearlyȱthereȱisȱmoreȱthan meetsȱtheȱeyeȱinȱtheseȱveryȱdifferentȱpresentationsȱofȱmaleȱandȱfemaleȱanatomy. Theyȱ reflectedȱ theȱ polarizedȱ viewȱ ofȱ theȱ sexesȱ thatȱ dominatedȱ contemporary medicalȱdiscourse,ȱprovidingȱtheȱbasisȱforȱtheȱkindȱofȱsexistȱobservationsȱmadeȱby theȱphysicianȱandȱphilosophicalȱwriterȱPierreȱJeanȱGeorgeȱCabanisȱ(1757–1808). ForȱCabanisȱitȱwasȱanȱestablishedȱ“fact”ȱthatȱwomenȱhadȱ“feeble”ȱmuscles,ȱand thisȱfactȱprovidedȱtheȱkeyȱtoȱunderstandingȱfemaleȱnatureȱandȱcharacter: Thisȱmuscularȱfeeblenessȱinspiresȱinȱwomenȱanȱinstinctiveȱdisgustȱofȱstrenuous exercise;ȱitȱdrawsȱthemȱtowardȱamusementsȱandȱsedentaryȱoccupations.ȱOneȱcould addȱthatȱtheȱseparationȱofȱtheirȱhipsȱmakesȱwalkingȱmoreȱpainfulȱforȱwomenȱ.ȱ.ȱ. .ȱThisȱhabitualȱfeelingȱofȱweaknessȱinspiresȱlessȱconfidenceȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱasȱaȱwoman findsȱ herselfȱ lessȱ ableȱ toȱ existȱ onȱ herȱ own,ȱ theȱ moreȱ sheȱ needsȱ toȱ attractȱ the attentionȱofȱothers,ȱtoȱstrengthenȱherselfȱusingȱthoseȱaroundȱherȱwhomȱsheȱjudges mostȱcapableȱofȱprotectingȱher.42

40 LudmillaȱJordanova,ȱSexualȱVisions:ȱImagesȱofȱGenderȱinȱScienceȱandȱMedicineȱbetweenȱtheȱEighteenth andȱTwentiethȱCenturiesȱ(Madison:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱWisconsinȱPress,ȱ1989),ȱ6.ȱ 41 Jordanova,ȱSexualȱVisions,ȱ58. 42ȱ Oevresȱphilosophiques,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱ278,ȱcitedȱinȱJordanova,ȱSexualȱVisions,ȱ28. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Theȱ“muscularȱfeebleness”ȱofȱwomenȱexcitedȱaȱsimilarȱseriesȱofȱsexistȱobservations fromȱtheȱphysicianȱJamesȱBarryȱ(1741–1806),ȱwhoȱemphasizedȱwhatȱheȱperceived toȱbeȱtheȱdefiningȱcharacteristicȱofȱfemales,ȱnamelyȱtheirȱ“softness.”ȱLikeȱCabanis’s observations,ȱthoseȱbyȱBarryȱastonishȱusȱbecauseȱofȱtheirȱutterȱirrelevanceȱtoȱthe vastȱmajorityȱofȱwomenȱwithȱwhomȱBarryȱmustȱhaveȱinteractedȱonȱaȱdailyȱbasis. Butȱapparentlyȱobliviousȱtoȱtheȱmilkȱmaids,ȱfishȱwives,ȱdomesticȱservants,ȱshop keepers,ȱandȱfarmȱworkersȱwhoȱmadeȱhisȱupperȱmiddleȱclassȱlifeȱpossible,ȱBarry claimsȱthat:

Theȱwholeȱandȱeveryȱpartȱofȱtheȱmaleȱform,ȱgenerallyȱtaken,ȱindicatesȱanȱaptnessȱand propensityȱtoȱaction,ȱvigorousȱexertion,ȱandȱpower.ȱInȱtheȱfemaleȱformȱtheȱappearance isȱveryȱdifferent;ȱitȱgivesȱtheȱideaȱofȱsomethingȱratherȱpassiveȱthanȱactive,ȱandȱseems createdȱnotȱsoȱmuchȱforȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱlaboriousȱutility,ȱasȱforȱtheȱexerciseȱofȱallȱthe softer,ȱmilderȱqualities.ȱHowȱadmirablyȱdoesȱthisȱgentlenessȱofȱframeȱcorrespondȱwith theȱmildȱandȱtenderȱpursuitsȱforȱwhichȱfemaleȱnatureȱwasȱintendedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱHenceȱit appearsȱthatȱthisȱsuperiorȱtendernessȱandȱsoftȱaffectingȱsensibilityȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱareȱonlyȱthe legible,ȱagreeableȱexteriorsȱofȱnecessaryȱutility.43

Andȱhereȱweȱarriveȱatȱaȱcrucialȱpointȱandȱaȱcrucialȱword,ȱnamelyȱ“utility;”ȱforȱthe softnessȱofȱtheȱfemaleȱbodyȱemphasizedȱbyȱBarryȱwasȱepitomizedȱinȱtheȱfemale breast,ȱandȱtheȱbreastȱwasȱtheȱveryȱmarkȱofȱfemaleȱ“utility.”ȱ “Utility”ȱ andȱ “fitness”ȱ becomeȱ keyȱ conceptsȱ inȱ theȱ Enlightenment,ȱ joining togetherȱnotionsȱofȱmorality,ȱaesthetics,ȱasȱwellȱasȱeconomicȱefficiency.ȱAsȱweȱcan seeȱfromȱDavidȱHume’sȱessayȱentitledȱ“WhyȱUtilityȱPleases,”ȱwhatȱwasȱusefulȱwas synonymousȱwithȱwhatȱwasȱbothȱgoodȱandȱbeautiful.44ȱAsȱfarȱasȱwomenȱwere concerned,ȱtheȱgood,ȱtheȱbeautiful,ȱandȱtheȱusefulȱwereȱnowȱlocalizedȱinȱtheȱfemale breast.45ȱLorraineȱDastonȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱthereȱwasȱaȱfascinationȱwithȱpartȬwhole relationshipsȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury,ȱaȱrelationshipȱsummedȱupȱinȱtheȱword “economy.”ȱBreakingȱthingsȱdownȱintoȱpartsȱandȱreassemblingȱthemȱasȱinȱAdam’s Smith’sȱfamousȱdescriptionȱofȱpinȬmakingȱwasȱasȱmuchȱaȱpartȱofȱpoliticalȱeconomy asȱitȱwasȱofȱscienceȱandȱmedicine:ȱ“Inȱbothȱpoliticalȱeconomyȱandȱnaturalȱhistory, observersȱanalyzedȱobjectsȱintoȱinterlockingȱpartsȱandȱtracedȱtheȱfitȱofȱformȱto functionȱwithȱanȱeagleȱeyeȱforȱ‘fitness.’”46ȱ Femaleȱbreastsȱwereȱofȱparticularȱinterestȱtoȱmedicalȱpractitionersȱconcerned withȱphilosophyȱandȱethics.ȱForȱbreastsȱsymbolizedȱtheȱ“fitness”ȱandȱ“utility”ȱof

43 Jordanova,ȱSexualȱVisions,ȱ60.ȱ 44 LorraineȱDaston,ȱ“AttentionȱandȱtheȱValuesȱofȱNatureȱinȱtheȱEnlightenment,”ȱTheȱMoralȱAuthority ofȱNature,ȱed.ȱLorraineȱDastonȱandȱFernandoȱVidalȱ(ChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱUniversityȱof ChicagoȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ100–26;ȱhereȱ101,ȱ123.ȱ 45 ValerieȱA.ȱFildes,ȱBreasts,ȱBottles,ȱandȱBabies:ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱInfantȱFeedingȱ(Edinburgh:ȱEdinburgh UniversityȱPress,ȱ1986). 46 Daston,ȱ“AttentionȱandȱtheȱValuesȱofȱNatureȱinȱtheȱEnlightenment,”ȱ120. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

women’sȱroleȱinȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱdefinedȱwomenȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheirȱabilityȱtoȱbearȱand suckleȱ infants.ȱ Theȱ closeȱ linkȱ betweenȱ medical,ȱ social,ȱ andȱ aestheticȱ valuesȱ is apparentȱinȱtheȱmanyȱpaeansȱtoȱbreastsȱinȱtheȱliteratureȱofȱtheȱperiod.ȱWomen’s specialȱcharmsȱnowȱlayȱaboveȱratherȱthanȱbelowȱtheȱwaist.ȱAsȱHughȱSmith,ȱan Englishȱphysicianȱwhoseȱworksȱwereȱextremelyȱpopular,ȱintoned:ȱ

O!ȱthatȱIȱcouldȱprevailȱuponȱmyȱfairȱcountrywomenȱtoȱbecomeȱstillȱmoreȱlovelyȱinȱthe sightȱofȱmen!ȱBelieveȱitȱnot,ȱwhenȱitȱisȱinsinuated,ȱthatȱyourȱbosomsȱareȱlessȱcharming, forȱhavingȱaȱdearȱlittleȱcherubȱatȱyourȱbreast.47 ȱ Sinceȱnursingȱmothersȱwereȱdescribedȱasȱbeingȱhealthy,ȱradiant,ȱgraceful,ȱand “harmonious,”48ȱitȱisȱnoȱwonderȱtheirȱhusbandsȱfoundȱthemȱattractive.ȱAsȱSmith says,ȱ“aȱchasteȱandȱtenderȱwife,ȱwithȱaȱlittleȱoneȱatȱherȱbreastȱisȱcertainlyȱtoȱher husbandȱtheȱmostȱexquisitelyȱenchantingȱobjectȱuponȱearth.”49ȱEvenȱLovelace,ȱthe despicableȱcadȱandȱrapistȱinȱRichardson’sȱClarissa,ȱisȱmomentarilyȱovercomeȱbyȱthe thoughtȱofȱtwoȱlittleȱreplicasȱofȱhimselfȱaffixedȱtoȱClarissa’sȱsnowyȱbosom.ȱAsȱhe exclaimsȱtoȱaȱfriend:ȱ

Letȱmeȱperish,ȱBelford,ȱifȱIȱwouldȱnotȱforegoȱtheȱbrightestȱdiademȱinȱtheȱworldȱforȱthe pleasureȱofȱseeingȱaȱtwinȱLovelaceȱatȱeachȱcharmingȱbreast,ȱdrawingȱfromȱitȱhisȱfirst sustenance.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.50ȱ

Scholarsȱ likeȱ Nancyȱ Armstrongȱ andȱ Lawrenceȱ Stoneȱ interpretȱ theȱ newly emergingȱ emphasisȱ onȱ motherhoodȱ asȱ aȱ positiveȱ stepȱ forȱ women.ȱ Randolph TrumbachȱgoesȱasȱfarȱasȱtoȱdescribeȱbreastȬfeedingȱandȱtheȱmovementȱtoȱpromote itȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱfinestȱconsequencesȱofȱtheȱEnlightenment.51ȱOthersȱscholarsȱtakeȱa moreȱ pessimisticȱ view,ȱ however.ȱ Asȱ Henryȱ Abeloveȱ hasȱ suggested,ȱ nonȬ productiveȱformsȱofȱsexualityȱwereȱincreasinglyȱdevaluedȱinȱtheȱlateȱeighteenth centuryȱasȱaȱproductiveȱmodelȱbasedȱonȱheterosexualȱrelationsȱtookȱover.52ȱAnd thisȱresultedȱinȱanȱemphasisȱonȱmarriageȱandȱmotherhood,ȱbothȱofȱwhich,ȱinȱRuth Perry’sȱview,ȱputȱfurtherȱrestraintsȱonȱtheȱfreedomȱofȱwomenȱasȱtheyȱwereȱever moreȱcloselyȱidentifiedȱwithȱandȱdefinedȱbyȱtheirȱreproductiveȱcapacities.ȱ

47 ȱHughȱSmith,ȱLettersȱtoȱMarriedȱWomenȱonȱtheȱNursingȱandȱManagementȱofȱChildrenȱ(1792),ȱcitedȱin Perry,ȱ“ColonizingȱtheȱBreast,”193.ȱ 48 ȱ“TheȱAdvantageȱofȱMaternalȱNurture,”ȱTheȱWeeklyȱVisitor,ȱorȱLadies’ȱMiscellanyȱIIȱ(May,ȱ1804): 260–61. 49 HughȱSmith,ȱLettersȱtoȱMarriedȱWomen,ȱcitedȱinȱPerry,ȱ“ColonizingȱtheȱBreast,”ȱ193. 50 Ibid.,ȱ201. 51 NancyȱArmstrong,ȱDesireȱandȱDomesticȱFiction:ȱaȱPoliticalȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱNovelȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxford UniversityȱPress,ȱ1987;ȱLawrenceȱStone,ȱFamily,ȱSexȱandȱMarriageȱinȱEngland,ȱ1500–1800ȱ(London: WeidenfeldȱandȱNicolson,ȱ1977). 52 Henryȱ Abelove,ȱ “Someȱ Speculationsȱ onȱ theȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Sexualȱ Intercourseȱ Duringȱ theȱ Long EighteenthȱCenturyȱinȱEngland,”ȱGendersȱ6ȱ(1989):ȱ125–30.ȱ Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Sexȱandȱmotherhood,ȱorȱtheȱclitorisȱandȱtheȱbreast,ȱwereȱnowȱpittedȱagainstȱeach other,ȱandȱtheȱbreastȱtookȱprideȱofȱplaceȱasȱmedicalȱliteratureȱtreatedȱwomen’s bodiesȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theirȱ maternalȱ ratherȱ thanȱ sexualȱ functions.ȱ Womenȱ were increasinglyȱvaluedȱasȱ“breeders”ȱofȱtheȱmenȱnecessaryȱtoȱstockȱtheȱarmyȱand propelȱtheȱnationȱtoȱpoliticalȱandȱeconomicȱgreatness.53ȱ Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportant,ȱthoughȱoftenȱoverlooked,ȱdevelopmentsȱinȱtheȱearly modernȱperiodȱwasȱtheȱincreasingȱinterestȱinȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱstatisticsȱandȱtheir useȱinȱdeterminingȱgovernmentalȱpoliciesȱdealingȱwithȱtaxation,ȱconscription,ȱthe foodȱsupply,ȱplagueȱcontrol,ȱandȱotherȱissuesȱinvolvingȱtheȱhealthȱandȱwellȬbeing ofȱ citizens.54ȱ Inȱ Franceȱ thereȱ wasȱ aȱ widespreadȱ fearȱ thatȱ theȱ populationȱ was decliningȱtoȱtheȱpointȱofȱextinction,ȱandȱthisȱledȱtoȱaȱfloodȱofȱliteratureȱextolling motherhoodȱandȱcondemningȱtheȱimmoralityȱandȱselfishnessȱofȱthoseȱwomenȱwho neitherȱ marriedȱ norȱ boreȱ children.ȱ Asȱ Diderotȱ saidȱ inȱ hisȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ the drawingȱwithȱwhichȱthisȱessayȱbegan,ȱGreuze’sȱTheȱBelovedȱMother,ȱ“[i]tȱpreaches population.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”55ȱPerryȱsuggestsȱthatȱthisȱgrowingȱfixationȱwithȱmotherhood,ȱthe breast,ȱandȱbreastȬfeedingȱonȱbothȱsidesȱofȱtheȱchannelȱandȱacrossȱEuropeȱasȱa wholeȱmayȱaccountȱforȱtheȱincidenceȱofȱbreastȱdiseaseȱinȱnovelsȱwrittenȱbyȱwomen andȱ indicateȱ theirȱ resentmentȱ atȱ theȱ appropriationȱ ofȱ femaleȱ bodiesȱ for reproductiveȱ purposes.56ȱ Whileȱ sheȱ agreesȱ withȱ Lawrenceȱ Stoneȱ thatȱ theȱ new emphasisȱonȱmotherhoodȱmayȱwellȱhaveȱencouragedȱtheȱidealȱofȱaȱ“companionate

53 Theȱconnectionȱbetweenȱnationalism,ȱimperialism,ȱandȱtheȱideaȱthatȱchildȬbearingȱmothersȱwere anȱ imperialȱ resourceȱ isȱ discussedȱ byȱ Annaȱ Davin,ȱ “Imperialismȱ andȱ Motherhood,”ȱ History Workshopȱ 5ȱ (Springȱ 1978):ȱ 9–65.ȱ Theȱ concernȱ withȱ ratesȱ ofȱ populationȱ growthȱ explainsȱ the increasedȱinterestȱinȱandȱfundingȱofȱfoundlingȱhospitals.ȱOnȱthisȱsubject,ȱseeȱ Jamesȱ Stephen Taylor,ȱ“PhilanthropyȱandȱEmpire:ȱJonasȱHanwayȱandȱtheȱInfantȱPoorȱofȱLondon,”ȱEighteenthȬ CenturyȱStudiesȱ12ȱ(1979):ȱ285–305;ȱRuthȱMcClure,ȱCoram’sȱChildren:ȱTheȱLondonȱFoundlingȱHospital inȱtheȱEighteenthȱCenturyȱ(NewȱHaven:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1981).ȱ 54 AndreaȱA.ȱRusnock,ȱVitalȱAccounts:ȱQuantifyingȱHealthȱandȱPopulationȱinȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱEngland andȱFranceȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2002);ȱPeterȱBuck,ȱ“SeventeenthȬCentury PoliticalȱArithmetic:ȱCivilȱStrifeȱandȱVitalȱStatistics,”ȱIsisȱ86ȱ(1977):ȱ70–83;ȱJohnȱMcManners,ȱDeath andȱtheȱEnlightenment:ȱChangingȱAttitudesȱtoȱDeathȱamongȱChristiansȱandȱUnbelieversȱinȱEighteenthȬ CenturyȱFranceȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1981),ȱ97. 55 CitedȱinȱDuncan,ȱ“HappyȱMothers,”ȱ582. 56 Perry,ȱ“TheȱColonizationȱofȱtheȱBreast”:ȱ“IfȱRichardsonȱandȱscenesȱinvolvingȱbreastȬfeedingȱinȱhis successiveȱ novelsȱ illustrateȱ theȱ culturalȱ appropriationȱ ofȱ women’sȱ bodiesȱ forȱ reproductive purposes,ȱ thenȱ theȱ novelsȱ ofȱ Francesȱ Sheridanȱ andȱ Mariaȱ Edgeworthȱ dramatizeȱ women’s resentmentȱatȱthisȱnewȱcolonizationȱofȱtheirȱbodies.ȱTheȱscenesȱandȱimagesȱofȱbreastȱdiseaseȱin theirȱnovelsȱmayȱexpressȱhowȱwomenȱfeltȱvictimizedȱbyȱtheirȱfemaleȱbodiesȱandȱbyȱtheirȱnew dependenceȱonȱsuperiorȱmaleȱmedicalȱknowledgeȱofȱtheseȱbodies.ȱTheseȱfictionalȱrepresentations areȱtheȱotherȱsideȱofȱtheȱnewȱreverenceȱforȱmotherhood,ȱrecordȱofȱaȱgrowingȱfeelingȱamong womenȱthatȱtheyȱnoȱlongerȱcontrolledȱtheirȱownȱphysiologicalȱprocesses,ȱnoȱlongerȱbelievedȱin theirȱsharedȱmedicalȱandȱherbalȱknowledge,ȱnoȱlongerȱexpectedȱtoȱexerciseȱindependentȱjudgment aboutȱhowȱtoȱdeployȱtheirȱbodies”ȱ(207). Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

marriage,”ȱsheȱarguesȱthatȱthisȱnewȱmodelȱofȱmarriageȱservedȱmaleȱratherȱthan femaleȱinterests:

Educatingȱ womenȱ toȱ beȱ moreȱ interestingȱ companionsȱ forȱ menȱ ratherȱ thanȱ as individualsȱ withȱ theirȱ ownȱ economicȱ orȱ intellectualȱ purposesȱ isȱ anȱ ambiguous advance,ȱnotȱoneȱthatȱmovesȱveryȱfarȱalongȱtheȱpathȱtowardȱequalityȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱThisȱreȬ appropriationȱofȱfemaleȱsubjectivityȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱaȱnewȱculturalȱdiscourse,ȱwhich separatesȱ publicȱ fromȱ private,ȱ politicalȱ fromȱ personal,ȱ andȱ marketȱ relationsȱ from domesticȱrelations,ȱwasȱaȱcolonizationȱofȱwomenȱfarȱmoreȱthoroughgoingȱthanȱanyȱthat hadȱprecededȱit.57

Lisaȱ Formanȱ Codyȱ takesȱ Perry’sȱ argumentȱ aȱ stepȱ further,ȱ suggestingȱ thatȱ the femaleȱreproductiveȱbodyȱbecameȱtheȱfocalȱpointȱofȱevenȱbroaderȱpoliticalȱand culturalȱclaimsȱaboutȱnationality,ȱrace,ȱclass,ȱandȱsexualȱorientation:ȱ

.ȱ.ȱ.ȱeighteenthȬcenturyȱBritonsȱexploitedȱaȱpopularȱfascinationȱwithȱwondrousȱand weirdȱtalesȱofȱsexȱandȱbirthȱtoȱhelpȱdemarcateȱdifference,ȱinferiority,ȱexclusion,ȱand unreason,ȱ allȱ characteristicsȱ essentialȱ toȱ buildingȱ hierarchicalȱ configurationsȱ of individualȱandȱcorporateȱidentities.58

Scientists,ȱ doctors,ȱ missionaries,ȱ andȱ ethnographersȱ allȱ contributedȱ toȱ an evaluationȱ ofȱ theȱ developmentalȱ differencesȱ betweenȱ races,ȱ cultures,ȱ and ethnicitiesȱatȱhomeȱandȱacrossȱtheȱglobeȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheirȱsexualȱorgansȱand sexualȱproclivities.ȱTalesȱofȱoutlandishȱreproductiveȱcustoms,ȱweirdȱsexualȱbeliefs, strangeȱ bodilyȱ practices,ȱ andȱ abnormalȱ bodilyȱ configurationsȱ wereȱ takenȱ as symptomaticȱofȱalienȱculturesȱmiredȱinȱignorance,ȱsuperstition,ȱandȱperversion. TheȱphenomenalȱinterestȱinȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱ“HottentotȱVenus”ȱisȱaȱcaseȱinȱpoint.59 Outsizedȱ genitalsȱ suchȱ asȱ thoseȱ ofȱ theȱ Hottentotȱ Venusȱ signaledȱ aȱ licentious, libidinousȱlifestyleȱthatȱcontrastedȱ“savage”ȱwomenȱandȱ“savage”ȱmothersȱtoȱthe idealȱofȱchastityȱandȱmodestyȱsummedȱupȱinȱ“TheȱCultȱofȱWomanhood”ȱandȱthe newȱsentimentalizedȱvisionȱofȱmotherhood.ȱ RachelȱHomesȱdocumentsȱtheȱsad,ȱshortȱlifeȱofȱSaartjieȱBaartman,ȱotherwise knownȱasȱtheȱ“HottentotȱVenus.”ȱSaartjie’sȱmeteoricȱriseȱtoȱstardomȱwasȱentirely dueȱtoȱtheȱprurientȱinterestȱofȱEuropeans.ȱDidȱ sheȱorȱdidȱsheȱnotȱpossessȱthe legendaryȱ “Hottentotȱ apron,”ȱ aȱ “pinaforeȱ ofȱ flesh”ȱ supposedlyȱ dueȱ toȱ the “hypertrophyȱofȱtheȱlabiaȱminora”ȱandȱwhichȱconcealedȱtheȱmonsȱveneris?60ȱThis questionȱhadȱmystifiedȱEuropeanȱtravelersȱforȱyears.ȱInȱaȱdiaryȱentryȱforȱMarch 1771ȱCaptainȱCookȱnotedȱthatȱheȱwouldȱmakeȱuseȱofȱhisȱstopȱatȱCapeȱTownȱto

57 Perry,ȱ“TheȱColonizationȱofȱtheȱBreast,”ȱ192ȱandȱ193. 58 Cody,ȱBirthingȱtheȱNation,ȱ8. 59 RachelȱHolmes,ȱAfricanȱQueen:ȱTheȱRealȱLifeȱofȱtheȱHottentotȱVenusȱ(NewȱYork:ȱRandomȱHouse, 2007). 60 Holmes,ȱAfricanȱQueen,ȱ86. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

exploreȱ“theȱgreatȱquestionȱamongȱnaturalȱhistorians,ȱwhetherȱtheȱwomenȱofȱthis countryȱhaveȱorȱhaveȱnotȱthatȱfleshyȱflapȱorȱapronȱwhichȱhasȱbeenȱcalledȱtheȱSinus Pudoris.”61ȱNoȱsatisfactoryȱanswerȱhadȱbeenȱobtainedȱbyȱtheȱtimeȱBaartmanȱarrived inȱParisȱsomeȱfortyȬsixȱyearsȱlater.ȱForȱitȱwasȱonlyȱinȱParisȱandȱatȱtheȱJardinȱduȱRoi thatȱ aȱ panelȱ ofȱ zoologists,ȱ naturalists,ȱ anatomists,ȱ physiologists,ȱ artists,ȱ and draftsmenȱ wereȱ assembledȱ toȱ investigateȱ theȱ matterȱ andȱ assessȱ theȱ evidence providedȱbyȱBaartmanȱherselfȱunderȱaȱtriumvirateȱofȱtheȱmostȱfamousȱnatural scientistsȱofȱtheȱday,ȱÉtienneȱGeoffreyȱSaintȬHilaireȱ(1772–1844),ȱGeorgesȱCuvier (1769–1832),ȱandȱHenriȱdeȱBlainvilleȱ(1777–1850).ȱ WithȱtheȱutmostȱcoaxingȱCuvierȱfinallyȱpersuadedȱBaartmanȱtoȱremoveȱtheȱflesh coloredȱ bodyȱ suitȱ sheȱ woreȱ atȱ allȱ herȱ publicȱ appearances,ȱ butȱ evenȱ thenȱ she insistedȱonȱcoveringȱherȱgenitalsȱwithȱaȱhandkerchief.ȱTheȱupshotȱofȱtheȱthreeȬday investigationȱ byȱ theȱ assembledȱ luminariesȱ wasȱ thatȱ nothingȱ whatsoeverȱ was learnedȱaboutȱtheȱexistenceȱorȱnonȬexistenceȱofȱtheȱ“apron.”ȱThisȱdidȱnothing, however,ȱtoȱstopȱtheȱfervidȱimaginationȱofȱdeȱBlainville.ȱLikeȱBarclayȱbeforeȱhim, deȱBlainvilleȱknewȱwhatȱhadȱtoȱbeȱthere,ȱandȱheȱhadȱhisȱdraftsmanȱdrawȱit.ȱAs Holmesȱ comments,ȱ “Havingȱ neverȱ gotȱ behindȱ theȱ handkerchief,ȱ deȱ Blainville simplyȱinventedȱfabulous,ȱswingingȱpudendaȱinȱhisȱfeverishȱimagination”ȱ(Fig. 4).62ȱAnotherȱengravingȱattributedȱtoȱJ.ȱPassȱ(1800)ȱexaggeratesȱevenȱfurtherȱwhat neverȱexistedȱ(Fig.ȱ5). TheȱprurientȱinterestȱinȱBaartman’sȱ“swingingȱpudenda”ȱresonatesȱwithȱwhat ThomasȱLaquer,ȱfollowingȱRenéeȱSpitz,ȱE.ȱH.ȱHare,ȱandȱRobertȱH.ȱMacDonald,ȱhas describedȱ asȱ theȱ hysteriaȱ overȱ masturbationȱ thatȱ developedȱ inȱ theȱ eighteenth century,ȱ becomingȱ closeȱ toȱ anȱ obsessionȱ inȱ theȱ nineteenth.63ȱ Theȱ topicȱ of masturbationȱ galvanizedȱ theȱ attentionȱ ofȱ eighteenthȱ andȱ nineteenthȱ century educators,ȱtheologians,ȱmoralists,ȱandȱphysiciansȱinȱaȱwayȱitȱneverȱhadȱbefore. Andȱwhileȱmasturbationȱwasȱanȱequalȱopportunityȱactivity,ȱitȱwasȱconsidered especiallyȱworrisomeȱwhenȱpracticedȱbyȱwomenȱbecauseȱitȱtookȱthemȱawayȱfrom theȱbreastȱandȱbackȱtoȱtheȱclitoris.ȱJustȱasȱclitoralȱstimulationȱhadȱbeenȱacceptedȱas aȱlegitimate,ȱevenȱnecessary,ȱpartȱofȱheterosexualȱintercourseȱupȱtoȱtheȱendȱofȱthe ofȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury,ȱsoȱtooȱhadȱmasturbationȱbeenȱmedicallyȱsanctionedȱas aȱwayȱtoȱridȱwomenȱofȱexcessȱfluid.ȱ Becauseȱwomenȱwereȱnaturallyȱcoldȱandȱcouldȱnotȱburnȱoffȱexcessȱmoistureȱin theȱwayȱ“hot”ȱmalesȱcould,ȱGalenȱ(131–201ȱC.E)ȱhadȱsuggestedȱthatȱwomenȱwhose

61 Ibid. 62 Holmes,ȱAfricanȱQueen,ȱ90. 63 ThomasȱLaqueur,ȱSolitaryȱSex:ȱAȱCulturalȱHistoryȱofȱMasturbationȱ(NewȱYork;ȱZoneȱBooks,ȱ2003). SeeȱRenéeȱSpitz,ȱ“AuthorityȱandȱMasturbation:ȱPsychoanalyticȱQuarterlyȱ21ȱ(1952):ȱ490–577;ȱE.ȱH. Hare,ȱ“MasturbatoryȱInsanity:ȱTheȱHistoryȱofȱanȱIdea,”ȱJournalȱofȱMentalȱScienceȱ108ȱ(1962):ȱ1–21; Robertȱ H.ȱ MacDonald,ȱ“TheȱFrightfulȱConsequencesȱofȱOnanism:ȱNotesȱonȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱa Delusion,”ȱJournalȱofȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱIdeasȱ28ȱ(1967):ȱ423–31. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

mensesȱwasȱblockedȱorȱforȱwhomȱmaritalȱsexȱwasȱimpossibleȱshouldȱbeȱpermitted toȱtouchȱtheirȱgenitalsȱinȱtheȱinterestȱofȱhealth.ȱAsȱGalenȱsaid,ȱ“theȱtouchȱofȱthe genitals”ȱwouldȱresultȱinȱ“twitchingȱaccompaniedȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱbyȱpainȱand pleasure”ȱandȱtheȱemissionȱofȱ“turbidȱandȱabundantȱsperm.ȱFromȱthatȱtimeȱon,” Galenȱ concludes,ȱ theȱ womanȱ willȱ beȱ “freeȱ ofȱ allȱ theȱ evilȱ sheȱ felt.”64ȱ Albertus Magnusȱ (1193/1206–1280)ȱ putȱ aȱ Christianȱ glossȱ onȱ thisȱ andȱ considered masturbationȱ aȱ helpȱ inȱ maintainingȱ chastity:ȱ “Usingȱ theirȱ fingersȱ orȱ other instrumentsȱuntilȱtheirȱchannelsȱareȱopenedȱbyȱtheȱheatȱofȱtheȱfrictionȱandȱcoition theȱspermaticȱhumorȱcomesȱout,ȱandȱwithȱitȱtheȱheat;ȱandȱthenȱtheirȱgroinsȱare cooledȱoffȱandȱtheyȱareȱmadeȱmoreȱchaste.”65ȱThisȱisȱnotȱtoȱsayȱthatȱmaleȱexperts wereȱeverȱenthusiasticȱinȱtheirȱadvocacyȱofȱfemaleȱmasturbation.ȱTheȱphysician LazareȱRiverius,ȱ(1589–1655),ȱforȱexample,ȱmentionsȱitȱasȱaȱcureȱforȱ“madnessȱof theȱwomb,”ȱbutȱcautionsȱthatȱ“beingȱaȱthingȱnotȱsoȱallowable,ȱitȱmayȱsufficeȱwhilst theȱpatientȱisȱinȱtheȱbath,ȱtoȱrubȱgentlyȱherȱbellyȱonȱtheȱregionȱofȱtheȱwomb,ȱnot comingȱnearȱtheȱprivyȱparts.”66ȱ Thisȱrelativelyȱrelaxedȱviewȱaboutȱfemaleȱmasturbationȱtookȱaȱ180ȱdegreeȱturn inȱtheȱeighteenthȱandȱnineteenthȱcenturies.ȱAccordingȱtoȱsomeȱexpertsȱtheȱdangers ofȱmasturbationȱwereȱfarȱgreaterȱforȱgirlsȱthanȱboys.ȱThisȱwasȱtheȱpositionȱtaken byȱDr.ȱSamuelȱGottliebȱVogelȱ(1750–1837)ȱinȱhisȱAdviceȱforȱParentsȱ(Unterrichtȱfür Eltern,ȱErzieherȱundȱKinderaufseherȱwieȱdasȱunglaublichȱgemeineȱLasterȱderȱzerstörenden Selbstbefleckungȱamȱsicherstenȱzuȱentdecken,ȱzuȱverhütenȱundȱzuȱheilen,ȱ1786).67ȱThe AmericanȱobstetricianȱAugustusȱKingsleyȱGardnerȱ(1821–1876)ȱcreditedȱwhatȱhe describedȱasȱtheȱphysicalȱdeclineȱofȱAmericanȱwomenȱtoȱtheirȱwidespreadȱpractice ofȱmasturbation.ȱInȱfact,ȱwhenȱitȱcameȱtoȱmasturbation,ȱheȱclaimedȱthatȱAmerican womenȱledȱtheȱworld,ȱaȱfactȱremarkedȱuponȱbyȱforeigners:

Foreignersȱareȱespeciallyȱstruckȱwithȱthisȱfactȱasȱtheȱcauseȱofȱmuchȱofȱtheȱphysical diseaseȱ ofȱ ourȱ youngȱ women.ȱ Theyȱ recognizeȱ itȱ inȱ theȱ physique,ȱ inȱ theȱ sodden, colorlessȱ countenance,ȱ heȱ lackȬlusterȱ eye,ȱ inȱ theȱ dreamyȱ indolence,ȱ theȱ general carriage,ȱtheȱconstantȱdemeanorȱindicativeȱofȱdistrust,ȱmingledȱboldnessȱandȱtimidity,

64 Galen,ȱDeȱlocisȱaffectis.ȱ6.2.39,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱRudolphȱSiegelȱ(NewȱYork:ȱKarger,ȱ1976),ȱcitedȱin Lacquer,ȱSolitaryȱSex,ȱ93. 65 Lacquer,ȱSolitaryȱSex,ȱ99.ȱ 66 NicholasȱCulpepper,ȱAbdiahȱCole,ȱandȱWilliamȱRowland,ȱTheȱPracticeȱofȱPhysickȱinȱSeventeen SeveralȱBooks.ȱ.ȱ.ȱBeingȱChieflyȱaȱTranslationȱofȱtheȱWorksȱof.ȱ.ȱ.ȱLazarusȱRiveriusȱ(London:ȱPeterȱCole, 1655),ȱ419–20.ȱSeeȱRachelȱMaines,ȱTheȱTechnologyȱofȱOrgasm:ȱ“Hysteria,”ȱtheȱVibrator,ȱandȱWomen’s SexualȱSatisfactionȱ(Baltimore:ȱJohnsȱHopkinsȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1998). 67 ForȱanȱexcellentȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱwarȱagainstȱmasturbationȱinȱGermany,ȱseeȱKarlȱHeinzȱBloch,ȱDie BekämpfungȱderȱJugendmasturbationȱinȱ18.ȱJahrhundert:ȱUrsachenȱ–ȱVerlaufȱ–ȱNachwirkungen.ȱStudien zurȱSexualpädagogik,ȱ11ȱ(FranfurtȱamȱMainȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1998).ȱSeeȱalso,ȱJean Stengersȱ andȱ Anneȱ vanȱ Neck,ȱ Masturbation:ȱ Theȱ Historyȱ ofȱ aȱ Greatȱ Terror,ȱ trans.ȱ Kathrynȱ A. Hoffmanȱ(NewȱYork:ȱPalgrave,ȱ2001). Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

andȱaȱseriesȱofȱanomalousȱcombinationsȱwhichȱmarkȱthisȱgenusȱofȱphysicalȱandȱmoral decay.68

AccordingȱtoȱGardner,ȱonceȱwomenȱindulgedȱinȱmasturbation,ȱ“Thenȱfarewellȱto femaleȱ purity,ȱ toȱ virtue,ȱ toȱ anythingȱ worthy!”69ȱ Masturbatingȱ womenȱ were unnatural,ȱ perverse,ȱ evenȱ criminal.ȱ Theȱ Englishȱ physicianȱ Williamȱ Acton (1813–1875)ȱ claimedȱ theyȱ tookȱ onȱ theȱ aggressiveȱ characteristicsȱ ofȱ men.ȱ The Germanȱ homeopathicȱ physicianȱ Wilhelmȱ Gollmannȱ insistedȱ inȱ 1855ȱ that masturbatingȱgirlsȱcouldȱbecomeȱ“tribades,”ȱparodyingȱmaleȱsexualȱbehavior.70 Blurringȱtheȱlineȱbetweenȱtheȱsexesȱwasȱconsideredȱsuchȱaȱdangerousȱpossibility thatȱsomeȱmedicalȱexpertsȱconsideredȱhorsebackȱriding,ȱbicycling,ȱandȱevenȱthe useȱofȱpedalȬoperatedȱsewingȱmachinesȱdangerousȱactivitiesȱforȱwomen.71ȱGiven overȱ toȱ theȱ pleasuresȱ ofȱ solitaryȱ sex,ȱ womenȱ whoȱ masturbatedȱ wereȱ likelyȱ to eschewȱ marriageȱ andȱ escapeȱ theirȱ mandatedȱ dutyȱ toȱ engageȱ inȱ sociallyȱ and nationallyȱ“useful”ȱheterosexualȱsexȱandȱprocreation.ȱInȱanȱageȱwhenȱutilityȱwas highlyȱvaluedȱandȱinextricablyȱconnected,ȱasȱweȱhaveȱseen,ȱwithȱmorality,ȱthe uselessnessȱ ofȱ masturbationȱ forȱ motherhoodȱ madeȱ itȱ anȱ especiallyȱ egregious femaleȱactivity.ȱ Uselessȱandȱimmoral,ȱmasturbationȱwasȱaȱsignȱofȱtheȱutmostȱdepravity,ȱeven criminality.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Henryȱ Maudsleyȱ (1835–1918),ȱ aȱ notedȱ nineteenthȬ centuryȱEnglishȱphysician,ȱtheȱmasturbatorȱwasȱaȱcriminalȱwhoȱwasȱbetterȱoff dead.ȱ Dr.ȱ Johnȱ Lawsȱ Miltonȱ (1820–1898)ȱ consideredȱ masturbationȱ aȱ moral “conflagration”ȱ thatȱ endangeredȱ houseȱ andȱ home.ȱ Drȱ Jonathanȱ Hutchinson (1828–1913)ȱsuggestedȱthatȱ“measuresȱmoreȱradicalȱthanȱcircumcision”ȱwouldȱbe aȱ“kindnessȱtoȱmanyȱpatientsȱofȱbothȱsexes,”ȱandȱthisȱkindnessȱinvolvedȱremoving theȱovaries,ȱtesticles,ȱandȱevenȱtheȱentireȱpenis.72ȱ CitingȱhistoricalȱprecedenceȱinȱEgypt,ȱtheȱPersianȱGulf,ȱandȱAfrica,ȱtheȱFrench physicianȱLéopoldȱDeslandesȱ(1796–1850)ȱclaimedȱthatȱitȱmightȱbeȱaȱgoodȱideaȱto “removeȱinȱinfancy,ȱfromȱtheȱvulvaȱofȱgirls,ȱcertainȱprominencesȱwhich,ȱatȱaȱlater period,ȱmightȱproveȱinconvenient.”ȱHeȱclaimedȱthatȱtheȱoperationȱ“isȱnotȱvery

68 AugustusȱK.ȱGardner,ȱ“TheȱPhysicalȱDeclineȱofȱAmericanȱWomen,”ȱTheȱKnickerbockerȱ55ȱ(Jan. 1860):ȱ37–52.ȱCitedȱinȱG.ȱJ.BarkerȬBenfield,ȱTheȱHorrorsȱofȱtheȱHalfȬKnownȱLife:ȱMaleȱAttitudesȱToward WomenȱandȱSexualityȱinȱNineteenthȬCenturyȱAmericaȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarperȱ&ȱRow,ȱ1976),ȱ272. 69 Ibid.,ȱ275. 70 PeterȱLewisȱAllen,ȱ“TheȱHeinousȱSinȱofȱSelfȬPollution:ȱMedicine,ȱMorals,ȱandȱMasturbation,”ȱch. 5ȱTheȱWagesȱofȱSin:ȱSex,ȱDisease,ȱPastȱandȱPresentȱ(Chicago:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2002), 95–96. 71 RobertȱLatouȱDickinson,ȱ“BicyclingȱforȱWomenȱfromȱtheȱStandpointȱofȱObstetrics,”ȱAmerican JournalȱofȱObstetricsȱ31ȱ(1895),ȱ24–37.ȱDickinsonȱconcludedȱthatȱtheȱbenefitsȱofȱbicyclingȱtrumped theȱdangers,ȱbutȱheȱrecognizedȱthatȱtheȱ“horribleȱhabit”ȱofȱmasturbationȱwasȱnotȱgroundless.” CitedȱinȱAllen,ȱ“TheȱHeinousȱSinȱofȱSelfȬPollution,”ȱ96. 72 JonathanȱHutchinson,ȱ“OnȱCircumcisionȱasȱPreventiveȱofȱMasturbation,”ArchivesȱofȱSurgeryȱ2 (1891):ȱ267. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

painful”ȱ andȱ isȱ “easilyȱ performed,”ȱ addingȱ thatȱ “[i]tȱ certainlyȱ wouldȱ notȱ be practicedȱ generallyȱ ifȱ itȱ causedȱ severeȱ pain,ȱ orȱ wasȱ followedȱ byȱ bad consequences.”ȱWhileȱadmittedlyȱanȱextremeȱmeasure,ȱDeslandesȱinsistedȱthat “whenȱlifeȱisȱtoȱbeȱsaved,ȱorȱtheȱmindȱisȱtoȱbeȱpreserved,ȱthenȱweȱoughtȱnotȱto hesitate.”ȱClitoridectomy,ȱeitherȱbyȱexcisionȱorȱcauterization,ȱaȱmethodȱadvocated byȱDr.ȱJohnȱHarveyȱKelloggȱ(1852–1943)ȱamongȱothers,ȱwasȱaȱmedicalȱoptionȱwith provenȱefficacy.73ȱSoȱmuchȱforȱtheȱclitoris!ȱItȱwasȱexpendableȱand,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱhad toȱbeȱsacrificedȱforȱtheȱgoodȱofȱtheȱnationȱandȱtheȱrace.74ȱ Givenȱtheȱevidence,ȱitȱseemsȱfairȱtoȱconcludeȱthatȱtheȱCultȱofȱWomanhoodȱwas partȱandȱparcelȱofȱaȱnewȱsexualȱideologyȱthatȱdevelopedȱinȱsupportȱofȱnationalism andȱ imperialismȱ onȱ theȱ internationalȱ frontȱ andȱ classȱ antagonismȱ atȱ home.ȱ As FelicityȱNussbaumȱhasȱwittilyȱcommented,ȱ“theȱeighteenthȬcenturyȱwomanȱclimbs onȱ theȱ backȱ ofȱ theȱ ‘savage’ȱ womanȱ toȱ herȱ pedestal.”75ȱ Jamesȱ Gillray’sȱ vicious cartoonȱ “Unȱ petitȱ souperȱ aȱ laȱ Parisiene”ȱ (1792)ȱ makesȱ theȱ nationalisticȱ and propagandistȱdimensionsȱofȱtheȱCultȱofȱWomanhoodȱclear.ȱInȱaȱgraphicȱdomestic sceneȱheȱdepictsȱtheȱdepravityȱofȱtheȱrebelliousȱ“sansȬculottes”ȱbyȱshowingȱFrench parentsȱasȱcannibals,ȱwhoȱroastȱbabiesȱwhileȱtheirȱtoddlers—ȱchipsȱoffȱtheȱold block,ȱsoȱtoȱspeak—eatȱhumanȱentrailsȱ(Fig.ȱ6). Itȱisȱimportant,ȱhowever,ȱtoȱrecognizeȱthatȱtheȱ“savage”ȱlivedȱatȱhomeȱasȱwellȱas abroad.ȱ Theȱ virtueȱ andȱ chastityȱ ofȱ middleȱ andȱ upperȱ classȱ Britishȱ wivesȱ was emphasizedȱinȱtheȱBritishȱpressȱandȱBritishȱliteratureȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱdistinguishȱthe BritishȱfromȱforeignersȱbutȱtoȱdistinguishȱtheȱhavesȱfromȱtheȱhaveȬnotsȱatȱhome. Withȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱcitiesȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱlowerȱclassesȱcameȱto seemȱmoreȱmenacingȱthanȱeverȱbefore.ȱMarleneȱLeGatesȱemphasizesȱtheȱwayȱThe Cultȱ ofȱ Womanhoodȱ dealtȱ withȱ classȱ issuesȱ byȱ displacingȱ sexualityȱ and insubordination,ȱcharacteristicsȱassociatedȱwithȱwomenȱforȱcenturies,ȱontoȱthe lowerȱclasses.ȱTheȱmorallyȱsuperior,ȱmiddle,ȱandȱupperȬclassȱwomanȱreaffirmed thoseȱmoralȱvaluesȱbasicȱtoȱaȱpatriarchal,ȱhierarchicalȱsocialȱorder.ȱAsȱLeȱGates remarks,ȱ“theȱdramaȱofȱtheȱaggressiveȱmaleȱcheckedȱbyȱtheȱvirtuousȱwomanȱis paradoxicallyȱ aȱ reaffirmationȱ ofȱ theȱ patriarchalȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ family.”76

73 LéopoldȱDeslandes,ȱDeȱl’onanismeȱetȱdesȱautresȱabusȱvénériensȱconsidérésȱdansȱleursȱrapportsȱavecȱla santéȱ (Paris:ȱ Lelarge,ȱ 1835).ȱ Translatedȱ intoȱ Englishȱ asȱ Aȱ Treatiseȱ onȱ theȱ Diseasesȱ Procuredȱ by Onanism,ȱMasturbation,ȱSelfȬPollutionȱandȱOtherȱExcessesȱ(Boston:ȱOtis,ȱBroadersȱandȱCompany, 1841).ȱTrans.ȱalsoȱintoȱDutch,ȱ1836.ȱDelandes’ȱandȱKellogg’sȱviewsȱareȱdiscussedȱinȱAllen,ȱWages ofȱSin,ȱ102,ȱ105. 74 Johnȱ Black,ȱ “Femaleȱ Genitalȱ Mutilation:ȱ Aȱ Contemporaryȱ Issueȱ andȱ aȱ Victorianȱ Obsession,” JournalȱofȱtheȱRoyalȱSocietyȱofȱMedicineȱ90ȱ(1997):ȱ402–05;ȱH.ȱTristramȱEngelhardt,ȱ“TheȱDiseaseȱof Masturbation:ȱValuesȱandȱtheȱConceptȱofȱDisease,”ȱBulletinȱofȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱMedicineȱ48ȱ(1974): 234–48;ȱPaulȱBennettȱandȱVernonȱA.ȱRosario,ȱed.,ȱSolitaryȱPleasures:ȱTheȱHistorical,ȱLiterary,ȱand ArtisticȱDiscoursesȱofȱAutoeroticismȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1995). 75 Nussbaum,ȱ‘”Savage’ȱMothers:ȱNarrativesȱofȱMaternityȱinȱtheȱMidȬEighteenthȱCentury,”ȱ132. 76 MarleneȱLeGates.ȱ“TheȱCultȱofȱWomanhoodȱinȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱThought,”ȱEighteenthȬCentury Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Hogarth’sȱ“BeerȱStreet”ȱ(Fig.ȱ7)ȱandȱ“GinȱLane”ȱ(Fig.ȱ8),ȱbothȱengravedȱinȱ1750, exemplifyȱthisȱcorrelationȱbetweenȱgoodȱmiddleȱclassȱmothers,ȱwhoȱdrinkȱbeerȱand careȱ forȱ theirȱ husbandsȱ andȱ children,ȱ andȱ theirȱ despicableȱ lowerȬclass counterparts,ȱ whoȱ selfishlyȱ squanderȱ theirȱ moneyȱ onȱ gin,ȱ getȱ drunk,ȱ and shamelesslyȱneglectȱtheirȱoffspring. TheȱclassȱspecificȱnatureȱofȱtheȱCultȱofȱTrueȱWomanhoodȱisȱimpossibleȱtoȱmiss. Theȱ notionȱ ofȱ theȱ idealȱ wifeȱ andȱ motherȱ asȱ soft,ȱ lackingȱ inȱ musculature,ȱ and virtuallyȱincapacitatedȱforȱoneȱweekȱoutȱofȱeveryȱfourȱignoredȱtheȱfactȱthatȱthe overwhelmingȱmajorityȱofȱwomenȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱandȱnineteenthȱcenturiesȱwere constrainedȱtoȱwork.ȱWeȱareȱluckyȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱphotographsȱofȱArthurȱMunby (1828–1910),ȱaȱmostȱunusualȱEnglishȱbarrister,ȱwhoȱhadȱaȱpassionȱforȱworkingȱclass womenȱandȱtakingȱpicturesȱofȱthem,ȱasȱweȱcanȱseeȱfromȱtheȱportraitȱofȱMunbyȱand oneȱofȱhisȱmodels,ȱEllenȱGrounds,ȱaȱwomanȱwhoȱworkedȱinȱtheȱcoalȱpitsȱ(Fig.ȱ9). Munby’sȱphotographȱofȱaȱmilkmaidȱhardlyȱsuggestsȱtheȱdelicate,ȱsoftȱcreatures describedȱbyȱBarryȱ(Fig.ȱ10).ȱNorȱdoesȱtheȱrobustȱandȱproudȱfishȱwifeȱ(Fig.ȱ11) appearȱ enervatedȱ andȱ virtuallyȱ unableȱ toȱ walk.ȱ Andȱ whatȱ canȱ oneȱ sayȱ about womenȱwhoȱroutinelyȱworkedȱinȱminesȱ(Fig.ȱ12)?ȱ Theȱ differenceȱ inȱ constitutionȱ betweenȱ workingȱ womenȱ likeȱ theseȱ andȱ the delicateȱ creaturesȱ describedȱ byȱ theȱ medicalȱ expertsȱ appearȱ soȱ startlingȱ asȱ to suggestȱthatȱweȱareȱfacedȱwithȱtwoȱentirelyȱdifferentȱspecies,ȱupperȱclassȱwomen whoȱeschewedȱsexȱforȱanȱidealizedȱmotherhoodȱthatȱrequiredȱallȱtheirȱmentalȱand physicalȱenergyȱandȱlusty,ȱlowerȱclassȱwenchesȱwhoȱpoppedȱoutȱbabiesȱonȱtheir wayȱtoȱorȱfromȱwork.ȱHowȱelseȱcanȱweȱunderstandȱtheȱpronouncementsȱaboutȱthe physicalȱdebilityȱofȱwomenȱsoȱroutinelyȱutteredȱbyȱmanyȱeminentȱphysiciansȱof theȱperiod?ȱToȱgiveȱoneȱmoreȱexampleȱfromȱHenryȱMaudsley,ȱwho,ȱinȱadditionȱto consideringȱ masturbatorsȱ criminalȱ asȱ mentionedȱ earlier,ȱ greatlyȱ admiredȱ the Americanȱ physicianȱ Dr.ȱ Silasȱ Weirȱ Mitchellȱ (1829–1914),ȱ madeȱ famousȱ (or infamous)ȱ byȱ Charlotteȱ Perkinsȱ Gilmanȱ (1860–1935).77ȱ Maudsleyȱ claimedȱ that whetherȱ youngȱ orȱ old,ȱ married,ȱ unmarried,ȱ orȱ widowed,ȱ theirȱ sexȱ madeȱ it impossibleȱforȱwomenȱtoȱengageȱinȱanyȱactivityȱthatȱmightȱdivertȱvitalȱenergyȱfrom theirȱreproductiveȱorgans.ȱMaudsleyȱassuresȱusȱheȱisȱnotȱtheȱleastȱbitȱprejudiced. Heȱisȱsimplyȱstatingȱaȱ“physiologicalȱfact,”ȱbutȱthisȱfactȱclearlyȱhasȱnoȱapplication whatsoeverȱtoȱlowerȱclassȱwomen.ȱWhileȱMaudsleyȱappearsȱtoȱextolȱmotherhood, theȱtrueȱnatureȱofȱhisȱfeelingsȱslipsȱout.ȱForȱasȱheȱsays,ȱ“Itȱcanȱhardlyȱbeȱdoubted that,ȱifȱtheȱnursingȱofȱbabiesȱwereȱgivenȱoverȱtoȱmenȱforȱaȱgenerationȱorȱtwo,ȱthey wouldȱabandonȱtheȱtaskȱinȱdespairȱorȱinȱdisgustȱandȱconcludeȱitȱtoȱbeȱnotȱworth

Studiesȱ10ȱ(1976):ȱ21–39. 77 Inȱherȱshortȱautobiographicalȱnovel,ȱTheȱYellowȱWallpaper,ȱpublishedȱinȱTheȱNewȱEnglandȱMagazine inȱ1892,ȱGilmanȱwroteȱaȱfictionalizedȱaccountȱherȱmentalȱbreakdownȱwhileȱunderȱtheȱcareȱofȱDr. WeirȱMitchellȱforȱpostȬpartumȱdepression. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

whileȱ thatȱ mankindȱ shouldȱ continueȱ onȱ earth.”78ȱ Soȱ muchȱ forȱ theȱ marvelsȱ of motherhood!ȱ Anȱ evenȱ moreȱ revealingȱ insightȱ intoȱ theȱ darkȱ underbellyȱ ofȱ theȱ Cultȱ of Womanhoodȱ hadȱ alreadyȱ appearedȱ aȱ centuryȱ earlier.ȱ Inȱ 1738ȱ Aluredȱ Clark publishedȱAnȱEssayȱTowardsȱtheȱCharacterȱofȱherȱLateȱMajestyȱ(1738),ȱinȱwhichȱshe eulogizedȱ theȱ maternalȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ lateȱ Britishȱ Queenȱ Caroline.ȱ Amongȱ the satiricalȱrejoindersȱtoȱthisȱlaudatoryȱessayȱwasȱAnȱEssayȱTowardsȱtheȱCharacterȱofȱthe LateȱChimpanzeeȱWhoȱdiedȱFebruaryȱ23,ȱ1738–1739.ȱThisȱsatireȱmakesȱnoȱbonesȱabout equatingȱQueenȱCarolineȱwithȱtheȱAngolanȱchimpanzeeȱonȱdisplayȱatȱRandall’s CoffeeȬHouse,ȱdressedȱinȱtheȱlatestȱParisianȱfashionsȱandȱnotedȱforȱherȱtenderness toȱ aȱ humanȱ child.79ȱ Hereȱ weȱ seeȱ thatȱ motherhoodȱ erasesȱ speciesȱ difference. Motherhoodȱisȱjustȱthat—motherhood—thereȱisȱnothingȱspeciallyȱhuman,ȱlofty, orȱendearingȱaboutȱit.ȱJohnȱWesleyȱhitȱtheȱnailȱonȱtheȱheadȱwhenȱheȱclaimedȱthat describingȱchildbirthȱasȱreproductionȱreducedȱwomenȱtoȱtheȱlevelȱofȱbeasts.ȱ Theȱ satireȱ directedȱ atȱ Queenȱ Carolineȱ implyingȱ thatȱ humanȱ andȱ chimpanzee mothersȱwereȱoneȱofȱaȱpieceȱwasȱaȱforerunnerȱofȱtheȱideaȱthatȱwomenȱwereȱless evolvedȱandȱcloserȱtoȱprimatesȱthanȱmen.ȱThisȱclaimȱwasȱwidespreadȱinȱtheȱpostȬ Darwinianȱworld,ȱwhichȱmayȱexplainȱtheȱfollowingȱpeculiarȱworksȱofȱart:ȱJohn CharlesȱDollmannȱ(1851–1934),ȱ“TheȱUnknown,”ȱca.ȱ1912ȱ(Fig.ȱ13),80ȱEmmanuel Frémiet,ȱ“Gorilla,”ȱca.ȱ1887ȱ(Fig.ȱ14),81ȱandȱOttoȱFriedrich,ȱ“Vanity,”ȱ1904,ȱ(Fig. 15).82ȱTheȱassumptionȱthatȱwomenȱhadȱaȱspecialȱrelationshipȱwithȱprimatesȱis clearlyȱimpliedȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱconvolutedȱsentenceȱfromȱtheȱgreatȱsexologist HavelockȱEllisȱ(1859–1939):

.ȱ.ȱ.ȱitȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱanȱindicationȱofȱanȱabnormalȱinterestȱinȱmonkeysȱthatȱsomeȱwomen areȱ observedȱ byȱ theȱ attendantsȱ inȱ theȱ monkeyȬhouseȱ ofȱ zoologicalȱ gardensȱ toȱ be frequentȱvisitors.ȱNearȱtheȱAmazonȱtheȱtravelerȱCastelnauȱsawȱanȱenormousȱcoati monkeyȱbelongingȱtoȱanȱIndianȱwomanȱandȱtriedȱtoȱpurchaseȱit;ȱthoughȱheȱwasȱoffered aȱlargeȱsum,ȱtheȱwomanȱonlyȱlaughed.ȱ“Yourȱeffortsȱareȱuseless,”ȱremarkedȱanȱIndian inȱtheȱsameȱcabin,ȱ“Heȱisȱherȱhusband.”ȱ83

78 HenryȱMaudsley,ȱ“SexȱinȱMindȱandȱEducation,”ȱFortnighlyȱReviewȱ(April,ȱ1874).ȱReprintedȱin Men’sȱIdeas/ȱWomen’sȱRealities:ȱPopularȱScience,ȱ1870–1915,ȱed.ȱLouiseȱM.ȱNewmanȱ(NewȱYork: PergamonȱPress,ȱ1985),ȱ79–87,ȱhereȱ82. 79 Nussbaum,ȱ“‘Savage’ȱMothers,”ȱ132. 80 RoyalȱAcademyȱPicturesȱ(London:ȱCassells,ȱ1912).ȱPictureȱreproducedȱfromȱBramȱDijkstra,ȱIdolsȱof Perversity:ȱFantasiesȱofȱFeminineȱEvilȱinȱFinȬdeȬSiècleȱCultureȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1986), 290. 81 GeorgesȱOllendorf,ȱLeȱSalonȱdeȱ1887ȱ(Paris,ȱ1887),ȱ82.ȱReproducedȱinȱDijkstra,ȱ291. 82 DieȱKunstȱ11ȱ(1904–1905),ȱ441.ȱReproducedȱinȱibid. 83 HavelockȱEllis,ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱPsychologyȱofȱSex,ȱ2ȱvols.ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱRandomȱHouse,ȱ1936),ȱ2,ȱpt.ȱ2, 84–85.ȱ Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

TheȱGermanȱcraniologistȱKarlȱVogtȱ(1817–1895)ȱwasȱnotȱsoȱhesitant.ȱInȱhisȱopinion, womenȱsimplyȱwereȱcloserȱtoȱapesȱthanȱman:

Weȱmayȱbeȱsure,ȱthatȱwheneverȱweȱperceiveȱ anȱapproachȱtoȱtheȱanimalȱtype,ȱthe femaleȱ isȱ nearerȱ toȱ itȱ thanȱ theȱ male,ȱ henceȱ weȱ shouldȱ discoverȱ aȱ greaterȱ simious resemblanceȱifȱweȱwereȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱfemaleȱasȱourȱstandard.84

TheȱkindȱofȱstatementsȱdeliveredȱbyȱmaleȱexpertsȱlikeȱMaudsley,ȱEllis,ȱandȱVogt, togetherȱwithȱsatiresȱlikeȱtheȱoneȱequatingȱQueenȱCarolineȱwithȱaȱchimpanzeeȱand illustrationsȱlinkingȱwomenȱtoȱmonkeysȱhaveȱledȱsomeȱhistoriansȱtoȱargueȱthatȱthe CultȱofȱWomanhoodȱwasȱsimplyȱaȱnewȱstrategyȱinȱtheȱonȬgoingȱstruggleȱbetween theȱsexes.ȱMarleneȱLeGates,ȱforȱexample,ȱclaimsȱthatȱtheȱnewȱviewȱofȱwomenȱwas notȱsoȱmuchȱaȱnewȱideologyȱasȱaȱnewȱresponseȱtoȱtheȱageȬoldȱthreatȱofȱdisorderly women.ȱ Theȱ beliefȱ thatȱ womenȱ wereȱ castrating,ȱ uncontrollable,ȱ andȱ sexually insatiableȱwasȱstillȱthere,ȱjustȱasȱitȱhadȱbeenȱatȱtheȱheightȱofȱtheȱwitchȱhuntsȱinȱthe sixteenthȱandȱseventeenthȱcenturies,ȱbutȱtheȱnewȱenlightenedȱfaithȱinȱtheȱpower ofȱsocialȱconditioningȱtoȱmoldȱandȱimproveȱtheȱrawȱmaterialȱofȱhumanȱnature suggestedȱthatȱtheȱbestȱwayȱtoȱapproachȱwomenȱwasȱwithȱflatteryȱratherȱthanȱfists. Theȱchangeȱinȱtheȱofficialȱideologyȱconcerningȱwomenȱwas,ȱtherefore,ȱnotȱa consequenceȱofȱaȱnewȱandȱpositiveȱevaluationȱofȱwomen.ȱNorȱwasȱitȱprimarilyȱa reactionȱagainstȱtheȱlicentiousnessȱofȱtheȱaristocracy,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱorȱagainst theȱincreasingȱcupidityȱandȱcompetitionȱofȱtheȱcommercialȱworld,ȱonȱtheȱother,ȱas someȱhistoriansȱhaveȱsuggested.ȱTheȱnewȱideologyȱsimplyȱrepresentedȱaȱnew strategyȱinȱtheȱongoingȱsexȱwar,ȱbut,ȱasȱaȱstrategy,ȱitȱhadȱtheȱaddedȱadvantageȱof simultaneouslyȱdealingȱwithȱanotherȱproblem,ȱthatȱofȱtheȱdisorderlyȱlowerȱclasses, asȱweȱhaveȱseen.85ȱ AllȱtheȱfamousȱheroinesȱinȱeighteenthȬcenturyȱliteratureȱappearȱtoȱbeȱperfect exponentsȱ ofȱ theȱ Cultȱ ofȱ Womanhoodȱ andȱ modelsȱ ofȱ obedienceȱ toȱ paternal authority.ȱSamuelȱRichardson’sȱtwoȱunmatchedȱheroines,ȱPamelaȱandȱClarissa,ȱare convenientȱ examples.ȱ Pamela’sȱ successfulȱ selfȬdefenseȱ againstȱ herȱ wouldȬbe ravisherȱisȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱherȱparentalȱandȱreligiousȱeducation.ȱDeferenceȱcomes naturallyȱtoȱPamela.ȱWhenȱasked,ȱforȱexample,ȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱwayȱsheȱaddresses herȱformerȱmaster,ȱaspiringȱrapist,ȱandȱfutureȱhusband,ȱsheȱserenelyȱreplies,ȱ“he shallȱalwaysȱbeȱmyȱmaster;ȱandȱIȱshallȱthinkȱmyselfȱmoreȱandȱmoreȱhisȱservant.”86

84 Citedȱ inȱ Bramȱ Dijkstra,ȱ Idolsȱ ofȱ Perversity,ȱ 167.ȱ Theȱ ideaȱ thatȱ womenȱ wereȱ lessȱ evolvedȱ was commonplace.ȱHerbertȱSpencer,ȱforȱexample,ȱsimplyȱsaidȱthatȱthereȱhadȱbeenȱ“aȱsomewhatȱearlier arrestȱofȱindividualȱevolutionȱinȱwomenȱthanȱinȱmen”ȱ(TheȱStudyȱofȱSociology,ȱ1873,ȱ340),ȱcitedȱin Josephȱ A.ȱ Kestner,ȱ Mythologyȱ andȱ Misogyny:ȱ Theȱ Socialȱ Discourseȱ ofȱ NineteenthȬCenturyȱ British ClassicalȬSubjectȱPaintingȱ(Madison:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱWisconsinȱPress,ȱ1989),ȱ8. 85 MarleneȱLeGates,ȱ“TheȱCultȱofȱWomanhoodȱinȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱThought.” 86 SamuelȱRichardson,ȱPamela,ȱorȱVirtueȱRewardedȱ(NewȱYork:ȱNorton,ȱ1958),ȱ319–20. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Thereȱ are,ȱ however,ȱ contradictionsȱ inȱ theȱ characterȱ andȱ behaviorȱ ofȱ these heroinesȱthatȱchallengeȱtheȱideaȱthatȱtheyȱareȱidealȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱnewȱCult ofȱTrueȱWomanhoodȱandȱwillingȱsupportersȱofȱtheȱpatriarchalȱsocialȱorder.ȱTake Pamela,ȱforȱinstance.ȱByȱtheȱsheerȱforceȱofȱherȱcharacterȱandȱmoralȱintransigence sheȱmanagesȱtoȱbreakȱthroughȱtheȱclassȱbarriersȱthatȱtheȱCultȱofȱTrueȱWomanhood wasȱdevisedȱtoȱprotect.ȱUntilȱPamelaȱcameȱontoȱtheȱliteraryȱscene,ȱtheȱliaison betweenȱaȱmasterȱandȱaȱservantȱwasȱtheȱstuffȱofȱpornographyȱorȱcomedyȱand certainlyȱneverȱendedȱinȱmarriage.ȱThus,ȱwhileȱhardlyȱaȱfeministȱinȱdemeanor, Pamela’sȱ actionsȱ paradoxicallyȱ embodyȱ certainȱ valuesȱ thatȱ laterȱ cameȱ toȱ be associatedȱwithȱfeminism. InȱherȱbookȱonȱwomenȱandȱtheȱsalonsȱinȱseventeenthȱcenturyȱFrance,ȱCarolyn Lougeeȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱdebateȱaboutȱwomenȱbecameȱsoȱheatedȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱthe seventeenthȱcenturyȱbecauseȱconservativesȱaccusedȱtheȱwomenȱofȱtheȱsalonsȱof doingȱpreciselyȱwhatȱPamelaȱdidȱlater.ȱByȱadvocatingȱmeritȱratherȱthanȱbirthȱand fortune,ȱtheyȱencouragedȱtheȱsocialȱmobilityȱthatȱconservativesȱheldȱresponsible forȱtheȱerosionȱofȱtraditionalȱsocietyȱandȱsocialȱvalues.ȱConservativesȱsoughtȱto prohibitȱwomenȱfromȱfillingȱpublicȱroles.ȱMarriageȱandȱmotherhoodȱwereȱtoȱbeȱthe antidotesȱtoȱpreciositéȱsinceȱbothȱrolesȱwouldȱrenderȱwomenȱ“invisibleȱinȱtheir homes,”ȱasȱoneȱmaleȱwriterȱputȱitȱwithȱanticipatoryȱsatisfaction.ȱAnotherȱmale reactionaryȱ suggestedȱ thatȱ theȱ veilȱ beȱ reintroduced.87ȱ Theȱ Cultȱ ofȱ True Womanhoodȱ mustȱ beȱ seenȱ againstȱ thisȱ backgroundȱ ofȱ hostilityȱ toward independent,ȱassertiveȱwomen. Theȱcloakȱofȱsentimentalityȱenvelopingȱwivesȱandȱmothersȱduringȱtheȱeighteenth andȱnineteenthȱcenturiesȱhadȱsevereȱrentsȱwhichȱareȱnowhereȱmoreȱapparentȱthan inȱtheȱwritingsȱofȱJeanȬJacquesȱRousseauȱ(1712–1778),ȱespeciallyȱinȱhisȱepistolary novelȱLaȱNouvelleȱHéloiseȱ(1761)ȱandȱinȱEmile,ȱorȱOnȱEducationȱ(1762).ȱBothȱJulie, whoȱisȱtheȱnewȱEloiseȱandȱthereforeȱsuperiorȱtoȱtheȱoriginalȱone,ȱandȱSophy,ȱwhom RousseauȱimaginesȱasȱtheȱperfectȱwifeȱforȱhisȱheroȱEmile,ȱareȱtrainedȱtoȱaccept theirȱentirelyȱdomesticȱroles.ȱTheirȱresignation,ȱdocility,ȱandȱsubmissivenessȱdoes notȱcomeȱnaturally,ȱhowever,ȱbutȱhadȱtoȱbeȱimposedȱonȱrecalcitrantȱfemaleȱnature. Thatȱ mostȱ tenderȱ ofȱ allȱ relationships,ȱ theȱ bondȱ betweenȱ Emileȱ andȱ Sophy,ȱ or husbandȱandȱwife,ȱisȱbasedȱonȱaȱcombinationȱofȱbruteȱforce,ȱfraud,ȱandȱdeceit. Sophyȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱappearȱtoȱbeȱwhatȱsheȱisȱbasicallyȱnot.88ȱWhenȱRousseau describesȱtheȱeducationȱsuitableȱforȱSophyȱandȱwomenȱinȱgeneral,ȱcertainȱkey wordsȱappear:ȱ“submit,”ȱ“curb,”ȱ“train,”ȱandȱ“yoke.”89ȱ

87 CarolynȱC.ȱLougee,ȱLeȱParadisȱdesȱFemmmes:ȱWomen,ȱSalons,ȱandȱSocialȱStratificationȱinȱSeventeenthȬ CenturyȱFranceȱ(Princeton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1976). 88 NannerlȱO.ȱKeohane,ȱ‘“ButȱForȱHerȱSexȱ.ȱ.ȱ.’:ȱTheȱDomesticationȱofȱSophy,”ȱRevueȱdeȱl’Université d’Ottowaȱ19ȱ(Julyȱ&ȱOctoberȱ1979):ȱ390–400. 89 “Allȱtheirȱlifelong,ȱtheyȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱsubmitȱtoȱtheȱstrictestȱandȱmostȱenduringȱrestraints,ȱthoseȱof Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Suchȱwordsȱstronglyȱsuggestȱtheȱanalogyȱdrawnȱbetweenȱwomenȱandȱanimals thatȱhasȱbeenȱsuchȱaȱtimelessȱliteraryȱconceit.90ȱTheȱsignificanceȱofȱequatingȱwomen andȱanimalsȱbecomesȱapparentȱwhenȱoneȱrealizesȱthatȱmaintainingȱtheȱboundary betweenȱ manȱ andȱ beastȱ wasȱ aȱ fundamentalȱ preoccupationȱ ofȱ moralistsȱ and philosophersȱstartingȱwithȱtheȱGreeks.ȱAnimalsȱsignifiedȱbaseȱbodilyȱfunctionsȱand irrationalȱpassions,ȱtheȱveryȱthingsȱthatȱcompromisedȱman’sȱrationalȱnature.91 Rousseauȱwasȱterrifiedȱbyȱwhatȱheȱidentifiedȱasȱwomen’sȱmoreȬthanȬanimalȱnature whenȱitȱcameȱtoȱsex.ȱAtȱleastȱfemaleȱanimalsȱhadȱlimitsȱtoȱtheirȱdesires,ȱbutȱthis wasȱnotȱtheȱcaseȱforȱwomen.92ȱWereȱitȱnotȱforȱtheȱmodestyȱandȱshameȱthatȱhadȱto beȱinculcatedȱinȱthem,ȱwhatȱwouldȱstopȱwomenȱfromȱdestroyingȱmenȱwithȱtheir sexualȱrapacity?93ȱEvidentlyȱnothing.ȱ Rousseauȱ presentsȱ aȱ terrifyingȱ pictureȱ ofȱ menȱ draggedȱ toȱ theirȱ deathȱ by libidinousȱfemales.ȱThisȱwillȱbeȱtheȱconsequence,ȱheȱwarnsȱhisȱreaders,ȱifȱwomen

propriety.ȱTheyȱmustȱbeȱtrainedȱtoȱbearȱtheȱyokeȱfromȱtheȱfirst,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱmayȱnotȱfeelȱit,ȱto masterȱtheirȱownȱcapricesȱandȱtoȱsubmitȱthemselvesȱtoȱtheȱwillȱofȱothers.ȱIfȱtheyȱwereȱalways eagerȱtoȱbeȱatȱwork,ȱtheyȱshouldȱsometimesȱbeȱcompelledȱtoȱdoȱnothingȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[D]oȱnotȱleaveȱthem forȱaȱmomentȱwithoutȱrestraint.ȱTrainȱthemȱtoȱbreakȱoffȱtheirȱgamesȱandȱreturnȱtoȱtheirȱother occupationsȱwithoutȱaȱmurmurȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱThisȱhabitualȱrestraintȱproducesȱaȱdocilityȱwhichȱwoman requiresȱallȱherȱlifeȱlong,ȱforȱsheȱwillȱalwaysȱbeȱinȱsubjectionȱtoȱaȱman,ȱorȱtoȱaȱman’sȱjudgment,ȱand sheȱwillȱneverȱbeȱfreeȱtoȱsetȱherȱownȱopinionȱaboveȱhis.ȱWhatȱisȱmostȱwantedȱinȱaȱwomanȱis gentleness;ȱformedȱtoȱobeyȱaȱcreatureȱsoȱimperfectȱasȱman,ȱaȱcreatureȱoftenȱviciousȱandȱalways faulty,ȱsheȱshouldȱearlyȱlearnȱtoȱsubmitȱtoȱinjusticeȱandȱtoȱsufferȱtheȱwrongsȱinflictedȱonȱherȱby herȱhusbandȱwithoutȱcomplaint.”ȱJeanȬJacquesȱRousseau,ȱÉmile,ȱtranslatedȱbyȱBarbaraȱFoxley (London:ȱEveryman’sȱLibrary,ȱ1974),ȱ332–33. 90 TheȱanalogyȱbetweenȱwomenȱandȱbeastsȱgoesȱbackȱatȱleastȱtoȱtheȱancientȱGreekȱpoetȱSemonides, whoȱ devotedȱ aȱ longȱ poemȱ toȱ theȱ beastlinessȱ ofȱ womenȱ inȱ theȱ seventhȱ centuryȱ B.C.E.ȱ The dichotomyȱbetweenȱwomen/nature/body/passion,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱman/culture/mind/reason, onȱtheȱother,ȱencouragedȱtheȱbeliefȱthatȱwomenȱwereȱsomehowȱcloserȱtoȱanimalsȱthanȱmen.ȱSee SherryȱB.ȱOrtner,ȱ“IsȱFemaleȱtoȱMaleȱasȱNatureȱisȱtoȱCulture,”ȱWomen,ȱCultureȱandȱSociety,ȱed. Michelleȱ Z.ȱ Rosaldoȱ andȱ Louiseȱ Lamphereȱ (Stanford:ȱ Stanfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1974).ȱ The associationȱofȱwomenȱwithȱanimalsȱhelpsȱtoȱexplainȱwhyȱwitchesȱwereȱpopularlyȱbelievedȱto travelȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ “familiars,”ȱ orȱ smallȱ creatures,ȱ usuallyȱ dogs,ȱ cats,ȱ rodents,ȱ orȱ toads. Connectedȱtoȱtheȱanimalȱworldȱbyȱherȱfemaleȱnature,ȱtheȱwitchȱwasȱclearlyȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱthe powerȱtoȱcoȬoptȱanimalȱpowersȱforȱherȱnefariousȱends.ȱWilliamȱHarveyȱactuallyȱdissectedȱwhat wasȱthoughtȱtoȱbeȱaȱwitch’sȱtoadȱfamiliar.ȱOnȱthisȱinterestingȱactȱofȱdissection,ȱseeȱKeithȱThomas, TheȱDeclineȱofȱReligionȱandȱMagicȱ(NewȱYork:ȱCharlesȱScribner’sȱSons,ȱ1971),ȱ524. 91 Forȱanȱilluminatingȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱequationȱofȱwomenȱwithȱanimals,ȱseeȱKeithȱThomas,ȱMan andȱtheȱNaturalȱWorldȱ(London:ȱAllenȱLane/PenguinȱBooks,ȱ1983),ȱ36. 92 ThisȱwasȱtheȱcommonȱnotionȱamongȱlateȬmedievalȱmaleȱwritersȱasȱwell,ȱasȱexpressedȱinȱcountless fabliaux,ȱmæren,ȱandȱotherȱshortȱnarratives;ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassen (“SexualȱDesireȱandȱPornography”). 93 Émile,ȱ322:ȱ“Femaleȱanimalsȱareȱwithoutȱthisȱsenseȱofȱshame,ȱbutȱwhatȱofȱthat?ȱAreȱtheirȱdesires asȱboundlessȱasȱthoseȱofȱwomen,ȱwhichȱareȱcurbedȱbyȱthisȱshame?ȱTheȱdesiresȱofȱtheȱanimalsȱare theȱresultȱofȱnecessity,ȱandȱwhenȱtheȱneedȱisȱsatisfied,ȱtheȱdesireȱceases.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱImpulseȱandȱrestraint areȱalikeȱtheȱworkȱofȱnature.ȱButȱwhatȱwouldȱtakeȱtheȱplaceȱofȱthisȱnegativeȱinstinctȱinȱwomenȱif youȱrobȱthemȱofȱtheirȱmodesty?” Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

areȱallowedȱtoȱinitiateȱsex:ȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱmen,ȱtyrannizedȱoverȱbyȱtheȱwomen,ȱwouldȱat lastȱbecomeȱtheirȱvictims,ȱandȱwouldȱbeȱdraggedȱtoȱtheirȱdeathsȱwithoutȱtheȱleast chanceȱofȱescape.”94ȱMenȱcouldȱnotȱhopeȱtoȱsurviveȱinȱaȱheterosexualȱworldȱunless socialȱrestrictionsȱwereȱplacedȱonȱwomenȱthatȱdrasticallyȱrestrictedȱtheirȱfreedom. Rousseauȱwasȱmoreȱparanoidȱthanȱmostȱmen,ȱbutȱheȱwasȱnotȱaloneȱinȱfearing femaleȱsexuality.ȱAȱcenturyȱearlier,ȱinȱhisȱAnatomyȱofȱMelancholyȱ(1621),ȱRobert Burtonȱhadȱcomplainedȱofȱ“woman’sȱunnatural,ȱinsatiableȱlust,”ȱwhileȱWalter Charletonȱ(1619–1707),ȱaȱmemberȱofȱEngland’sȱRoyalȱSocietyȱandȱphysicianȱto Charlesȱ II,ȱ anticipatedȱ theȱ dramaticȱ rhetoricȱ ofȱ Rousseauȱ whenȱ heȱ addressed women,ȱclaiming:ȱ“Youȱareȱtheȱtrueȱhiennasȱthatȱallureȱusȱwithȱtheȱfairnessȱofȱyour skins,ȱandȱwhenȱfollyȱhathȱbroughtȱusȱwithinȱyourȱreach,ȱyouȱleapȱuponȱusȱand devourȱus.”95ȱEvenȱDiderot,ȱwhoȱwasȱsympatheticȱtoȱwomen,ȱbelievedȱthatȱtheir inferiorityȱ wasȱ irremediablyȱ biological,ȱ andȱ heȱ wasȱ deeplyȱ ambivalentȱ about femaleȱnatureȱandȱsexuality.ȱ Onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ heȱ concludesȱ thatȱ womenȱ areȱ mysterious,ȱ whichȱ actually meansȱthatȱtheyȱareȱcivilizedȱonȱtheȱsurfaceȱbutȱsavagesȱwithin.ȱAtȱotherȱtimes,ȱhe simplyȱdefinesȱfemininityȱasȱaȱkindȱofȱmentalȱandȱphysicalȱillness,ȱanticipatingȱthe viewsȱofȱthoseȱnineteenthȬcenturyȱphysiciansȱpreviouslyȱdiscussed.ȱAsȱheȱsays, “C’estȱl’organeȱpropreȱaȱsonȱsexeȱqueȱpartentȱtoutesȱsesȱidéesȱextraordinaire.”96 TheȱidentificationȱofȱfemaleȱsexualityȱwithȱdiseaseȱalsoȱappearsȱinȱRousseau’sȱLa NouvelleȱHéloïse.ȱJulieȱcontractsȱsmallȱpoxȱandȱgivesȱitȱtoȱherȱtutorȱandȱloverȱSaintȬ Preux.ȱ Smallȱ poxȱ isȱ aȱ euphemism:ȱ itȱ hasȱ allȱ theȱ propertiesȱ ofȱ theȱ contagion associatedȱwithȱsexuallyȱtransmittedȱdiseases.ȱItȱisȱaȱvisibleȱmanifestationȱofȱthe secret,ȱ sexualȱ guiltȱ involvedȱ inȱ Julie’sȱ andȱ SaintȬPreux’sȱ relationship.ȱ Itȱ is

94 Émile,ȱ322. 95 CitedȱinȱBrianȱEaslea,ȱWitchȬHunting,ȱMagic,ȱ andȱtheȱNewȱPhilosophyȱ(AtlanticȱHighlands,ȱNJ: HumanitiesȱPress,ȱ1980),ȱ242. 96 http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Sur_les_femmesȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱMarchȱ31,ȱȱ2008).ȱ“SurȱlesȱFemmes” (1772):ȱȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱrienȱneȱpénètreȱjusqu’àȱuneȱcertaineȱpofondeurȱdeȱconvictionȱdansȱl’endendementȱdes femmes;ȱqueȱlesȱidéesȱdeȱjustice,ȱdeȱvertue,ȱdeȱvie,ȱdeȱbonté,ȱdeȱmechanceté,ȱnagentȱàȱlaȱsuperficie deȱleurȱâme;ȱqu’ellesȱontȱconserveȱl’amourȬpropreȱetȱl’intérêtȱpersonnelȱavecȱtouteȱl’énergieȱde nature;ȱetȱque,ȱplusȱciviliséesȱqueȱnousȱenȱdehors,ȱellesȱsontȱrestéesȱdeȱvraiesȱsauvagesȱenȱdedans, toutesȱ machiavélistes,ȱ duȱ plusȱ auȱ moins.ȱ Leȱ symboleȱ desȱ femmesȱ enȱ genéralȱ estȱ celleȱ de l’Apocalypse,ȱsurȱleȱfrontȱdeȱlaquelleȱilȱestȱécrit:ȱMYSTERE.”ȱOnȱDiderot’sȱattitudeȱtowardȱwomen andȱtheȱattitudeȱofȱtheȱphilosophesȱinȱgeneral,ȱseeȱElizabethȱJ.ȱGardner,ȱ“TheȱPhilosophesȱand Women:ȱSensationalismȱandȱSentiment,”ȱWomenȱandȱSocietyȱinȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱFrance,ȱed.ȱEva Jacobs,ȱ etȱ al.ȱ (London:ȱ Athloneȱ Press,ȱ 1979),ȱ 19–27.ȱ Diderot’sȱ ambivalent,ȱ ifȱ notȱ downȬright negative,ȱviewȱofȱwomenȱwasȱsoȱwideȱspreadȱamongȱphilosophesȱthatȱJeanȱandȱMauriceȱBloch areȱledȱtoȱexclaim,ȱ“OneȱmightȱalmostȱsayȱthatȱtheȱeighteenthȬcenturyȱphilosophersȱhadȱaȱNew Guineanȱviewȱofȱwomenȱasȱdangerousȱbecauseȱofȱherȱuncontrolledȱpowerȱandȱasȱpotentially pollutingȱandȱdisruptive.”ȱSeeȱMauricieȱandȱJeanȱBloch,ȱ“WomenȱandȱtheȱDialecticsȱofȱNatureȱin EighteenthȬCenturyȱFrenchȱThought,”ȱNature,ȱCultureȱandȱGender,ȱed.ȱCarolȱP.ȱMacCormackȱand MarilynȱStrathernȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1980),ȱ25–41. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

importantȱtoȱnoteȱinȱthisȱconnectionȱthatȱinȱbothȱEnglishȱandȱFrenchȱthereȱisȱa linguisticȱconnectionȱbetweenȱsyphilisȱandȱsmallȬpox:ȱpox/smallȱpox,ȱlaȱvérole/la petitȱvérole. TheȱCultȱofȱWomanhoodȱwasȱbasicallyȱaȱnewȱployȱtoȱdealȱwithȱtheȱageȬold threatȱofȱdisorderlyȱwomen.ȱTheȱhabitȱofȱseparatingȱwomenȱintoȱtwoȱcategories, theȱ goodȱ andȱ theȱ badȱ predicatedȱ onȱ theȱ oldȱ Virgin/Eveȱ antithesis,ȱ hasȱ aȱ long history.ȱInȱtheȱsixteenthȱandȱseventeenthȱcenturiesȱitȱwasȱresurrectedȱinȱtermsȱof theȱgoodȱwifeȱversusȱtheȱbadȱwitch.97ȱInȱtheȱeighteenthȱandȱnineteenthȱcenturies TheȱCultȱofȱWomanhoodȱdevelopedȱandȱtheȱgoodȱwifeȱandȱgoodȱmotherȱwere pittedȱagainstȱlowerȱclassȱandȱforeignȱ“savage”ȱwivesȱandȱmothers.ȱButȱinȱevery periodȱtheseȱantithesesȱwereȱneverȱasȱclearȬcutȱasȱoneȱmightȱimagine.ȱTheȱgood wifeȱandȱtheȱgoodȱmothersȱareȱunableȱtoȱseparateȱthemselvesȱentirelyȱfromȱtheir negativeȱ counterparts.ȱ Clarissaȱ Harloweȱ isȱ aȱ goodȱ example.ȱ Sheȱ isȱ constantly describedȱasȱ“angelic”ȱinȱRichardson’sȱtext,ȱyetȱsheȱsharesȱcertainȱcharacteristics thatȱ were,ȱ asȱ Ritaȱ Goldbergȱ hasȱ astutelyȱ pointedȱ out,ȱ attributedȱ toȱ witchesȱ in earlierȱcenturies.98ȱ Farȱ fromȱ beingȱ theȱ passive,ȱ docile,ȱ obedient,ȱ sexuallyȱ submissiveȱ and undemandingȱfemaleȱofȱtheȱnewȱmythology,ȱClarissaȱisȱsupremelyȱselfȬreliant, independent,ȱandȱassertive.ȱHerȱwillȱcannotȱbeȱbrokenȱorȱevenȱbentȱbyȱanyone.ȱIn Goldberg’sȱanalysis,ȱClarissaȱisȱnothingȱshortȱofȱaȱtriumphantȱwitch,ȱsurvivingȱthe successiveȱtrials,ȱinterrogations,ȱimprisonments,ȱandȱmentalȱtorturesȱinflictedȱon herȱbyȱherȱfamily.ȱHerȱvindictiveȱsisterȱArabellaȱcallsȱherȱ“Speciousȱlittleȱwitch!” andȱfaultsȱherȱforȱ“curling,ȱlikeȱaȱserpent,ȱaboutȱyourȱmamma;ȱandȱmakingȱherȱcry toȱdenyȱyouȱanythingȱyourȱlittleȱobstinateȱheartȱwasȱsetȱupon!”99ȱClarissa’sȱmagical effectȱ onȱ peopleȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ reasonsȱ forȱ Arabella’sȱ hatred.ȱ Asȱ Clarissaȱ says, Arabellaȱisȱconvinced

ThatȱIȱhalfȬbewitchedȱpeopleȱbyȱmyȱinsinuatingȱaddress;ȱthatȱnobodyȱcouldȱbeȱvalued orȱrespected,ȱbutȱmustȱstandȱlikeȱciphersȱwheneverȱIȱcame.ȱHowȱoftenȱsaidȱshe,ȱhave Iȱandȱmyȱbrotherȱbeenȱtalkingȱuponȱaȱsubject,ȱandȱhadȱeverybody’sȱattentionȱtillȱyou cameȱinȱwithȱyourȱbewitchingȱmeekȱprideȱandȱhumbleȱsignificanceȱ(I,ȱ215–16).

97 SigridȱBrauner,ȱ“MartinȱLutherȱonȱWitchcraft:ȱAȱTrueȱReformer?”ȱTheȱPoliticsȱofȱGenderȱinȱEarly ModernȱEurope,ȱed.ȱJeanȱR.ȱBrink,ȱAllisonȱP.ȱCoudert,ȱandȱMaryanneȱC.ȱHorowitz.ȱVolumeȱXII SixteenthȱCenturyȱEssaysȱ&ȱStudiesȱ(Kirksville:ȱSixteenthȱCenturyȱJournalȱPublishers,ȱInc.ȱ1989), 29–42;ȱeadem,ȱFearlessȱWivesȱandȱFrightenedȱShrews:ȱTheȱConstructionȱofȱtheȱWitchȱinȱEarlyȱModern Germany,ȱeditedȱwithȱanȱintroductionȱbyȱRobertȱH.ȱBrown.ȱAmherst:ȱUniversityȱofȱMassachusetts Press,ȱ1995);ȱAllisonȱP.ȱCoudert,ȱ“TheȱMythȱofȱtheȱImprovedȱStatusȱofȱProtestantȱWomen:ȱThe CaseȱofȱtheȱWitchcraze,”ȱTheȱPoliticsȱofȱGenderȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEurope,ȱ61–92. 98 RitaȱGoldberg,ȱSexȱandȱEnlightenment:ȱWomenȱinȱRichardsonȱandȱDiderotȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridge UniversityȱPress,ȱ1984). 99 SamuelȱRichardson,ȱClarissa,ȱorȱTheȱHistoryȱofȱaȱYoungȱLadyȱ(PenguinȱBooks,ȱ1985),ȱ195. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

LovelaceȱalsoȱrecognizesȱClarissa’sȱpower:ȱ“Allȱtheȱpowerȱisȱwithȱthisȱcharming creature,”ȱheȱexclaims,ȱ“itȱisȱI,ȱnotȱshe,ȱatȱthisȱrate,ȱthatȱmustȱfailȱinȱtheȱarduous trial”ȱ(II,ȱ142). Byȱtheȱeighteenthȱcenturyȱtheȱwitchȱcrazeȱwasȱoverȱand,ȱonȱtheȱsurface,ȱaȱnew attitudeȱtowardȱwomenȱhadȱemerged.ȱPerchedȱonȱtheirȱpedestals,ȱmiddleȱand upperȬclassȱwomenȱsoughtȱtoȱconformȱtoȱtheȱprevailingȱcultȱofȱtheȱangelȱinȱthe house.ȱAsȱDr.ȱJohnȱGregoryȱ(1724–1773),ȱaȱScottishȱphysician,ȱmedicalȱwriter,ȱand moralist,ȱinformedȱhisȱdaughters,ȱpresumablyȱwithȱsomeȱsortȱofȱotherȬworldly, angelicȱmodelȱinȱmind,ȱ“theȱluxuryȱofȱeatingȱis,”ȱatȱleastȱforȱwomen,ȱ“beyond expressionȱ indelicateȱ andȱ disgusting.”100ȱ Ofȱ course,ȱ onlyȱ aȱ tinyȱ percentageȱ of femalesȱcouldȱaspireȱtoȱangelhood:ȱtheȱrestȱwereȱtreatedȱinȱmanyȱwaysȱlikeȱthe witchesȱwhoȱprecededȱthem.ȱTheyȱwereȱnoȱlongerȱburned,ȱwhichȱwasȱaȱsignificant advance,ȱbutȱtheyȱwereȱthoughtȱtoȱbeȱinfectiousȱandȱpolluting,ȱandȱdownright dangerous.ȱOnceȱagainȱoneȱfindsȱtheȱMary/Eveȱsplit,ȱalthoughȱinȱtheȱeighteenth andȱespeciallyȱtheȱnineteenthȱcenturyȱthisȱwasȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱexpressedȱinȱterms ofȱtheȱsexless,ȱangelicȱmotherȱ(whoȱnoȱlongerȱhadȱlegsȱbutȱ“limbs”)ȱandȱtheȱwhore. Theȱ“bad”ȱVictorianȱwomanȱpossessesȱallȱtheȱtraitsȱofȱtheȱunruly,ȱlibidinous, sexuallyȱperverse,ȱandȱpromiscuousȱwitchesȱofȱanȱearlierȱage.ȱNineteenthȬcentury artȱ offersȱ stunningȱ examplesȱ ofȱ eerie,ȱ monstrous,ȱ andȱ predatoryȱ women. Mermaidsȱ withȱ theirȱ snakyȱ tails,ȱ lamias,ȱ vampires,ȱ andȱ femmesȱ fatalesȱ were popular,ȱandȱdeadȱwomenȱaȱpositiveȱrage.101ȱAsȱPeterȱGayȱhasȱremarked,ȱ“No centuryȱdepictedȱwomanȱasȱvampire,ȱasȱcastrator,ȱasȱkiller,ȱsoȱconsistently,ȱso programmatically,ȱandȱsoȱnakedlyȱasȱtheȱnineteenth.”102ȱOliverȱWendellȱHolmes describedȱbedridden,ȱnervousȱwomen—thoseȱveryȱ“neurasthenics”ȱtreatedȱby Freud—asȱ“vampiresȱsuckingȱtheȱbloodȱofȱtheȱhealthyȱpeopleȱofȱtheȱhousehold.”103 Asȱweȱhaveȱseen,ȱtheȱnineteenthȱcenturyȱwasȱobsessedȱwithȱfemaleȱsexuality, especiallyȱtheȱkindȱofȱ“useless”ȱsexualityȱcharacterizedȱbyȱmasturbation.ȱFreud wasȱmoreȱforgivingȱonȱthisȱtopicȱthanȱsomeȱofȱtheȱphysiciansȱpreviouslyȱquoted, claimingȱthatȱmasturbationȱrepresentedȱaȱlegitimateȱstageȱofȱinfantileȱsexuality. Nonetheless,ȱ heȱ madeȱ itȱ absolutelyȱ clearȱ thatȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ developȱ into psychologicallyȱstableȱandȱsexuallyȱmatureȱadults,ȱwomenȱmustȱrelinquishȱclitoral

100 Johnȱ Gregory,ȱ Aȱ Father’sȱ Legacyȱ toȱ hisȱ Daughtersȱ (Edinburgh:ȱ A.ȱ Strahanȱ &ȱ T.ȱ Cadell,ȱ 1788). Gregoryȱwroteȱthisȱbookȱinȱ1761ȱwithȱtheȱintentionȱofȱleavingȱitȱtoȱhisȱdaughtersȱwhenȱheȱdied. Hisȱ sonȱ publishedȱ it,ȱ howeverȱ inȱ 1774,ȱ andȱ itȱ becameȱ aȱ bestȱ sellerȱ andȱ wentȱ throughȱ many editions.ȱInȱitȱGregoryȱadvisesȱwomenȱtoȱhideȱanyȱsignȱofȱeducationȱandȱlearningȱtheyȱmayȱhave ifȱtheyȱwantȱtoȱattractȱaȱhusband.ȱHisȱviewsȱwereȱlaterȱexcoriatedȱbyȱMaryȱWollstonecraftȱinȱher VindicationȱofȱtheȱRightsȱofȱWomen.ȱ 101 Intriguingly,ȱalreadyȱtwelfthȬcenturyȱartistsȱworkingȱonȱcorbelsȱespousedȱsimilarȱviewpoints,ȱsee theȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱChristinaȱWeising. 102 PeterȱGay,ȱTheȱBourgeoisȱExperience:ȱVictoriaȱtoȱFreud,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱ207. 103 CitedȱinȱSilasȱWeirȱMitchell,ȱDoctorȱandȱPatientȱ(Philadelphia:ȱLippincottȱCo.,ȱ1888),ȱ8.ȱ Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

stimulationȱforȱtheȱpleasureȱofȱheterosexual,ȱvaginalȱintercourse,ȱandȱtheȱjoysȱof marriageȱandȱmotherhood.104ȱ AsȱWilliamȱMonterȱwroteȱinȱ1977,ȱwhetherȱwomenȱwereȱtiedȱtoȱtheȱstakeȱas witchesȱorȱputȱonȱpedestalsȱandȱdescribedȱasȱangelsȱinȱtheȱhouse,ȱtheyȱwereȱin bothȱcasesȱeffectivelyȱmarginalized.ȱIȱwouldȱargue,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱwhereȱwitches diedȱmothersȱsurvived.ȱNotȱonlyȱdidȱtheyȱsurvive,ȱbutȱsomeȱmiddleȱandȱupper classȱmothersȱturnedȱtheȱrhetoricȱofȱmotherhoodȱtoȱtheirȱownȱadvantage,ȱusingȱit asȱaȱwedgeȱtoȱgainȱentranceȱintoȱtheȱpublicȱsphere.ȱButȱthatȱisȱanotherȱtopic.ȱ

104 Butȱevenȱthoseȱwomenȱwhoȱdidȱtheȱrightȱthingȱandȱwhoȱmarriedȱandȱboreȱchildrenȱwereȱnot reallyȱsacrosanct.ȱAȱnewȱdemonologyȱemergedȱthatȱisȱstillȱwithȱusȱtoday,ȱtheȱdemonologyȱofȱthe “BadȱMother.”ȱAlongȱwithȱtheȱinventionȱofȱMotherhoodȱcameȱtheȱmaternalȱcrimeȱsheet,ȱtoȱuse WolfgangȱLederer’sȱaptȱphrase,ȱandȱthisȱhasȱbeenȱusedȱtoȱexplainȱaȱvarietyȱofȱpsychologicalȱand psychosomaticȱdisordersȱfromȱschizophreniaȱandȱhomosexualityȱtoȱautismȱandȱanorexiaȱnervosa. WolfgangȱLederer,ȱTheȱFearȱofȱWomenȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarcourtȱBraceȱJovanovich,ȱ1968). Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱȱ1:ȱJeanȬBaptisteȱGreuze,ȱTheȱBelovedȱMother.ȱCourtesyȱofȱTheȱArtȱGallery ofȱNewȱSouthȱWales Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱȱ2:ȱFemaleȱSkeletonȱfromȱJohnȱBarclay,ȱTheȱAnatomyȱofȱtheȱBonesȱofȱthe HumanȱBodyȱ(1829).ȱWellcomeȱLibrary,ȱLondon Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱȱ3:ȱMaleȱSkeletonȱfromȱJohnȱBarclay,ȱTheȱAnatomyȱofȱtheȱBonesȱofȱtheȱHumanȱ Bodyȱ(1829).ȱWellcomeȱLibrary,ȱLondon Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱȱ4:ȱColoredȱengravingȱandȱgenitalȱcartoucheȱofȱJeanȬBaptisteȱBerré’s originalȱshowingȱSaartjieȱBaartmanȱnaked,ȱpublishedȱinȱ1819ȱinȱtheȱJournal ComplementaireȱduȱDictionnaireȱdesȱSciencesȱMedicales.ȱ Wellcome,ȱLibrary,ȱLondon Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱ5:ȱColoredȱengravingȱbyȱJ.ȱPassȱofȱ“AȱHottentotȱWomanȱwithȱenlarged labiaȱpudenda”ȱ(London,ȱ1810).ȱWellcomeȱLibrary,ȱLondon Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱȱ6:ȱJamesȱGillray,ȱ“UnȱpetitȱsouperȱàȱlaȱParisienne–or–aȱfamilyȱofȱsansȬ culottsȱ(thisȱisȱtheȱwayȱitȱisȱspelledȱinȱtheȱNationalȱPortraitȱGalleryȱdescription) refreshingȱafterȱtheȱfatiguesȱofȱtheȱday”ȱ(1792).ȱ NationalȱPortraitȱGallery,ȱLondon. Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱȱ7:ȱWilliamȱHogarth,ȱBeerȱAlleyȱ(1750).ȱTheȱBritishȱMuseum Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱȱ8:ȱWilliamȱHogarth,ȱGinȱLaneȱ(1750).ȱTheȱBritishȱMuseum Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱȱ9:ȱArthurȱMunbyȱandȱEllenȱGrounds,ȱaȱ“brooȱwench”ȱofȱWiganȱ(11ȱSeptȱ 1873).ȱMunbyȱ113/1c(ii).ȱTheȱMasterȱandȱFellowsȱofȱTrinityȱCollegeȱCambridge Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱ10:ȱOneȱofȱW.ȱStout’sȱmilkwomenȱ(Londonȱ1872).ȱMunbyȱ115/1b.ȱThe MasterȱandȱFellowsȱofȱTrinityȱCollegeȱCambridge Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱ11:ȱFisherwoman.ȱMunbyȱ115/8a.ȱTheȱMasterȱandȱFellowsȱofȱ TrinityȱCollegeȱCambridge Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱ12:ȱPitȱbrowȱgirlsȱ(1868).ȱMunbyȱ112/14c.ȱTheȱMasterȱandȱFellowsȱofȱ TrinityȱCollegeȱCambridge Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱ13:ȱJohnȱCharlesȱDollmannȱ(1851Ȭ1934),ȱ“TheȱUnknown,”ȱca.ȱ1912 Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱ14:ȱEmmanuelȱFrémiet,ȱ“Gorilla,”ȱca.ȱ1887 Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Fig.ȱ15:ȱOttoȱFriedrich,ȱ“Vanity,”ȱ1904 Copyright © 2008. De Gruyter. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.