Transition from Foraging to Farming in Northeast China

Home , Archaeology of China, Hongshan culture, Jiahu, Jiangzhai, Korean School in Yantai, Liaohe Plain

TRANSITION FROM FORAGING TO FARMING IN NORTHEAST CHINA

VOLUME TWO

(FIGURES, TABLES, BIBLIOGRAPHY AND APPENDIXES)

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION TO THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

By (Peter) Wei Ming JIA

Department of Archaeology

The University of Sydney

April 2005

TABLE OF CONTENTS...... I-VI Figures and Tables...... i BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 125 APPENDIX 1 THE COLLECTION OF TOOLS ...... 154 APPENDIX 2 POLLEN DATA...... 158 APPENDIX 3 MAMMONTH AND C14DATES...... 161 APPENDIX 4 C14DATES IN NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 165 APPENDIX 5 C14DATES OF DOMESTIC SEEDS ...... 171 APPENDIX 6 FIELDWORK REPORT ...... 172

TABLE 1-1 LOCATION OF NORTHEAST CHINA...... 1

FIGURE 1-1 UPPER PALAEOLITHIC SITES IN NORTHEAST ASIA ...... 1

FIGURE 1-2 PALAEOLITHIC SITES WITH LGM VEGETATION...... 2

FIGURE 1-3 STONE ARTEFACTS...... 3

FIGURE 1-4 STONE TOOL CATEGORIES (%)...... 3

TABLE 1-2 PALAEOLITHIC SITES IN NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 4

FIGURE 1-5 EARLY HOLOCENE IN NORTHEAST ASIA ...... 5

FIGURE 1-6 FREQUENCY OF C14 DATES FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN NORTHEAST CHINA...... 5

TABLE 1-3 EARLY HOLOCENE SITES ...... 6

FIGURE 1-7 EARLY HOLOCENE SETTLEMENT AND VEGETATION...... 6

FIGURE 1-8 THREE PHASES OF TRANSITION ...... 7

FIGURE 1-9 TRANSITION TO FARMING IN EUROPE (LEWTHWAITE 1986)...... 7

TABLE 2-1 BASIC CONDITIONS REQUIRED BY THE TRANSITION TO FARMING ...... 8

FIGURE 2-1 DIGGING TOOLS ...... 8

FIGURE 2-2 SI- IN ANCIENT CHINESE WRITING...... 8

FIGURE 2-3 THE TOOL SI FOUND IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE ...... 9

FIGURE 2-4 SOME SITES APPEARING IN THE TEXT ...... 9

FIGURE 2-5 MODERN VEGETATION IN NORTHERN CHINA...... 10

FIGURE 3-1 JOMON TOOLS (IMAMURA 1996)...... 11

FIGURE 3-2 JOMON FISHING TOOL ...... 11

TABLE 3-1 ANIMAL REMAINS IN THE XINKAILIU SITE...... 12

TABLE 3-2 XINKAILIU TOOLS (HEILONGJIANG KAOGUDUI 1979)...... 12

FIGURE 3-3 XINKAILIU ARROWHEADS ...... 13

FIGURE 3-4 XINKAILIU SPEARHEADS ...... 13

FIGURE 3-5 HARPOONS FOUND IN THE XINKAILIU SITE...... 13

FIGURE 3-6 HOE DISCOVERIES IN NORTHEAST CHINA...... 14

FIGURE 3-7 THE POSSIBLE DIGGING TOOLS IN THE XINKAILIU SITE ...... 14

FIGURE 3-8 WOODCUTTING TOOLS IN THE XINKAILIU SITE ...... 15

FIGURE 3-9 BANPO GATHERING TOOLS...... 15

FIGURE 3-10 BANPO WOODCUTTING, HUNTING AND FISHING TOOLS...... 16

TABLE 3-3 THE XINKAILIU TOOL PERCENTAGES...... 16

TABLE 3-4 THE BANPO TOOL PERCENTAGES...... 16

TABLE 3-5 THE JIAHU TOOL PERCENTAGES...... 16

FIGURE 3-11 DIAGRAMS OF TOOL COMPLEX (100% OF TOTAL)...... 17

i FIGURE 3-12 THE DIAGRAM OF NANZHUANGTOU...... 17

FIGURE 3-13 THE DIAGRAMS OF XIANRENDONG (LEFT) AND BANPO (RIGHT) ...... 18

TABLE 3-6 PHYTOLITH RESULTS IN THE XIANRENDONG SITE ...... 18

FIGURE 3-14 DIAGRAMS OF CISHAN (LEFT) AND JIAHU (RIGHT)...... 18

FIGURE 3-15 DIAGRAMS OF CISHAN (LEFT) AND JIAHU (RIGHT)...... 18

FIGURE 3-16 THE PATTERNS OF TRANSITION TO FARMING...... 19

FIGURE 4-1 POLLEN DATA FROM THE DONGWENGENSHAN SITE ...... 20

FIGURE 4-2 DISTRIBUTION OF POLLEN BORE HOLES IN NORTHEAST CHINA (1)...... 20

FIGURE 4-3 DISTRIBUTION OF POLLEN BORE HOLES IN NORTH CHINA (2)...... 21

FIGURE 4-4 VEGETATION AND SURFACE POLLEN ALONG THE XILIN RIVER, INNER MONGOLIA...... 21

FIGURE 4-5 VEGETATION WITH POLLEN PERCENTAGE THE SOUTHWEST OF NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 22

FIGURE 4-6 FOREST VEGETATION WITH SURFACE POLLEN (%) ON MOUNTAIN SLOPE ...... 22

FIGURE 4-7 MODERN PRECIPITATIONS AND POLLEN PERCENTAGE IN CHINA...... 23

FIGURE 4-8 DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF SEA LEVEL CHANGE...... 23

TABLE 4-1 SEA LEVEL CHANGE OVER TIME...... 23

FIGURE 4-9 BATHYMETRIC MAP OF NORTHEAST ASIA ...... 24

FIGURE 4-10 TRANSGRESSION DURING 12000-11500 BP ...... 24

FIGURE 4-11 TRANSGRESSION DURING 11000-8000 BP ...... 25

FIGURE 4-12 TRANSGRESSION AND REGRESSION DURING 6000-3000BP...... 25

TABLE 4-2 LAND CHANGE...... 25

FIGURE 4-13 COASTLINE OF NORTHEAST ASIA DURING THE LGM ...... 26

FIGURE 4-14 OAK DISTRIBUTION IN NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 27

FIGURE 4-15 MAMMOTH DISTRIBUTION IN NORTHEAST ASIA ...... 27

TABLE 4-3 SOME RESULTS OF RESEARCH IN TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION IN NORTHERN CHINA...... 28

FIGURE 4-16 TEMPERATURE CHANGES IN DIFFERENT REGIONS ...... 29

FIGURE 4-17 HOLOCENE TEMPERATURE IN NORTHEAST CHINA...... 30

FIGURE 4-18 HOLOCENE PRECIPITATION (MM) IN NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 31

FIGURE 4-19 VEGETATION IN THE LGM IN NORTHEAST CHINA WITH RAINFALL AND MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE...... 32

FIGURE 4-20 EARLY HOLOCENE (1) VEGETATION ...... 33

FIGURE 4-21 EARLY HOLOCENE (2) VEGETATION ...... 34

FIGURE 4-22 MID HOLOCENE VEGETATION ...... 35

FIGURE 4-23 LATE HOLOCENE VEGETATION ...... 36

TABLE 4-4 THE DATES OF THE HOLOCENE BEGAN IN NORTH AND NORTHEAST CHINA...... 37

FIGURE 4-24 PLEISTOCENE/HOLOCENE DATES ...... 37

FIGURE 4-25 POSSIBLE ORIENTATIONS OF HUMAN MIGRATION FOLLOWING THE LAND CHANGE ...... 38

FIGURE 5-1 LOCATION OF CASE STUDY REGION (1) ...... 39

FIGURE 5-2 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LIAO RIVER REGION...... 39

FIGURE 5-3 POLLEN SITES IN THIS REGION...... 40

FIGURE 5-4 POLLEN SUMMARY OF THE UPPER LIAO RIVER REGION ...... 40

FIGURE 5-5 TEMPERATURE CHANGES IN THE UPPER LIAO RIVER REGION ...... 41

FIGURE 5-6 PRECIPITATION IN THE UPPER LIAO RIVER REGION...... 41

FIGURE 5-7 ENVIRONMENT AT THE END OF THE LAST GLACIATION (C.12000BP)...... 42

FIGURE 5-8 ENVIRONMENT RECONSTRUCTION IN C.8000 BP ...... 42

FIGURE 5-9 ENVIRONMENT RECONSTRUCTION IN C. 7000 BP ...... 43

FIGURE 5-10 ENVIRONMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION IN C.6000 BP...... 43

FIGURE 5-11 ENVIRONMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION IN C.5000 BP...... 44

FIGURE 5-12 ENVIRONMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION IN C.4000 BP...... 44

FIGURE 5-13 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY IN THE UPPER LIAO RIVER REGION ...... 45

TABLE 5-1 DISTRIBUTION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL CULTURES...... 46

FIGURE 5-14 THE XINGLONGWA SITE ...... 47

ii TABLE 5-2 C14 DATES IN THE UPPER LIAO RIVER AREA IN CULTURAL GROUP ...... 48

TABLE 5-3 CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN THE LOWER LIAO RIVER REGION...... 49

FIGURE 5-15 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE LOWER LIAO RIVER REGION ...... 50

TABLE 5-4 C14 DATES OF LOWER LIAO RIVER REGION (CAL-DATE IN APPENDIX 4, 5) ...... 51

FIGURE 5-16 TOOL COMPLEXES OF TWO XINGLONGWA SITES (%) ...... 51

FIGURE 5-17 TOOL COMPLEXES OF XINGLONGWA (%) ...... 52

FIGURE 5-18 TOOL COMPLEXES OF THE XIAOSHAN SITE (%) ...... 52

FIGURE 5-19 TOOL COMPLEXES OF THE ZHAOBAOGOU SITE (%) ...... 52

FIGURE 5-20 TOOL COMPLEXES OF THREE HONGSHAN SITES (%) ...... 53

FIGURE 5-21 TOOL COMPLEXES OF HONGSHAN (%) ...... 53

FIGURE 5-22 TOOL COMPLEXES OF XIAOHEYAN...... 53

FIGURE 5-23 TOOL COMPLEXES OF LOWER XIAJIADIAN ...... 54

FIGURE 5-24 TOOL COMPLEXES OF UPPER XIAJIADIAN...... 54

FIGURE 5-25 TOOL COMPLEXES IN XINLE SITES ...... 54

FIGURE 5-26 TOOL COMPLEXES OF THE SANTANG SITES...... 55

FIGURE 5-27 TOOL COMPLEXES OF XISHAN ...... 55

FIGURE 5-28 TOOL COMPLEXES OF XINLE II...... 55

FIGURE 5-29 DIAGRAMS OF TRANSITION TO FARMING...... 56

FIGURE 5-30 PAINTED POTTERY FOUND IN LIAO RIVER REGION ...... 57

FIGURE 5-31 ZIGZAG DESIGN ON CYLINDRICAL POTS...... 57

FIGURE 5-32 NORTHWARD EXTENSION OF CIRCULAR HOUSES ...... 58

FIGURE 5-33TRIPOD COOKING WEAR AND DOU EXTENSION INTO NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 58

FIGURE 5-34 FORMATION OF COOKING WEAR: YAN...... 58

TABLE 5-5. HONGSHAN SITES WITH SIZES ...... 59

FIGURE 5-35 (TOP) DISTRIBUTION OF HONGSHAN SITES ...... 60

FIGURE 5-36 HONGSHAN JADE OBJECTS ...... 61

TABLE 5-6 HONGSHAN BURIALS ...... 62

FIGURE 5-37AREA OF BURIALS (SQUARE METRES) ...... 62

FIGURE 5-38 CLASSIFICATION OF SITES IN LOWER XIAJIADIAN SETTLEMENT...... 63

FIGURE 5-39 TOOL PERCENTAGES IN THE UPPER LIAO RIVER REGION (%) ...... 63

FIGURE 5-40 TOOL PERCENTAGES IN THE LOWER LIAO RIVER ARE (%) ...... 64

FIGURE 5-41 COMPARISON TO THE MODELS THE YELLOW RIVER AREA ...... 64

FIGURE 6-1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF THE LIAODONG PENINSULA ...... 65

FIGURE 6-2 CROP DISCOVERIES AND DATES IN NORTH AND SOUTH OF BOHAI AND HUANGHAI ...... 66

FIGURE 6-3 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE LIAODONG PENINSULA ...... 67

FIGURE 6-4 ANNUAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE CHANGES...... 68

FIGURE 6-5 ANNUAL PRECIPITATION...... 68

FIGURE 6-6 GRASSLAND ALL OVER LIAODONG AROUND 12000BP...... 69

FIGURE 6-7 VEGETATION IN LIAODONG DURING THE EARLY HOLOCENE (C.10000BP) ...... 69

FIGURE 6-8 VEGETATION IN LIAODONG AROUND 8000BP...... 70

FIGURE 6-9 VEGETATION AND LAND CHANGE AROUND 6000BP...... 70

FIGURE 6-10 VEGETATION IN LIAODONG AFTER C.4000BP ...... 71

FIGURE 6-11 ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY OF LIAODONG ...... 72

TABLE 6-1 DISTRIBUTION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL CULTURAL TRADITIONS ...... 73

FIGURE 6-12 TOOL COMPLEXES IN XIAOZHUSHAN...... 73

FIGURE 6-13 TOOL COMPLEX OF HOUWA PHASE I ...... 74

FIGURE 6-14 TOOL COMPLEXES OF HOUWA II (LEFT) AND MACHENGZI I (RIGHT)...... 74

FIGURE 6-15 TOOL COMPLEX IN SANTANG...... 74

FIGURE 6-16 TOOL COMPLEX OF BAISHICUN I ...... 75

FIGURE 6-17 TOOL COMPLEXES OF DAZUIZI I (LEFT), DAZUIZI II (MIDDLE) DAZUIZI III (RIGHT)...... 75

iii FIGURE 6-18 SHUANGTUOZI I (LEFT), SHUANGTUOZI II (MIDDLE), SHUANGTUOZI III (RIGHT) ...... 75

FIGURE 6-19 MACHENGZI (MACHENGZI II) ...... 76

FIGURE 6-20 TOOL COMPLEXES COMPARISON ...... 76

FIGURE 6-21 TOOL COMPLEXES OF SANTANG (TOP) AND MID XIAOZHUSHAN (BOTTOM) ...... 76

FIGURE 6-22 THE SEQUENCE OF TOOL COMPLEXES OF LIAODONG...... 77

FIGURE 6-23 THE CHANGES IN TOOL COMPLEXES ...... 77

FIGURE 6-24 CHANGING TOOL PROPORTION...... 77

FIGURE 6-25 THE PROPORTION OF GATHERING TOOLS...... 78

FIGURE 6-26 THE PROPORTION OF WOODCUTTING TOOLS...... 78

TABLE 6-2 FARMING ECONOMY IN THE XIAOZHUSHAN-DAZUIZI CULTURAL SYSTEM ...... 79

FIGURE 6-27 TRANSITION PATTERNS OF LIAODONG ...... 79

FIGURE 7-1 MODERN VEGETATION ZONE IN NORTH AND NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 80

FIGURE 7-2 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF SONG- NEN PLAINS ...... 81

FIGURE 7-3 COMMON MILLET FOUND IN THE BAIJINBAO SITE...... 81

FIGURE 7-4 ESTIMATED ANNUAL RAINFALL IN THE SONG-NEN PLAINS IN THE HOLOCENE ...... 82

FIGURE 7-5 ESTIMATED ANNUAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURES IN THE SONG-NEN PLAINS ...... 82

TABLE 7-1 STRATIGRAPHIC DATA IN DONGWENGENSHAN ...... 82

TABLE 7-2 C14 DATES IN CENTRAL NORTHEAST CHINA (CAL-DATE IN APPENDIX 4, 5)...... 83

FIGURE 7-6 SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY IN THE SONG-NEN PLAINS...... 84

TABLE 7-3 CHRONOLOGY OF CENTRAL NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 85

FIGURE 7-7 TOOL COMPLEXES OF ZUOJIASHAN I (LEFT) AND XIAOLAHA PHASE I-2 (RIGHT)...... 85

FIGURE 7-8 TOOL COMPLEXES OF XIAOLAHA PHASE II...... 86

FIGURE 7-9 TOOL COMPLEXES IN BAIJINBAO...... 86

FIGURE 7-10 TOOL COMPLEX OF XIAOLAHA III ...... 86

FIGURE 7-11 ARROWHEADS FOUND IN XIAOLAHA I-2...... 87

FIGURE 7-12 FISH FIGURINES FOUND IN NORTHEAST ASIA...... 87

FIGURE 7-13 SHELL REAPING KNIFE FOUND IN XIAOLAHA II...... 88

FIGURE 7-14 SHELL SICKLES FOUND IN THE BAIJINBAO TRADITION...... 88

FIGURE 7-15 HOUSE SHAPE IN THE TRADITION OF XIAOLAHA PHASE II ...... 89

FIGURE 7-16 HOUSE CONSTRUCTION IN BAIJINBAO...... 89

FIGURE 7-17 HOUSE CONSTRUCTION IN THE UPPER HANSHU...... 89

FIGURE 7-18 POSSIBLE PROCESS OF COOKING WARE CHANGE ...... 90

FIGURE 7-19 POLLEN DATA IN TWO BOREHOLES (%)...... 90

FIGURE 7-20 ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY IN THE JI-CHANG REGION ...... 91

FIGURE 7-21 TOOL COMPLEXES IN THE CULTURE OF ZUOJIASHAN LAYER I ...... 92

FIGURE 7-22 TOOL COMPLEXES IN ZUOJIASHAN II (LEFT) AND LOWER XIDUANLIANGSHAN (RIGHT) ...... 92

FIGURE 7-23 TOOL COMPLEXES IN ZUOJIASHAN III (LEFT) AND UPPER XIDUANLIANGSHAN (RIGHT)...... 93

FIGURE 7-24 TOOL COMPLEXES IN THE HOUSHISHAN SITE (MEAN%) ...... 93

FIGURE 7-25 TOOL COMPLEXES IN THE CHANGSHESHAN SITE (%)...... 94

FIGURE 7-26 TOOL COMPLEXES IN THE HUANGYUQUAN SITE...... 94

FIGURE 7-27 TOOL COMPLEXES IN THE YAOHONGZUIZI SITE...... 94

FIGURE 7-28 ZUOJIASHAN ANIMAL BONES (%) ...... 95

FIGURE 7-29 YUANBAOGOU ANIMAL BONES (%)...... 95

FIGURE 7-30 REAPING KNIVES (TOP AND BOTTOM) AND BRONZE SICKLE (MIDDLE) IN XITUANSHAN...... 95

FIGURE 7-31 OBLIQUE MOUTH POTS ...... 96

FIGURE 7-32 COOKING WARES IN XITUANSHAN...... 96

FIGURE 7-33 THE PATTERNS IN TOOL COMPLEXES IN CENTRAL NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 97

FIGURE 7-34 CHANGING ECONOMY IN THE SONG-NEN PLAINS...... 98

FIGURE 7-35 CHANGING ECONOMY IN THE JI-CHANG REGION...... 98

FIGURE 7-36 TRANSITION TO FARMING IN THE SONG-NEN PLAINS...... 99

iv FIGURE 7-37 TRANSITION TO FARMING IN THE JI-CHANG REGION...... 99

FIGURE 7-38 COMPARISON BETWEEN CENTRAL NORTHEAST CHINA AND THE YELLOW RIVER AREA ...... 100

FIGURE 8-1 LOCATION OF STUDY AREA (SHADED) IN THIS CHAPTER...... 101

FIGURE 8-2 WATER RESOURCES OF CHANGBAISHAN AREA ...... 102

FIGURE 8-3 MAJOR PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CHANGBAISHAN ...... 103

TABLE 8-1 C14 DATES FROM JINGBOHU VOLCANOES ...... 103

FIGURE 8-4 SEEDS FOUND IN THE QIAOHEXI SITE...... 104

FIGURE 8-5 DOMESTIC SEED DISCOVERIES...... 104

FIGURE 8-6 DATES OF DOMESTIC SEED DISCOVERIES ...... 105

FIGURE 8-7 PLANT REMAINS FOUND IN THE KROUNOVKA 1 SITE ...... 106 3 FIGURE 8-8 POLLEN DATA FROM GUSHANTUN (YEAR X 10 , %) ...... 106 3 FIGURE 8-9 POLLEN DATA FROM HAILANG (YEAR X 10 , %)...... 107 3 FIGURE 8-10 POLLEN DATA FROM HONGQIAOWUOZI (YEAR X 10 , %)...... 107

FIGURE 8-11 MEAN TEMPERATURES (LEFT) AND ANNUAL RAINFALLS (RIGHT) OF CHANGBAISHAN ...... 107

FIGURE 8-12 SUMMARY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY IN THE CHANGBAISHAN RANGES...... 108

FIGURE 8-13 SITES LOCATION IN THE NORTH CHANGBAISHAN REGION ...... 109

FIGURE 8-14 SITE LOCATION IN THE SOUTH CHANGBAISHAN REGION ...... 109

FIGURE 8-15 TOOL COMPLEXES IN XINXINGDONG (LEFT) AND JINCHENG BURIALS (RIGHT)...... 110

FIGURE 8-16 TOOL COMPLEX IN THE XINGUANG SITE...... 110

FIGURE 8-17 TOOL COMPLEX IN THE LOWER YINGGELING (ZAISANOVKA) CULTURE FROM THE BOISMAN SITE...... 110

FIGURE 8-18 TOOL COMPLEX IN THE JINGU SITE OF THE LOWER YINGGELING CULTURE...... 111

FIGURE 8-19 TOOL COMPLEX IN ZHENXING I-A ...... 111

FIGURE 8-20 TOOL COMPLEX OF THE ZHENXING I-A CULTURE...... 111

FIGURE 8-21 TOOL COMPLEX IN THE YABULI SITE ...... 112

FIGURE 8-22 TOOL COMPLEX IN THE LATE BOISMAN CULTURE ...... 112

FIGURE 8-23 TOOL COMPLEX OF THE XINGCHENG SITE ...... 112

FIGURE 8-24 TOOL COMPLEX IN THE NANSHAN SITE...... 113

FIGURE 8-25 LIUTINGDONG TOOL COMPLEX...... 113

FIGURE 8-26 TUANJIE TOOL COMPLEX...... 113

FIGURE 8-27 DONGKANG TOOL COMPLEXES ...... 114

FIGURE 8-28 GUNTULING TOOL COMPLEX...... 114

FIGURE 8-29 QIAONAN TOOL COMPLEX ...... 114

FIGURE 8-30 TOOL COMPLEXES IN THE DONGXING CULTURE...... 115

FIGURE 8-31 COMPARISON OF TOOL COMPLEXES BETWEEN C7000-4000BP...... 115

FIGURE 8-32 COMPARISON OF TOOL COMPLEXES AFTER 3000BP ...... 115

TABLE 8-2 APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OF CULTIVATION DERIVED FROM TOOL COMPLEXES ...... 116

FIGURE 8-33 TRANSITION TO FARMING IN THE CHANGBAISHAN AREAS ...... 116

FIGURE 9-1THE PATTERNS OF TRANSITION PROCESS IN NORTHEAST CHINA COMPARED WITH YELLOW RIVER ...... 117

FIGURE 9-2 THE PATTERNS OF THE IDEAL GROUP ...... 118

FIGURE 9-3 THE PATTERNS OF REVERSE GROUP ...... 118

FIGURE 9-4 THE PATTENS OF RESISTANCE GROUP...... 119

FIGURE 9-5 TRANSITION PROCESS AROUND 7000BP...... 119

FIGURE 9-6 TRANSITION TO FARMING AROUND 6-5000BP...... 120

FIGURE 9-7 TRANSITION TO FARMING AROUND 4000BP...... 120

FIGURE 9-8 TRANSITION TO FARMING AROUND 3000BP...... 121

FIGURE 9-9 TRANSITION TO FARMING AROUND 2000BP...... 121

TABLE 9-1 THE DATES OF REAPING KNIVES, TRIPODS AND DOU WITH FARMING ECONOMY...... 122

FIGURE 9-10 TRANSITION PATTERNS WITH OTHER FACTORS IN THE SOUTHWEST AREA ...... 122

FIGURE 9-11 TRANSITION PATTERNS WITH OTHER FACTORS IN THE CENTRAL AREA ...... 123

FIGURE 9-12 TRANSITION PATTERNS WITH OTHER FACTORS IN THE CHANGBAISHAN AREA...... 123

v FIGURE 9-13 TRANSITION MODEL AND PATTERNS...... 124

FIGURE 9-14 THREE TRENDS MODEL OF THE TRANSITION TO FARMING IN NORTHEAST CHINA...... 124

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 125 APPENDIX 1 THE COLLECTION OF TOOLS ...... 154 APPENDIX 2 POLLEN DATA...... 158 APPENDIX 3 MAMMONTH AND C14DATES...... 161 APPENDIX 4 C14DATES IN NORTHEAST CHINA ...... 165 APPENDIX 5 C14DATES OF DOMESTIC SEEDS ...... 171 APPENDIX 6 FIELDWORK REPORT ...... 172

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Name Area (sq km) Longitude Latitude Heilongjiang 451,400 121°12’-134°46’ 43°26’-53°33’ Jilin 190,400 121°38’-131°18’ 40°51’-46°18’ Liaoning 145,800 118°50’-125°46’ 38°43’-43°28’ Southeast Inner 536,200 114°49’-126°03’ 41°15’-53°33’ Mongolia Total area 1,323,800 Table 1-1 Location of northeast China

Figure 1-1 Upper Palaeolithic Sites in northeast Asia (More sites in northern China not included)

Legend of Vegetation Numbers refer to the Global Vegetation Scheme (Adam 1998), bracketed codes are a more precise category referring to International Classification and Mapping of Vegetation (Unesco 1973).

Figure 1-2 Palaeolithic sites with LGM vegetation (Referring to vegetation reconstruction in Chapter 4)

Qinghetun (after Yu 1996)

Yanjiagang (After Heilongjiang Administration et al. 1987) Figure 1-3 Stone artefacts

80 70 Angangxi(1) 60 Angangxi(2) Zhoujiayoufang 50 Miaohoushan 40 30 20 10 0 Flake Core Microlithic Point Hammer Burin Stone Scraper leaf

Figure 1-4 Stone tool categories (%)

DATE (cal. SITE NAME DOMINANT TOOL REFERENCE LONG. LAT. kyrs ) Large chopping stone 400 Miaohoushan Liaoning Museum 1986 124°04’ 41°15’ tool 260 Jinniushan Small stone tool Lu, Zune 1996 122°25’ 40°35’

180 Jiaojie Small stone tool Yu, Huili 2000 127°04’ 45°49’

100 Gezidong Small stone tool Sun, Shoudao et al. 1996 120°02’ 41°10’

100 Xiaogushan Small stone tool Zhang,et al.1985 122°58’ 40°35’ Bifacial hand axe, Large Xinxiangzhuancha 62 Chopping stone Chen, Quanjia 1996 127°20’ 43°05’ ng tool 50 Shenjiatai Small stone tool Zhang,Zhenhong 1981 120°57’ 41°12’

30 Huangshan Small stone tool Bonosov, B.B. 1957 126°37’ 45°46’

30 Bajianfang Small stone tool Zhang, Zhenhong 1981 119°28’ 41°11’

30 Zhoujiayoufang Small stone tool Sun, Jianzhong et al. 1981 126°21’ 44°.74

27 Mingyuegou Small stone tool Jiang, Peng 1982 128°56’ 43°02’ Large chopping stone 25 Miaohoushan Liaoning Museum 1986 124°04’ 41°15’ tool 24 Xuetian Small stone tool Yu, Huili 2000 127°33’ 44°47’ Heilongjiang weguanhui. 22 Yanjiagang Small stone tool 126°02’ 45°04’ 1987 21 Qinghetun Small stone tool Yu, Huili 1996 124°43’ 48°49’

20 Laoka Small stone tool Yu, Huili 2000 126°02’ 51°07’

20 Mohe Laogouhe Chopping tool Yang, Dashan 1982 122°03’ 53°07’

19 Qianyang Small stone tool Fu, Renyi 1996 124°09’ 39°54’

12 Xianrendong Small stone tool Jiang, Peng 1996 127°17’ 42°07’

12 Daxingtun Small stone tool Yu, Huili 2000 123°51’ 47°02’

10 Dakanzi Microlithic Chen, Quanjia 2001 123°02’ 46°02’

10 Jiuzhanxishan Small stone tool Chen, Quanjia 1996 126°03’ 43°59’

10 Xianrenqiaodong Small stone tool Chen, Quanjia 1996 127°20’ 43°50’ Small stone tool and 10 Daziyangshan Heilongjiang Institute 1998 125°20’ 50°40’ microlithic 10 Hailar Microlithic An, Zhimin 1978 119°36’ 49°12’

10 Shibazhan Microlithic Yu, Huili 2000 125°25’ 52°25’

Table 1-2 Palaeolithic sites in northeast China

Figure 1-5 Early Holocene in northeast Asia (Left date, Right name)

Number of dates 10

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516

C14 dates × 10³ Figure 1-6 Frequency of C14 dates from archaeological sites in northeast China (Generated from C14 dates collected from Chinese literature in Appendix 4 )

5 ID NAME DATE REFERENCE ASSEMBLAGE LAT. LONG. CERAMICS

1 Jiuzhanxishan 10000 Chen, Quanjia 1996. Small stone tool 43°59’ 126°30’

2 Xianrenqiaodong 10000 Chen, Quanjia 1996. Small stone tools 43°50’ 127°20’ Heilongjiang Institute of Sandy dark red Small stone tools and 3 Daziyangshan 10000 Archaeology 50°40’ 125°20’ ceramic microlithic 1998。 fragment 4 Hailar 10000 An, Zhimin 1978. Microliths 49°12’ 119°36’ Fragment

5 Xianrendong 12000 Jiang, Peng 1996. Small stone tools 42°20’ 127°17’

6 Daxingtun 12000 Yu, Huili 2000. Chipped and microlithic 47°02’ 123°51’

7 Shibazhan 10000 Yu, Huili 2000. Microlithic 52°25’ 125°25’

8 Ushknovkai 12000 Vasil'evskii, R. S. 1998. Microlithic 46°02’ 137°39’ Ceramics

9 Dakanzi 12000 Chen, Quanjia 2001. Microlithic 46°02’ 123°05’ Relics Administration of Ceramic 10 Nanzhuangtou 10000 Baoding et al. Nanzhuangtou 39°14’ 115°46’ fragments 1992 11 Qingshantou 10000 Li, Xiqun et al. 1984 Microlithic? 45°14’124°15’

Table 1-3 Early Holocene sites

Legend of Vegetation Numbers refer to the Global Vegetation Scheme (Adam 1998); bracketed codes are a more precise category referring to International Classification and Mapping of Vegetation (Unesco 1973)

Figure 1-7 Early Holocene settlement and vegetation (Referring to vegetation reconstruction in Chapter 4)

Availability Substitution Consolidation Phase Phase Phase Farming as a proportion of economy (%)

Time Figure 1-8 Three phases of transition (Zvelebil 1998)

Figure 1-9 Transition to farming in Europe (Lewthwaite 1986)

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF TRANSITION RESEARCH

Internal condition (Social availability) External condition (Ecological availability) Technological Reasonable motivation availability Natural condition for plant cultivation Increasing food demand due to the and animal Knowledge and skill increase of socio-political herding, such as of plant needs including increase in water, temperature, identification, socal activities, ritual soil, sunlight, flora, seasonal ceremonies monumental Fauna and also growing and constructions, population harvesting and grouth or the decrease of wild available food for animal feeding food supply inbalanced feeding the herded and breeding. economic support for political, animal. social needs.

Table 2-1 Basic conditions required by the transition to farming

Figure 2-1 Digging tools (After Chen 1989)

Figure 2-2 Si- in ancient Chinese writing

Figure 2-3 The tool Si found in archaeological site 1. 2. 3. Bone-Si (Hemudu) 4.Stone-Si (Huangshan, Yellow R.) 5.Wooden Si (Hemudu) (After Chen 1989)

Figure 2-4 Some sites appearing in the text

Figure 2-5 Modern vegetation in northern China (Redrawn from Liu 1988)

10 CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Figure 3-1 Jomon tools (Imamura 1996)

Figure 3-2 Jomon fishing tool (Imamura 1996)

Species Species Possible Possible num

Chinese/English/Latin number Chinese/English/Latin ber 狗獾/Badger/ Meles meles 8 赤狐/Red Fox/Vulpes vulpes 1

狼/Wolf Canis lupus 3 贝类/Shellfish Some

犬科/Canidae/Canidae 5 鳖类/Tortoise or Turtle Some

鹿/Deer/Cervus sp. 6 青鱼/Black carp Many

棕熊/Brown bear/Ursus arctos 3 鲤鱼/Carp/Cyprinus carpio Many

野猪/Wild pig/Sus Scrofa 7 鲶鱼/Catfish Many

狍子/Roe deer/Capreolus capreolus 7 鲑鱼/Salmon Many

马鹿/Red deer/Cervus elaphus 7 鸟类/Bird Some

麋鹿/Elk/Alces. 1

Table 3-1 Animal remains in the Xinkailiu site (Recalculated from Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979:518. The first column is Chinese name/and English translation from the report, and second column is my interpretation)

Chinese name in English in this report/English study Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Other Total 1 镞/Arrowhead Arrowhead 121 2矛/投枪头/Spearhead Spearhead 13 3石球/Bola Bola 2 4 尖状器（雕刻器）/ Burin Burin 39 5刮削器/Scraper Scraper 84 6细石叶/Microblade Microblade 33 7石核/Core Core 14 8鱼网坠/Sinker Sinker 2 9斧/Axe Axe 22 10 斧 Axe Hoe 2 11 锛/凿/Chisel Adze 11 12 磨盘/研磨器/Gridstone Grindstone 1 13 鱼镖/Harpoon Harpoon 11 14 鱼钩/Fishhook Fishihook 2 15 鱼卡/Fishing pin Fishing pin 9 16 骨柄石刃刀/Blades knife Knife (Blades) 3 17 匕首/Dagger Dagger 37 18 针/Needle Needdle 5 19 锥/Awl Awl 29

Total 136 24 3 33 244 440

Table 3-2 Xinkailiu tools (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979) (First column is Chinese name; second column is English translation of the Chinese name in the report, third column is my interpretation of these tools)

Figure 3-3 Xinkailiu Arrowheads (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979)

Figure 3-4 Xinkailiu Spearheads (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979)

Figure 3-5 Harpoons found in the Xinkailiu site (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979)

5.5ka Tangjiawaizi 5.5ka Yabuli 4.5ka Yinggeling 6ka Hongshan

7.5ka Xinglongwa 4.5ka Jingu

Upper Palaeolithic Jinniushan 4ka late Jomon

7ka Peiligang

Figure 3-6 Hoe discoveries in northeast China (Jomon: Aikens 1982:159; Jingu: Yanbian Museum 1991:6; Yinggeling: Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1981:490; Yabuli: Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1988b:5; Tangjiawaizi: personal collection; Xinglongwa: Chinese Academy IMT 1997:15; Hongshan: Guo & Ma 1985:420; Jinniushan: Jia et al 1986; Peiligang: Chinese Academy Henan Team 1995:53)

Figure 3-7 The possible digging tools in the Xinkailiu site (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979)

Figure 3-8 Woodcutting tools in the Xinkailiu site (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979)

Digging tool hoe Grindstone and slab Knife

Digging tool hoe Grindstone and slab Sickle

Figure 3-9 Banpo gathering tools (Top) (Chinese Academy 1963) and Jiahu gathering tools (Bottom) (Henan Wenyansuo 1999)

Woodcutting Hunting Fishing

Figure 3-10 Banpo woodcutting, hunting and fishing tools (Chinese Academy 1963)

Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Total

136 24 3 33 196

69.4% 12.2% 1.5% 16.8% 100%

Table 3-3 The Xinkailiu tool percentages (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979)

Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Total

294 350 4271 1432 6347

4.6% 5.5% 67.3% 22.6% 100%

Table 3-4 The Banpo tool percentages (Chinese Academy 1963)

Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Total

315 160 325 115 915

34.4% 17.5% 35.5% 12.6% 100%

Table 3-5 The Jiahu tool percentages (Henan 1999)

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuting

Figure 3-11 Diagrams of tool complex (100% of total) (Top: Xinkailiu; bottom: left Banpo, right Jiahu)

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Hunting Fishing Cutting Gathering

Figure 3-12 The diagram of Nanzhuangtou (Guo and Li 2000)

17 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 3-13 The diagrams of Xianrendong (left) and Banpo (right)

Horizons Date BP Phytolith result

Late Xianrendong: 2A c.7.-6000. 55% domestic out of total rice remains

Xianrendong: 3B1, 3B2 c.8500 Wild & more domestic rice

Xianrendong: 3C1a c.14.-10000. Wild with a small amount of domestic rice (Oryza sativa) Early Diaotonghuan c. 17000 Wild rice only

Table 3-6 Phytolith results in the Xianrendong site (after Zhang 2000)

80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuting

Figure 3-14 Diagrams of Cishan (left) and Jiahu (right)

80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Hunting Fishing Gathering

Figure 3-15 Diagrams of Cishan (left) and Jiahu (right)

18 80 80 80 80 70 70 70 70 60 60 60 60 50 50 50 50 40 40 40 40 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Foraging Farming Figure 3-16 The patterns of transition to farming. (From the left to the right: Xinkailiu, Xianrendong, Cishan Banpo)

CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION IN NORTHEAST CHINA

Figure 4-1 Pollen data from the Dongwengenshan site (Redraw from Ye 2000)

Japan Sea

Bohai

Figure 4-2 Distribution of pollen bore holes in northeast China (1) (Site numbers on this map relate to the sites in Appendix)

20 Bohai

Figure 4-3 Distribution of pollen bore holes in north China (2) (Site numbers on this map relate to the sites in Appendix 2)

Figure 4-4 Vegetation and surface pollen along the Xilin River, Inner Mongolia (Li 1998)

40 Artemisia Chenopodiaceae 30 Betula+Pinus 20

0 Steppe Woodland- Woodland- Woodland steppe grassland

Figure 4-5 Vegetation with pollen percentage the southwest of northeast China (Redrawn from Liu et al. 1999)

100

90 Betula

80 Ab 70 Picea 60

50 Pinus

40 Broadleaf 30

20 Arboreal

10 b None-ar

0 Birch (Betula) forest Fir (Abies) forest Pine & spruce( Pinus & Broad and needleleaf (1800-2000) (1500-1800) picea) forest (1100-1500) forest (500-1100)

Figure 4-6 Forest vegetation with surface pollen (%) on mountain slope (The number in the bracket of the horizontal line is elevation in metres) (Redrawn from Zhou et al. 1984)

Figure 4-7 modern precipitations and pollen percentage in China (Ren 1999)

Figure 4-8 Different versions of sea level change (Chinese Academy 1999; Li 1995; Qian et al. 1994; Zhao et al. 1985; Wang et al. 1980).

Date BP (ky) Sea level Average change Date BP Sea level (m) Average change (m) (cm/yr) (ky) (cm/yr) 18-14 -150* 0 8 -10 0.75cm 12 -140 0.5cm 7.5 0 2cm 11.5 -100 8cm 6 +4 0.8cm 11 -50 10cm 4 0 0.2cm 10 -25 2.5cm 0 0 0 * - Below, + above present sea level and without considering the small fluctuation Table 4-1 Sea level change over time (According to the diagrams in Fig 4-11 and modern seabed from Chinese Map Press 1998)

La Perouse Sakhalin Island strait

Tsugaru str ait

Northeast China

Tsushima strait

North Chi na Sea of Japan

Bohai Korea Korean str Japan Jiaodong ait Peninsula

Huanghai

Figure 4-9 Bathymetric map of northeast Asia (Chinese Map Press 1998)

11500BP 15000-12000BP

Figure 4-10 Transgression during 12000-11500 BP (Land division refer to modern political boundaries)

24 11000BP 10000BP

8000BP

Figure 4-11 Transgression during 11000-8000 BP (Land division refer to modern political boundary)

6000BP After 3000BP

Figure 4-12 Transgression and Regression during 6000-3000BP (Land division refer to modern political boundaries)

Year X10³ BP Land change (sq km)×105 Average change (sq km/year) 14-11.5 +1.18 47.16 11.5-11 +4.27 170.84 11-10 +2.37 94.84 10-8 +0.944 37.75 8-7.5 +0.675 27.01 7.5-6 -1.77 70.944 6-4 +1.77 70.944 Total 9.439 118 sq km/a Table 4-2 Land change

12ka 10ka

8ka…………………………………………..6ka

4ka 2ka Figure 4-18 Holocene precipitation (mm) in northeast China

Figure 4-17 Holocene temperature in northeast China

Figure 4-16 Temperature changes in different regions (Vertical – temperature [°C], Horizontal – Years X1000 BP)

Site or area 18-12ky BP 10ky BP 8ky BP 6ky BP 4ky BP 2ky BP Reference North Guo and Li Daxinganli -10℃ 1981 ng Genhe 50.8N, Warmer Warmer Cold wet Cool wet Cool dry Cold dry Na et al. 1997 121.567E wet wet Zhalainuoer Zhou et al. Cold wetter Cold dry Cool dry (1)1984 Sanjang Plain -2~-4℃ 3~6℃ 0℃ 8- Xia 1988; Guo High 6-8℃ 6~700mm 6~757mm 100mm and Li 1981 Cold not dry Warm wet Cool wet Ye et al. 1983 Guo and Li Harbin -4.5~-7.5℃ 1981 Northern 22% 15% northeast 10% wetter 20% wetter 18% wetter 14% wetter Wu et al 1994 wetter wetter China Songliao plain Dry Dry Wetter Wet Wet Ren 1999 Zhou et al. Dunhua Cold wet Warm wet Cool wet 1977 East Inner 7℃ 500mm Shi et al 1993. Mongolia Gushantun -5℃ 3℃ Warmest Cool Cool Liu 1989 42N 126E Northeast Dry Drier to wetter Wet Ren 1999 China Changbaishan Dry Dryest Dry Wetter Wet Ren 1999 Keerqin Dry wet Dry Dry Dry Xia et al. 2000 Desert Southern -10~-30% 15%-30% -2% northeast 0% -20% wetter 0% Wu et al 1994 wetter wetter wetter China Guo and Li Shenyang 0℃ 13-15℃ 1981 Chinese Liaonan 0℃ wet 4℃ dry 6℃ dry 13℃ drier 10℃ wet 9℃ wet Academy 1977 Warmer Warmer Warmer Eastern Hebei Cold dry Cool dry Li et al 1985 wetter wetter dry Daihai 40.25N 7℃ 600mm Shi et al 1993. 112.75E Diaojaohaizi Zhang 1997; 41.012N -8℃ dry 0℃ wet 3℃ 450mm 2℃ dry 0℃ dry Yang 1998. 112.567E Guo and Li Beijing 15℃ 1981 Table 4-3 Some results of research in temperature and precipitation in Northern China

28 Year X103 Figure 4-14 Oak distribution in northeast China (Based on pollen data in Appendix 2)

Figure 4-15 Mammoth distribution in northeast Asia (Based on Appendix 3)

Figure 4-13 Coastline of Northeast Asia during the LGM

Figure 4-19 Vegetation in the LGM in northeast China with rainfall and mean annual temperature (Based mainly on pollen data and generated from my analysis)

Figure 4-20 Early Holocene (1) vegetation

Legend of Vegetation Numbers refer to the Global Vegetation Schem e (Adam 1998), bracketed codes are a more precise category referring to International Classification and Mapping of Vegetation (Unesco 1973).

Figure 4-21 Early Holocene (2) vegetation

Figure 4-22 Mid Holocene vegetation

Figure 4-23 Late Holocene vegetation

Site or Area Name Latitude Date of the Boundary ×10³ BP Reference Baikal 55.5 10 Khenzykhenova and Alexeeva, 1999 Genhe 50.8 10.3 Na et al. 1997 Sanjiang Plain 48.1 Early than 10.5 Xia 1988 Qingshantou 45.3 10-10.5 Li et al. 1984 Zhalainuoer 42.5 11.66 Li et al. 1982 Changbaishan 42 11.4 Liu1989 Inner Mongolia 41.1 10.5-12 Liu et al. 2001 Diaojiaohaizi 41.1 10.2 Zhang et al. 1997 Lower Yellow River 34.5 11.7 Xu et al. 1996

Table 4-4 The dates of the Holocene began in north and northeast China

Figure 4-24 Pleistocene/Holocene dates

Figure 4-25 Possible orientations of Human migration following the land change

38 CHAPTER 5. CASE STUDY (1): THE LIAO RIVER AREA

Figure 5-1 Location of case study region (1) With political boundaries between provinces and capital cities (n)

Figure 5-2 Physical features of Liao River region

Figure 5-3 Pollen sites in this region (See appendix 2 for site number)

100 Arboreal

80 None-ar Fern 60

0 123456

7800 7260 7000 6380 5500 3980 (Date c. BP) Xinglongwa Zhaobaogou Hongshan Xiaoheyan L. Xiajiadian (Referring to archaeological periods)

Figure 5-4 Pollen summary of the Upper Liao River region (Redrawn from Xia et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2000)

Figure 5-5 Temperature changes in the Upper Liao River region (Based on data in Table 4-3 and Chinese Atlas Press 1998)

Figure 5-6 Precipitation in the Upper Liao river region (Based on Fig 4-21 and Ren 1999 a, b, c)

Semi desert

Grassland

Figure 5-7 Environment at the end of the last glaciation (c.12000BP)

Open-

Open- Open-

Figure 5-8 Environment reconstruction in c.8000 BP (Triangles indicate Xinglongwa sites)

Figure 5-9 Environment reconstruction in c. 7000 BP (Triangles indicate Zhaobaogou sites)

Figure 5-10 Environmental reconstruction in c.6000 BP (Circles indicate Hongshan sites)

Figure 5-11 Environmental reconstruction in c.5000 BP (Triangles indicate Xiaoheyan sites)

Figure 5-12 Environmental reconstruction in c.4000 BP (Triangles indicate Lower Xiajiadian sites)

Date c. Period Cultural Tradition Climate B P Lower Warm, Xiajiadia 4000 wet n Warm, Xiaoheyan 5000 dry Warmer, Hongshan 6000 drier Warm, Zhaobaogou 7000 wet

Cool, Xinglongwa 8000 dry Small stone tools, no microblade Cold, Bajianfang 12000 technology dry And ceramic Figure 5-13 Chronological summary in the Upper Liao River region (Nelson 1995; Zhu 1987, 1991, 1998; Zhu 1997; Zhu 1979; Zhao 1995; Wang et al. 1993, 1998; Tangshan 1993; Shenyang 1978, 1985, 1990; Ren 1994; Lu 1958; Liu 1975; Liu 2000, Liaoning 1983, 1992, 1976; Li 1986; Chinese Academy 1997, 1974, 1982, 1979; Balinzuoqi 1987; Xin 1996)

Upper Liao River (Liaoxi Hilly Land) Southwest------Northeast 2000BP------Warrior State and Han Dynasty ------

Upper Xiajiadian 3000------Weiyingzi ------

Lower Xiajiadian 4000------

Xiaoheyan 5000------

Hongshan 6000------Fuhegoume Zhaobaogou

7000------Xinglongwa ------

8000------

12000 ------Bajianfang ------

Table 5-1 Distribution of archaeological cultures (After Zhu 1998; 1993, 1991; Zhu 1997; Li 1980, 1977; Yang 1994; Guo & Ma 1985)

Figure 5-14 The Xinglongwa site (Rectangle pits are the house remains) (Chinese Academy 1997)

Date Lab code Sample Culture Site name Longitude Latitude Reference 7470±115 ZK-1391 Charcoal Xinglongwa Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 Yang 1994 7360±150 n/a ? Xinglongwa Chahai 121.60 42.11 Liaoning Institute of Archaeology 1994 7240±95 ZK-? Charcoal Xinglongwa Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 Chinese Academy 1997 7040±100 n/a Charcoal Xinglongwa Baiyinchanghan 117.81 43.43 Inner Mongolia Kaogusuo 1993 6965±95 ZK-1393 Charcoal Xinglongwa Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 Yang 1994 6925±95 ZK-2138 Charcoal Xinglongwa Chahai 121.60 42.11 Yang 1994 6895±205 ZK-1390 Charcoal Xinglongwa Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 Yang 1994 6775±105 ZK-2711 Charcoal Xinglongwa Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 C14 Dates Kaogu 1994.7. 6753±117 ZK-2716 Charcoal Xinglongwa Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 C14 Dates Kaogu 1994.7. 6630±107 ZK-2714 Charcoal Xinglongwa Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 C14 Dates Kaogu 1994.7. 6590±85 n/a Charcoal Xinglongwa Baiyinchanghan 117.81 43.43 Yang 1994 6534±128 ZK-2715 Charcoal Xinglongwa Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 C14 Dates Kaogu 1994.7. 6220±85 ZK-2136 Charcoal Zhaobaogou Zhaobaogou 120.04 42.49 Chinese Academy 1997 6210±85 ZK-2135 Charcoal Zhaobaogou Zhaobaogou 120.04 42.49 Yang 1994 6155±95 ZK-2137 Charcoal Zhaobaogou Zhaobaogou 120.04 42.49 Yang 1994 6150±85 ZK-2061 Charcoal Zhaobaogou Xiaoshan 120.68 42.38 Yang 1994 6060±85 ZK-2062 Charcoal Zhaobaogou Xiaoshan 120.68 42.38 Yang 1994 6045±90 ZK-2270 charcoal Zhaobaogou Xiaoshandegou 120.68 42.38 Yang 1994 5925±120 ZK-2302 Animal *Hongshan Yushushan 119.67 42.47 C14 Dates Kaogu Bone 1991.7. 5915±125 ZK-2269 Charcoal Zhaobaogou Xiaoshandegou ? ? Yang 1994 5865±90 ZK-1394 Charcoal Hongshan Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 Yang 1994 5735±85 ZK-2064 Charcoal Hongshan Xinglongwa 120.72 42.37 Yang 1994 5655±85 ZK-2408 Charcoal Hongshan Pinganpu 122.53 42.42 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. 1992

48 5435±160 ZK-2303 Animal Hongshan Xiliang 120.27 42.27 C14 Dates Kaogu Bone 1991.7. 5325±135 ZK-2301 Charcoal Hongshan Yushushan 119.67 42.47 C14 Dates Kaogu 1991.7. 4995±110 ZK-1355 Charcoal Hongshan Niuheliang 119.47 41.32 Liaoning Kaogusuo 1986 4975±85 ZK-1352 Charcoal Hongshan Niuheliang 119.47 41.32 Liaoning Kaogusuo 1986 4970±80 ZK-1351 Charcoal Hongshan Niuheliang 119.47 41.32 Liaoning Kaogusuo 1986 4895±70 BK-82 Charcoal Hongshan Dongshanzui 119.47 41.18 Yang 1994 4605±125 Zk-1354 Charcoal Hongshan Niuheliang 119.47 41.32 Liaoning Kaogusuo 1986 4455±85 ZK-1180 Human Hongshan Wudaowan 119.50 42.40 Yang 1994 Bone 3965±±90 ZK-176 Charcoal Lower Zhizhushan 118.93 42.28 Chinese Academy Xiajiadia Inner n Mongolia Team 1979 3780±90 ZK-699 Charcoal Lower Shuiquan 119.94 41.63 C14 date. Kaogu Xiajiadia 1981.4. n 3725±135 ZK-2225 Charcoal Lower Redianchang 120.45 42.58 C14 dates Kaogu Xiajiadia 1988.7. n 3580±75 ZK-2224 Charcoal Lower Redianchang 120.45 42.58 C14 dates Kaogu Xiajiadia 1988.7. n 3550±80 ZK-153 Charcoal Lower Fengxia 120.65 41.84 Chinese Academy Xiajiadia 1983 n 3535±55 ZK-2222 Charcoal Lower Redianchang 120.45 42.58 C14 dates Kaogu Xiajiadia 1988.7. n 3430±250 ZK-2223 Charcoal Lower Redianchang 120.45 42.58 C14 dates Kaogu Xiajiadia 1988.7. n 3420±85 ZK-480 Rotten Lower Dadianzi 120.60 42.30 Chinese Academy Wood Xiajiadia 1983 n 3390±90 ZK-402 Rotten Lower Dadianzi 120.60 42.30 Chinese Academy Wood Xiajiadia 1983 n 3245±135 ZK-2013 Human Lower Zhuangke 114.93 40.03 Zhangjiakou Team bone Xiajiadia 1984 n 3035±80 ZK-2012 Human Lower Zhuangke 114.93 40.03 Zhangjiakou Team bone Xiajiadia 1984 n 2970±115 Bk77028 Charcoal Upper Dajing 118.28 43.67 Chinese Academy Xiajiadia 1983 n 2960±90 BK77059 Charcoal Upper Shunshantun 123.33 42.77 Chinese Academy Xiajiadia 1983 n 2780±100 ZK-412 Charcoal Upper Dajing 118.28 43.67 Chinese Academy Xiajiadia 1983 n 2725±100 WK77-10 Charcoal Weiyingzi Weiyingzi 120.45 41.58 Chinese Academy 1983 2720±90 BK77024 Charcoal Upper Dajing 118.28 43.67 Chinese Academy Xiajiadia 1983 n 2370±85 ZK-585-0 Human Upper Jianzigou 117.33 40.93 Chinese Academy Bone Xiajiadia 1983 n Table 5-2 C14 dates in the Upper Liao River Area in cultural group (Cal-date in appendix 4, 5) *One overlapping date with early culture

Lower Liao River (Liaohe Plain) West------East 2000------Bronze------Sword

3000------Upper. Xinle ------Machengzi

Gaotaishan 4000------Xishan ------

5000------Painpu (Santang) ------

6000------L. Machengzi ------U. Houwa

L. Xinle 7000------

L. Gaotaishan 8000------

Bajianfang 12000------

Table 5-3 Cultural traditions in the Lower Liao River region (After Zhu 1998; 1993, 1991; Zhu 1997; Dong 1996, 1998; Li & Gao 1998; Zhao 1993; Guo & Ma 1985)

Figure 5-3 Pollen sites in this region (See appendix 2 for site number)

100 Arboreal

80 None-ar Fern 60

0 123456

7800 7260 7000 6380 5500 3980 (Date c. BP) Xinglongwa Zhaobaogou Hongshan Xiaoheyan L. Xiajiadian (Referring to archaeological periods)

Figure 5-4 Pollen summary of the Upper Liao River region (Redrawn from Xia et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2000)

Date Lab code Sample Traditions Name Longitude Latitude Reference

6620±150 ZK-0677 Charcoal Lower Xinle Xinle 123.43 41.82 Shenyang Administration et al. 1985 6620±150 ZK-667 Charcoal Lower Xinle Xinle 123.43 41.82 Shenyang Administration et al. 1985 6335±95 WB 79-05 Charcoal Lower Xinle Xinle 123.43 41.82 Shenyang Administration 1978; 6150±95 BK-78054 Charcoal Lower Xinle Xinle 123.43 41.82 Xinle Museum et al. 1990. 6145±120 ZK-0267 Charcoal Lower Xinle Xinle 123.43 41.82 Shenyang Administration 1978; 4650±100 N/a Charcoal Pianpu Xishan 123.28 40.27 Xu & Yang 1992 4390±150 N/a Charcoal Pianpu Xishan 123.28 40.27 Xu & Yang 1992 4210±110 N/a Charcoal Pianpu Xishan 123.28 40.27 Xu & Yang 1992

3435±90 ZK-2407 Charcoal Gaotaishan Pinganpu 122.53 42.42 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. 1990 3370±90 BK77018 Charcoal Gaotaishan Gaotaishan 122.87 42.05 Shenyang Administration 1982 3350±90 ZK-604 Charcoal Gaotaishan Shunshantun 123.33 42.77 Dong 1996 3340±85 ZK-668 Charcoal Gaotaishan Zhihuchong 123.33 41.67 Dong 1996 3150±85 ZK-2267 Charcoal Gaotaishan WanLiu 123.23 42.35 Dong 1996 3125±80 WB79-3 Wood Gaotaishan Zhihuchong 123.33 41.67 Dong 1996 3085±75 ZK-2268 Charcoal Gaotaishan WanLiu 123.23 42.35 Liaoning University 1989 2980±100 ZK-2406 Human Bone Gaotaishan Pinganpu 122.53 42.42 Dong 1996 2770±100 ZK-2405 Human Bone Gaotaishan Pinganpu 122.53 42.42 Dong 1996

Table 5-4 C14 dates of Lower Liao River Region (Cal-date in appendix 4, 5)

100

80 Xinglongwa 60 Chahai

0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-16 Tool complexes of two Xinglongwa sites (%)

51 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 5-17 Tool complexes of Xinglongwa (%) (Mean of the sites)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-18 Tool complexes of the Xiaoshan site (%) (Tradition of Zhaobaogou)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-19 Tool complexes of the Zhaobaogou site (%)

52 100 90 80 Nasitai 70 Xishuiquan 60 50 Silingshan 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-20 Tool complexes of three Hongshan sites (%)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-21 Tool complexes of Hongshan (%) (Mean of the sites)

100 90 80 Danangou 70 Jiangjialiang 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-22 Tool complexes of Xiaoheyan (From two burial sites)

53 100 Zhizhushan I 90 80 Dongshanzui 70 Nanshangen I 60 Fengxia 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-23 Tool complexes of Lower Xiajiadian (Four sites)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 5-24 Tool complexes of Upper Xiajiadian

100 90 80 Xinle I 70 Xinle I-(2) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-25 Tool complexes in Xinle sites (Two excavations areas)

54 100 90 80 Santang I 70 Santang II 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-26 Tool complexes of the Santang sites (Two deposits)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-27 Tool complexes of Xishan

100 90 80 Xinle II 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 5-28 Tool complexes of Xinle II

Date (BP) 8000……….7000……..……….6000……..….5000…..…..4000……..….300 0

100 90 90.0 100 100 100.0 100 90 90 90.0 80 80.0 90 90 80 80 80 80.0 70 80 70.0 70 70 70 70.0 60 70 60.0 60 60 60 60.0 50 60 50.0 50 50 50 50.0 40 50 40.0 40 40 40 40.0 30 30 40 30.0 30 30 30.0 20 20 30 20.0 20 20.0 20 10 10 20 10.0 10 10.0 10 0 0 0 10 0.0 0.0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Upper Liao River (Xinglongwa, Xiaoshan, Zhaobaogou, Hongshan, Xiaoheyan, L. Xiajiadian, U. Xiajiadian)

100.00 100.00 90.00 100 100 90.00 90 90 80.00 Xinle II 80.00 80 80 70.00 70.00 70 70 60.00 60.00 60 60 50.00 50.00 50 50 40.00 40.00 40 40 30.00 30.00 30 30 20.00 20.00 20 20 10.00 10.00 10 10 0 0 0.00 0.00 ……………….. Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin …………… Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Lower Liao River (Xinle, Pianpu, Xishan, Xinle II)

80 80 80 80 70 70 70 70 60 60 60 60 50 50 50 50 40 40 40 40 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Baseline diagrams (Xinkailiu, Xianrendong, Cishan, Banpo) Figure 5-29 Diagrams of transition to farming.

Figure 5-30 Painted pottery found in Liao River region (Silengshan site, Li & Gao 1987)

Figure 5-31 Zigzag design on cylindrical pots (Xinglongwa site, Chinese Academy IMT 1996)

Figure 5-32 Northward extension of circular houses

Figure 5-33Tripod cooking wear and Dou extension into northeast China

Zen

Li Yan

Figure 5-34 Formation of cooking wear: Yan

ID in ID in ID in Fi SIZE Fi SIZE Fi SIZE NAME NAME NAME g (Sq m) g (Sq m) g (Sq m) 5- 5- 5- 3 3 3 1 Aohanqi N/a 23 Houlidongtun N/a 45 Sandaowanzi N/a 2 Aoliyingzi 7500 24 Huanggutun N/a 46 Sanxingtala N/a 3 Baishagou N/a 25 Hutougou N/a 47 Shajintai N/a 4 Baiyinchanghan N/a 26 Hutougou N/a 48 Shibanshan N/a 5 Balinyouqi N/a 27 Jianping N/a 49 Shuiquan N/a 6 Balinzuoqi N/a 28 Jianshanzi N/a 50 Sijiazi N/a 7 Bolishan 75000 29 Lijiawopu Resevior40000 51 Sijiazi N/a 8 Chengzishan 7904 30 Lingyuan burials N/a 52 Silengshan N/a 9 Dahushisuiku N/a 31 Lingyuan burials N/a 53 Taijiyingzi N/a 10 Daqintala N/a 32 Lingyuan burials N/a 54 Talabaoli N/a 11 Dawa N/a 33 Lingyuan burials N/a 55 Wangjia 6000 12 Dongshanzui N/a 34 Lingyuan burials N/a 56 Wangquan N/a 13 Dongtuozi 1000 35 Lingyuan burials N/a 57 Wudaowan N/a 14 Erdaoliang N/a 36 Luoguoliang 83000 58 Wuhanchao N/a 15 Fengsuishan N/a 37 Majiazishan 10000 59 Xiahuofang N/a 16 Fushanxiang N/a 38 Nanshawozi N/a 60 Xiaobeigou Resevior 18000 17 Fuxingdi N/a 39 Nantaizi N/a 61 Xibajianfang N/a 18 Ganniudao 6400 40 Nanwopu N/a 62 Xinglongwa N/a 19 Gejaiying N/a 41 Nasitai N/a 63 Xisuiquan N/a 20 Haijinshan N/a 42 Niuheliang N/a 64 Xituozi 250 21 Hongshanhou N/a 43 Pinganpu N/a 65 Yangchang N/a 22 Houbeiyingzi 45000 44 Qianjinyingzi N/a 66 Zhizhushan N/a Table 5-5. Hongshan Sites with sizes

Figure 5-35 (Top) Distribution of Hongshan sites (Numbers against the ID in Table 5-5) (Bottom) Hongshan sites by sizes

Figure 5-36 Hongshan jade objects (Balinyouqi Museum 1987)

Site Name Burial code Total area (SQM) Jade objects Chengzishan M1 0.87 1 Chengzishan M2 3.68 9 Chengzishan M3 1.01 N Niuheliang II Z2 327.25 N/a Niuheliang II Z1 455 N/a Niuheliang II M4 0.99 3 Niuheliang II M6 0.34 N Niuheliang II M7 0.6 4 Niuheliang II M11 0.33 3 Niuheliang II M14 0.57 3 Niuheliang II M15 0.61 5 Niuheliang II Z3 380 N Niuheliang V Z1M1 11.78 7 Niuheliang II Z1M21 1.01 20 Niuheliang II Z4M5 24 N Niuheliang II Z4M6 25 N Niuheliang II Z4M7 2.06 N Table 5-6 Hongshan burials (N: none, N/a: not accessible) (Liaoning Kaogusuo 1997a, 1997b, 1994; Guo and Zhang 1986)

1000

100

0.1 2 3 4 1 5 7 6 Z1 Z3 Z2 M M M M 1 M M M M14 M11 Z4M6 Z4M5 Z1M1 Z4M7 Z1M21

Figure 5-37Area of burials (square metres) (Vertical scale is logarithmic)

62 Number of Site

Site size (hectare)

Figure 5-38 Classification of sites in Lower Xiajiadian settlement (Shelach 1999)

Figure 5-39 Tool percentages in the Upper Liao River region (%)

Figure 5-40 Tool percentages in the Lower Liao River are (%)

Figure 5-41 Comparison to the models the Yellow River area (Upper Liao River - unbroken line and Lower Liao River - broken line. The small dots indicate the model in Yellow River area, north China)

64 CHAPTER 6. CASE STUDY (2) THE LIAODONG PENINSULA

Marine Channel

Figure 6-1 Geographical location of the Liaodong peninsula

Boha

Huangh

Figure 6-2 Crop discoveries and dates in north and south of Bohai and Huanghai (Big round dots are shell mounds sites)

Figure 6-3 Physical features of the Liaodong peninsula

Figure 6-4 Annual average temperature changes

Figure 6-5 Annual precipitation

68 Grassland Grassland

Grassland

Figure 6-6 Grassland all over Liaodong around 12000BP

Forest Grassland Woodland

Woodland

Figure 6-7 Vegetation in Liaodong during the early Holocene (c.10000BP)

Figure 6-8 Vegetation in Liaodong around 8000BP

Ocean transgression

Figure 6-9 Vegetation and land change around 6000BP

Figure 6-10 Vegetation in Liaodong after c.4000BP

Date. B Traditions Artefacts Climate P Yinjiacun, Cooler, 3500 Shungfan wett g er Dazuizi I a& Cooler, Yujiacun 4500 wett (Yueshi) a b er b Upper Cool, Xiaozhus wet 5000 han Santang II or Warm, Pianpu dry

Santang I a Warmer, and Mid- 5500 wett Xiaozhus a b er han b Warmer, 6000 Houwa II wett er Lower Xiaozhus Warm, 7000 han wet (Houwa I) Figure 6-11 Archaeological chronology of Liaodong (Based on Zhu, Yonggang 1993, 1998; Zhu, Yonggang 1997; Zhao 1995; Xu 1997; Chen & Chen 1992; Chinese Academy 1996b)

Liaodong Peninsula West------East 2000------

Warrior State 3000------Machengzi Yinjiacun, Bronze Sword 4000------(Shuangfang)Dazuizi II –III

Dazuizi I Santang II------Pianpu 5000------or U. Xiaozhushan Santang I 6000------M. Xiaozhushan

Houwa II or L. Machengzi 7000------L. Xiaozhushan------Houwa I 8000------

Table 6-1 Distribution of archaeological cultural traditions

100 100 100 90 90 90 80 80 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 6-12 Tool complexes in Xiaozhushan (Lower –left, Mid-middle, Upper-right)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 6-13 Tool complex of Houwa Phase I

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 6-14 Tool complexes of Houwa II (left) and Machengzi I (right)

80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 6-15 Tool complex in Santang (Average of three layers)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 6-16 Tool complex of Baishicun I

Figure 6-17 Tool complexes of Dazuizi I (left), Dazuizi II (middle) Dazuizi III (right)

100 100 100 90 90 90 80 80 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuting Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuting Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuting

Figure 6-18 Shuangtuozi I (left), Shuangtuozi II (middle), Shuangtuozi III (right)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 6-19 Machengzi (Machengzi II) (Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. 1994)

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 6-20 Tool complexes comparison Houwa I (up-left), Lower Xiaozhushan (up-right) Houwa II (bottom-left) and Machengzi I (bottom-right)

100 100 100 90 90 90 80 80 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 6-21 Tool complexes of Santang (top) and Mid Xiaozhushan (bottom) (Santang: Phase I- left, II – middle, III – right)

76 100 100 100 90 100 100 90 90 100 80 80 90 90 90 80 80 70 70 80 80 70 70 60 60 70 70 60 60 50 50 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 50 40 40 40 30 30 40 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 6-22 The sequence of tool complexes of Liaodong (Left to right: Lower, Mid, Upper Xiaozhushan, Dazuizi I, II, III)

100 Hunting Fishing 90 Gathering Woodcuttin 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 7 6 5 4.5 4 3.5

Figure 6-23 The changes in tool complexes (Vertical number is percentage, horizontal number is years BP x 103 )

Years x 1000

3.5 17.00

3.0 25.00

4.5 37.00

5.0 48.00

6.0 39.00

7.0 54.00

Figure 6-24 Changing tool proportion (Hunting + fishing in the Lower Xiaozhushan cultural system (%))

77 Years x 1000 3.5 41.00 3.0 30.00 4.5 45.00 5.0 37.00

6.0 52.00 7.0 38.00

Figure 6-25 The proportion of gathering tools in the Lower Xiaozhushan cultural system (%)

Years x 1000

3.5 42.00

3.0 45.00

4.5 18.00 5.0 15.00

6.0 10.00

7.0 8.00

Figure 6-26 The proportion of woodcutting tools in the Lower Xiaozhushan cultural system (%)

78 Date BP Possible farming (%) 7000 8 6000 10 5000 15 4500 51 3500 74 3000 83 Table 6-2 Farming economy in the Xiaozhushan-Dazuizi cultural system (Based on tool complex)

Figure 6-27 Transition patterns of Liaodong

79 CHAPTER 7. CASE STUDY (3) THE CENTRAL NORTHEAST CHINA

Figure 7-1 Modern vegetation zone in north and northeast China (Redrawn from Liu 1988)

80 Ji-Chang area

Figure 7-2 Physical features of Song- Nen plains

Figure 7-3 Common millet found in the Baijinbao site (Provided by Gary Crawford)

Figure 7-4 Estimated annual rainfall in the Song-Nen plains in the Holocene

Present temperature

Figure 7-5 Estimated annual average temperatures in the Song-Nen plains

Layer No. Year c. BP Deposit Rainfall (mm) Temperature (Celsius)

1 8000 Soil layer I 400 3 2 6-5000 Sand 450 5 3 4900 Soil layer II 500 2 4 4-3300 Sand 450 4 5 3000 Soil layer III 450 2? 6 2000 Sand 450 ? 7 1300 Soil layer IV ? 4 8 1000 to present Sand 300 4

Table 7-1 Stratigraphic data in Dongwengenshan (Reconstructed from Ye 1991 table 31-1 and added rainfall and temperature data from my research) (Shaded row indicating soil deposit)

Site Date Reference Culture Longitude Latitude Sample Lab code

Daxingtun 11800±150 Yu 2000 Daxingtun 128.850 47.033 n/a n/a

Bashan 4870±80 Jilin Kaogusuo 1988 Bashan 121.800 45.600 Human Zk-1375 bone Bashan 4630±95 Jilin Kaogusuo 1988 Bashan 121.800 45.600 Human ZK-1376 bone Xiaolaha 4000±360 Heilongjiang Xiaolaha I-2 124.460 45.893 Fragment n/a Kaogusuo 1997 of ceram ic Xiaolaha 3830±340 Heilongjiang Xiaolaha 124.460 45.893 Fragment n/a Kaogusuo 1997 of ceram ic Xiaolaha 3688±104 Heilongjiang Xiaolaha I-2 124.460 45.893 Animal n/a Kaogusuo 1997 bone Baijinbao 3260±20 Heilongjiang Baijinbao 124.433 45.529 Charcoals ZK-2160 Kaogusuo 1997 Baijinbao 3110±115 Kaogusuo Lab 1988 Baijinbao 124.433 45.529 Charcoals ZK-2156 Baijinbao 3090±60 Heilongjiang Baijinbao 124.433 45.529 charcoals ZK_2159 Kaogusuo 1997 Baijinbao 3050±200 Heilongjiang Xiaolaha II 124.433 45.529 Charcoals ZK2162 Kaogusuo 1997 Baijinbao 2960±55 Kaogusuo Lab 1988 Baijinbao 124.433 45.529 charcoals ZK-2159 Baijinbao 2930±55 Kaogusuo Lab 1988 Baijinbao 124.433 45.529 charcoals ZK-2157 Baijinbao 2800±55 Kaogusuo Lab 1988 Baijinbao 124.433 45.529 charcoals ZK-2161 Baijinbao 2790±65 Kaogusuo Lab 1983 Baijinbao 124.433 45.529 charcoals ZK-324 n/a: not available Table 7-2 C14 dates in central northeast China (Cal-date in appendix 4, 5)

Date Name Artefacts complex Climate c. BP

2000 Upper Hanshu/ Cool and dry, Xiaolaha similar as III before

3000 Baijinbao Cool and dry, similar vegetation as before

4000 Xiaolaha II Warm dry, grassland, with a few trees, semi- desert, swamp 5500 Angangxi Very warm and dry (Xiaolaha Grassland and phase I-2) desert

6500 Xiaolaha I-1 Warmer dry, with grassland and semi- desert 10000 Daxingtun Cold, dry; with desert and semi-desert

Figure 7-6 Summary of chronology in the Song-Nen plains (Li 1998; Zhu 1998;Jia 1986; Gao 1988; Huang et al 1984; Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et al 1998, 1997a; Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1980; An &Jia 1986; Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 2003)

Central northeast China Ji-Chang region------Song-Nen Plains

2000------Upper Hanshu, Xiaolaha III ------

Xituanshan Baijinbao Erkeqian- 3000------Burial

4000------Upper Yaohongzuizi Xiaolaha II ------

Zuojiashan III Xiaolaha I-2 5000------Xiduanliangsha Angangxi ------n ------

Zuojiashan II 6000------Xiaolaha I-1

7000------Zuojiashan I ------

8000------

Table 7-3 Chronology of central northeast China

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-7 Tool complexes of Zuojiashan I (left) and Xiaolaha phase I-2 (right)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-8 Tool complexes of Xiaolaha phase II

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-9 Tool complexes in Baijinbao

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-10 Tool complex of Xiaolaha III

Figure 7-11 Arrowheads found in Xiaolaha I-2. (Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1998)

Figure 7-12 Fish figurines found in northeast Asia (Left-Up: from Primorye, c.8000BP, Kononenko 2001; Left-bottom: from East Siberia, c.6000BP, Michael 1958; Middle: from Xiaolaha phase II, c. 4000BP, northeast China, Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1998; Right: from modern ethnic group Evenki, north Siberia, Michael 1958 quoted from Levin, M. G. 1936: The Evenki of the northern Pribaikal. Sovestskaya etnografiya, No 2)

Figure 7-13 Shell reaping knife found in Xiaolaha II (Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1998)

Figure 7-14 Shell sickles found in the Baijinbao tradition (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1980)

Figure 7-15 House shape in the tradition of Xiaolaha phase II (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1980)

Figure 7-16 House construction in Baijinbao (Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1980)

Figure 7-17 House construction in the Upper Hanshu (Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et al 1998)

1 2 Figure 7-18 Possible process of Cooking ware change (1. Xiaolaha II and before, 2. Baijinbao, 3. Xiaolaha III)

100 100 Arboreal 90 Arboreal 90 Herb 80 Herb 80 70 Fern 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Early Mid Late Early Holocene Mid Holocene Late Holocene Holocene Holocene Holocene

Figure 7-19 Pollen data in two boreholes (%) (Left – Xiaoquanyan, Right – Guangming, redrawn from Qiu et al 1981; Zhou et al 1984)

Date Name Artefacts complex Climate BP

Cool and wet, grasslan 3000 Xituanshan d less trees

Warm wetter, 5000 Zuojiashan III forest

Very warm and Zuojiashan II wetter 6000 or Grassland and forest Zuojiashan I Warmer not (Yaojingz dry, 7000 i and grasslan Yuanbao d with gou) trees Cold, dry; with 10000 Daxintun grasslan d

Figure 7-20 Archaeological chronology in the Ji-Chang region (Gao 1988; Jilin University 1989; Tong 1987; Zhu 1991; Chen 1993)

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Zuojiashan layer I Yaojingzi

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Yuanbaogou Mean Figure 7-21 Tool complexes in the culture of Zuojiashan layer I

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-22 Tool complexes in Zuojiashan II (left) and Lower Xiduanliangshan (right)

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-23 Tool complexes in Zuojiashan III (left) and Upper Xiduanliangshan (right)

100 Houshishan I 80 Houshishan II 60

0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-24 Tool complexes in the Houshishan site (Mean%)

93 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-25 Tool complexes in the Changsheshan site (%)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 7-26 Tool complexes in the Huangyuquan site

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 7-27 Tool complexes in the Yaohongzuizi site

94 100 90 80 Lower mid 70 60 Upper Total 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Domestic Fish Shellfish other animal animal

Figure 7-28 Zuojiashan animal bones (%) (Based on the number from Chen 1993)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Wild anumal Domestic Fish Shellfish animal

Figure 7-29 Yuanbaogou animal bones (%) (Based on the number from Jilin Kaogusuo et al 1992)

Figure 7-30 Reaping knives (top and bottom) and bronze sickle (middle) in Xituanshan (Liu 1991)

Figure 7-31 Oblique mouth pots (Left: Xinle c.7000BP, Middle: Hongshan c.6000BP, Right: Zuojiashan c.5000BP)

Figure 7-32 Cooking wares in Xituanshan Ding (left) Li (middle) and Zeng (right)

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000BP Availability phase Substitution phase Consolidation phase

100 100 100 100 100 90 90 90 90 90 80 80 80 80 80 70 70 70 70 70 60 60 60 60 60 50 50 50 50 50 40 40 40 40 40 30 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Xiaolaha I-1 Xiaolaha I-2 Xiaolaha II Baijinbao Xiaolaha III (Song-Nen plains)

Availability phase Substitution phase

100 100 100 90 90 90 80 80 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Zuojiashan I (Mean) Zuojiashan II Zuojiashan III Houshishan

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Xiduanliangshan I Xiduanliangshan II Changsheshan

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Huangyuquan

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fish Gathering Woodcuttin Yaohongzuizi 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000BP Figure 7-33 the patterns in tool complexes in central northeast China

Figure 7-34 Changing economy in the Song-Nen plains

Figure 7-35 Changing economy in the Ji-Chang region

Figure 7-36 Transition to farming in the Song-Nen plains

Figure 7-37 Transition to farming in the Ji-Chang region

Figure 7-38 Comparison between central northeast China and the Yellow river area

100 CHAPTER 8. CASE STUDY (4), CHNGBAISHAN MOUNTAINS

Figure 8-1 Location of study area (shaded) in this Chapter

101

Figure 8-2 Water resources of Changbaishan area

102 Vladivostok

Figure 8-3 Major physical features of Changbaishan

Sampling site Sample Year BP Cal. BP Lab. Code Crater 1 Charcoal 4630±60 3430±80 P33C1451 Daganpao V Charcoal 3950±70 2470±120 DG8 Daganpao V Charcoal 3970±70 2470±110 DG8 Hamatang XII Charcoal 4660±80 3490±140 TC31 Table 8-1 C14 dates from Jingbohu volcanoes (Reconstructed from Zhang et al 2000)

103

1 4

2 5

2.5MM

Figure 8-4 Seeds found in the Qiaohexi site

Figure 8-5 Domestic seed discoveries

104

Figure 8-6 Dates of domestic seed discoveries

105

Panicum miliaceum L.

Setaria italica L.

Echinochloa crus-galli (L.)

Wild type millet (unidentifi

Figure 8-7 Plant remains found in the Krounovka 1 site (Vostretsov et al. 2003)

100 Trees 90 Ferns 80 70 Herb 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1312111099876543210

Figure 8-8 Pollen data from Gushantun (Year X 103, %) (Redrawn from Liu 1989)

106 100 Trees 90 Ferns 80 70 Herb 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 543210

Figure 8-9 Pollen data from Hailang (Year X 103, %) (Redrawn from Xiao & Sun 1987)

100 Trees 90 80 Ferns 70 Herb 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 543210

Figure 8-10 Pollen data from Hongqiaowuozi (Year X 103, %) (Redrawn from Xiao & Sun 1987)

6 800

Temperature 700 Present rainfall 4 Present temperature 600 2 500 Precipitation 0 400 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 300 -2 200

-4 100 0 -6 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Figure 8-11 Mean temperatures (left) and annual rainfalls (right) of Changbaishan (Referring to Table 4-3 and Fig 4-19, 4-20, 4-21)

107

Date BP Name of culture Material cultures

1800 Dongxing

Guntuling (A) and

Dongkang

(B) B A 2000

Tuanjie

Qiaonan (A) and

Liutingdong 3000 (B) A B

Shihuichang (A) and 3500 Xingcheng (B) (Upper. Yinggeling) A B

Lower. Yinggeling 4000 or Sopohang

Late Boisman (A) and 5000 Sopohang III (B) A B

Yabuli (A) and 6000 Sopohang II (B) A B Zhenxing I-A (A) and 7000 Sopohang I (B) A B

Figure 8-12 Summary of archaeological chronology in the Changbaishan ranges Tao et al 2003; Song 2002, 1996; Jilin Kaogusuo 1998; Nelson 1993; Jia 1985; Li 1983; Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1981; Heilongjiang Museum 1975)

108

Figure 8-13 Sites location in the north Changbaishan region

Figure 8-14 Site location in the south Changbaishan region

109 100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-15 Tool complexes in Xinxingdong (Left) and Jincheng burials (Right) (Xinxingdong: Jilin Kaogusuo et al 1992b; Jincheng: Liu et al. 1986)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-16 tool complex in the Xinguang site (Jilin W-Y Highway Team 1992)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-17 Tool complex in the Lower Yinggeling (Zaisanovka) culture from the Boisman site (Vostretsov 1998)

110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-18 Tool complex in the Jingu site of the Lower Yinggeling culture (Yanbian Museum 1991)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-19 Tool complex in Zhenxing I-A (Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 2001)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-20 Tool complex of the Zhenxing I-A culture (From the Xinkailiu site: Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979)

111

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-21 Tool complex in the Yabuli site (Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1988)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-22 Tool complex in the late Boisman culture (Vostretsov 1998)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin

Figure 8-23 Tool complex of the Xingcheng site (Jilin Kaogusuo 1998)

112

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-24 Tool complex in the Nanshan site (Jilin Tu-Hun Railway Team 1993)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-25 Liutingdong tool complex (From Xinguang site: Jilin Wang-Yan Highway Team 1992)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-26 Tuanjie tool complex (From the Dachengzi: Heilongjiang Museum 1979 and Xiaga sites: Jilin Yan-Hun Team 2001)

113 100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-27 Dongkang tool complexes (Shihuichang –Left: Mudanjiang Administration 1990, Dongxing –Right: Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1996)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-28 Guntuling tool complex (Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1997)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-29 Qiaonan tool complex (Li et al. 2000)

114 100 100 100 90 90 90 80 80 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-30 Tool complexes in the Dongxing culture (Left: the Zhenxing site: Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 2001; Middle: the Dongxing site: Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1996; Right: the Hekou site: Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 2001)

c.7000BP Xinkailiu …. 6000 Yabuli. ………… 5000 Late Boisman……4000 Lower Yinggeling (The Jingu site)

100 100 100 100 90 90 90 90 80 80 80 80 70 70 70 70 60 60 60 60 50 50 50 50 40 40 40 40 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting The Boisman site 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-31 Comparison of tool complexes between c7000-4000BP

c..3000 BP Upper Yinggeling 2500 Liutingdong 2000 1800 Dongxing (The Xingcheng site) (The Xinguang site) (Hekou site)

100 100 90 90 100 80 80 90 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcuttin Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting The Nanshan site Tuanjie (The Zhenxing site)

100 100 100 90 90 90 80 80 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Dongkang (The Dongxing site)

100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Guntuling

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting Qiaonan

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hunting Fishing Gathering Woodcutting

Figure 8-32 Comparison of tool complexes after 3000BP

115

Period Percentage of Percentage of cultivation in different sites cultivation within the same culture and same (%) period c.7000 BP 0.5 c.6000 BP 0.6 c.5000 BP 0.7 c.4000 BP 5 0.7 in the Boisman site c.3000 BP 15 5 in the Nanshan site c.2000 BP 50 5 in the Qiaonan site c.1800 BP 60 10 in the Zhenxing and Dongxing site Table 8-2 Approximate percentage of cultivation derived from tool complexes

Figure 8-33 Transition to farming in the Changbaishan areas

116

CHAPTER 9. OVERVIEW OF THE TRANSITION TO FARMING IN NORTHEAST CHINA

Figure 9-1The patterns of transition process in northeast China compared with Yellow River

117

Figure 9-2 The patterns of the ideal group

Figure 9-3 The patterns of reverse group

118

Figure 9-4 The pattens of resistance group

Figure 9-5 Transition process around 7000BP

119

Figure 9-6 Transition to farming around 6-5000BP

Figure 9-7 Transition to farming around 4000BP

120

Figure 9-8 Transition to farming around 3000BP

Figure 9-9 Transition to farming around 2000BP

121

Name of the area Period of using Date of Date of Date of farming reaping knife Zeng, Dou economy Li or Yan The Liao River area 5500-2400BP c.4500 c.5000 c. 4500BP The Liaodong peninsula 4900-3000BP c.5000 c.4500 c. 3500BP The Song-Nen plans 3000-2000BP c.3500 c.2500 c. 3000BP The Ji-Chang area 3000-2000BP c.3000 c.3000 c. 3000BP Korea 3000-1800BP c.2500 c.2500 c. 3000BP The Changbaishan areas 2500-2000BP c.2500 c.2500 c. 2500BP Primorye of Russia 2500-2000BP c.2500 c.2500 c. 2500BP Japan 3000-2000 Rare c.3000 c.3000BP

Table 9-1 The dates of reaping knives, tripods and Dou with farming economy

Figure 9-10 Transition patterns with other factors in the southwest area

122 Figure 9-11 Transition patterns with other factors in the central area

Figure 9-12 Transition patterns with other factors in the Changbaishan area

123

Figure 9-13 Transition model and patterns

Combination of hunting/gatherin g, herding and Farming economy Ideal fishing

Combination Return to Hunting/gathering or Reverse change to herding Before transition to farming Hunting/gathering

Resistant

Figure 9-14 Three Trends Model of the transition to farming in northeast China

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131 Heilongjiang Administration et al., 1987. 黑龙江省文物管理委员会、哈尔滨文化局、中国科学院古脊椎动物与古人类研究所东北考察队：《闫家岗－旧石器时代晚期古营地遗址》，文物出版社，1987 年，北京。 Heilongjiang Kaogudui, 1980. 黑龙江文物考古工作队：黑龙江肇源白金宝遗址第一次发掘》，《考古》第四期。The first excavation in the Baijinbao Site, Zhaoyuan, Heilongjiang. Kaogu, 4. Heilongjiang Kaogudui, 1979. 黑龙江省文物考古工作队：《密山县开流遗址》，《考古学报》1979 年 4 期。The Mishanxian Xinkailiu Site. Kaoguxuebao, 4. Heilongjiang Kaogudui, 1981. 黑龙江省文物考古工作队：《黑龙江宁安县莺歌岭遗址》，《考古》1981 年 6 期。The Ningan Yinggeling Site, Heilongjiang. Kaogu,6. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo, 2003a. 黑龙江文物考古研究所：《黑龙江讷河市二克浅青铜时代至早期铁器时代墓葬》，《考古》2003 年 2 期。The burials of Erkeqian Bronze and early Iron Age in Neheshi, Heilongjiang. Kaogu, 2. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo, 2003b. 黑龙江省文物考古研究所：《黑龙江双鸭山市保安村汉魏城址的试掘》，《考古》2003 年 2 期。Test excavcation in Han-Wei fortress of Baoancun, Shuangyashan, Heilongjiang. Kaogu, 2. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo, 1988a. 黑龙江省文物考古研究所：《黑龙江省宾县庆华遗址发掘简报》，《考古》1988 年 7 期。The Binxian Qinghua site. Kaogu, 7. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo, 1988b. 黑龙江省文物考古研究所：《黑龙江尚志县亚布力新石器时代遗址清理简报》，《北方文物》1988 年 1 期。The Shangzhixian Yabuli site, Heilongjiang. Beifangwenwu,1. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo, 1997. 黑龙江省文物考古研究所：《黑龙江省双鸭山市滚兔岭遗址发掘报告》，《北方文物》1997 年 2 期。The excavation report of the Shuangyashan Guntuling site, Heilongjiang. Beifangwenwu, 2. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et al., 2001. 黑龙江省文物考古研究所吉林大学考古系：《河口与振兴-牡丹江莲花水库发掘报告》北京：科学出版社。Hekou and Zhenxing: excavation report of Mudanjiang Lianhua reservoir. Beijing: Science Press. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et al., 1998. 黑龙江省文物考古研究所，吉林大学考古系：《黑龙江肇源小拉哈遗址发掘报告》，《考古学报》1998 年 1 期。The excavation report of Zhaoyuan Xiaolaha, Heilongjiang. Kaoguxuebao,1. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et al., 1997a. 黑龙江省文物考古研究所吉林大学考古系：《黑龙江肇源白金宝遗址 1986 年发掘简报》，《北方文物》1997 年 4 期。The brief report of excavation at Zhaoyuan Baijinbao in 1986, Heilongjiang. Beifangwenwu, 4. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et al., 1997b. 黑龙江文物考古研究所, 吉林大学考古系：《黑龙江海林市渡口遗址》，《考古》1997 年 7 期。The Hailin Dukou site, Heilongjiang. Kaogu, 7. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et al., 1996. 黑龙江省文物考古研究所, 吉林大学考古系：《黑龙江海林市东兴遗址发掘简报》，《考古》1996 年 10 期。The Hailin Dongxing site, Heilongjiang. Kaogu, 10. Heilongjiang Museum , 1979. 黑龙江省博物馆：《黑龙江东宁大城子新石器时代居址》，《考古》1979 年 1 期。The Neolithic site of Dongning Dachengzi, Heilongjiang. Kaogu, 1:

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153

APPENDIX 1. COLLECTION OF TOOL NUMBERS

Site/ Layer Longitude Latitude Date Property Huntin Fishing Wood- Gatheri Total Reference c. BP g cutting ng

Anban total 107°51’1” 34°22’12” 6000 Settlement 55 4 32 44 135 Xibei University 2000 Village Anban I 107°51’1” 34°.22’12” 6000 Settlement 8 1 1 8 18 Xibei University 2000 Village Anban II 107°51’1” 34°22’12” 5500 Settlement 19 2 8 21 50 Xibei University 2000 Village Anban III 107°51’1” 34°22’12” 5000 Settlement 28 1 23 15 67 Xibei University 2000 Village Baijinbao 124°25’1” 45°31’48” 3000 Settlement 10 3 8 44 65 Heilongjiang Kaogudui Village 1980 Baishicun 121°22’33” 37°33’ 7000 Settlement 7 3 6 5 21 Yantai Museum 2000 Village Baishicun 121°22’33” 37°33’ 6000 Settlement 17 6 14 49 86 Yantai Museum 2000 total Village Baishicun I 121°22’33” 37°33’ 7000 Settlement 52 1 8 9 70 Yantai Museum 2000 Village Baishicun II 121°22’33” 37°33’ 6000 Settlement 50 6 42 39 137 Yantai Museum 2000 Village Banpo 109°02’24” 34°15’36” 6000 Settlement 294 350 1432 4271 6347 Chinese Academy et al. Village 1963 Bashan 121°48’ 45°36’ 4870 Burials 232 6 6 1 245 Jilin Kaogusuo 1988b

Beiniantou 117°06’ 40°06’ 6220 Settlement 29 0 8 27 64 Beijing Wenyansuo et Village al.1989a Beishan 129°55’48” 42°59’24” 2500 Settlement 34 0 18 4 56 Jilin THRT 1994 Village Beixin 117°10’12” 35°02’24” 7000 Settlement 156 7 43 34 240 Shandong Kaogusuo 1997 Village Chahai 121°36’ 42°06’36” 7360 Settlement 6 0 16 107 129 Liaoning Kaogusuo 1994a Village Changshesh 126°33’36 43°33’36” 2500 Burials 178 109 83 58 428 Jilin Wenwudui 1980 an Cishan total 114°01’12” 36°36’36” 7500 Settlement 184 109 99 165 557 Handan Administration Village 1977 Cishan I 114°01’12” 36°36’36” 7000 Settlement 85 33 121 39 278 Handan Administration Village 1977 Cishan II 114°01’12” 36°36’36” 7500 Settlement 133 12 368 172 685 Handan Administration Village 1977 Dachengzi 131°04’12” 43°56’24” 2500 Settlement 0 3 2 6 11 Heilongjiang Museum Village 1979 Dadianzi 42°01’48” 120°03’36” 4000 Burials 6 0 41 43 90 Chinese Academy IMT 1996a Danangou 119°00’ 36” 42°31’48” 4135 Burials 85 0 35 13 133 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. 1998 Dawenkou 117°08’24” 36°10’48” 6000 Burials 65 26 91 118 300 Shandong Administration 74 et al. 1974 Dawenkou 117°08’24” 36°10’48” 6000 Burials 126 10 38 16 190 Shandong Kaogusuo 1997 97 Dawenkou 117°08’24” 36°10’48” 6000 Settlement 191 36 129 134 490 total Village Dazuizi total 121°13’12” 39°02’24” Settlement 382 72 258 268 980 Dalian Kaogusuo 2000 Village Dazuizi I 121°13’12” 39°02’24” 4025 Settlement 7 7 7 17 38 Dalian Kaogusuo 2000 Village Dazuizi II 121°13’12” 39°02’24” 3000 Settlement 3 2 9 6 20 Dalian Kaogusuo 2000 Village Dazuizi III 121°13’12” 39°02’24” 2500 Settlement 83 51 339 334 807 Dalian Kaogusuo 2000 Village Dongshanzu 119°28’48” 41°10’48” 4000 Settlement 3 0 7 14 24 Liaoning Museum et al. i Village 1983 Dongxing I 129°41’24” 44°46’12” 2500 Settlement 3 1 1 3 8 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo Village 1996 Dongxing II 129°41’24” 44°46’12” 2000 Settlement 2 20 2 3 27 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 1996

154 Dukou 129°41’24” 44°52’12” 2000 Settlement 1 1 0 1 3 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo Village 1997b Fengxia 120°39’ 41°50’24” 4000 Settlement 38 0 20 103 161 Liaoning Administration Village 1976 Guntuling 131°40’48” 46°45’36” 2140 Settlement 6 0 1 8 15 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo Village 1997 Hekou II 129°40’48” 45°19’48” 2500 Settlement 4 5 4 21 34 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Hekou III 129°40’48” 45°19’48” 2000 Settlement 1 1 0 4 6 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Hekou IV 129°40’48” 45°19’48” 1530 Settlement 7 10 2 13 32 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Hekou V 129°40’48” 45°19’48” 1040 Settlement 9 2 4 10 25 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Hougang I 114°21’36” 36°05’24” 6000 Settlement 8 0 11 15 34 Chinese Academy 1982 Village Hougang II 114°21’36” 36°05’24” 5000 Settlement 4 0 3 10 17 Chinese Academy 1982 Village Houshishan 126°30’ 43°49’48” 2275 Settlement 5 8 39 9 61 Jilin Kaogusuo et al. 1993 Village Houwa I 124°07’12” 39°53’24” 7000 Settlement 189 82 24 246 541 Xu et al. 1989 Village Houwa II 124°07’12” 39°53’24” 5000 Settlement 124 504 82 710 Xu et al. 1989 Village Jiahu 113°31’12” 33°30’36” 8000 Settlement 315 160 115 325 915 Henan Kaogusuo 1999 Village Jiangjialiang 113°48’ 40°21’ 5000 Burials 429 0 0 0 429 Hebei Wenyansuo 2001

Jiangzai 109°13’48” 34°15’ Settlement 1062 754 178 662 2656 Banpo Museum et al. total Village 1988 Jiangzai I 109°13’48” 34°15’ 6000 Settlement 175 24 313 545 1057 Banpo Museum et al. Village 1988 Jiangzai II 109°13’48’ 34°15’ 5500 Burials 42 0 74 32 148 Banpo Museum et al. 1988 Jiangzai III 109°13’48” 34°15’ 5000 Settlement 3 0 3 2 8 Banpo Museum et al. Village 1988 Jiangzai IV 109°13’48” 34°15’ 4000 Settlement 38 0 106 135 279 Banpo Museum et al. Village 1988 Jiangzai V 109°13’48” 34°15’ 3500 Settlement 14 0 50 20 84 Banpo Museum et al. Village 1988 Jincheng 129°36’ 42°40’12” 3270 Burials 298 0 15 34 347 Liu et al. 1986

Jingu 129°25’12” 42°42’36” 4500 Settlement 14 0 15 27 56 Yanbian Museum 1991 Village Liutingdong 129°28’12” 42°50’24” 3160 Settlement 44 0 2 2 48 Yanbian Museum 1983 Village Machengzi 124°08’24” 41°18’ 5000 Cave 3 5 1 7 16 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. AI 1994 Machengzi 124°08’24” 41°18’ 3500 Burials 7 8 80 5 100 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. AII 1994 Machengzi Settlement 79 13 99 41 232 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. total Village 1994 Machengzi 123°53’24” 41°13’48” 5000 Cave 11 12 2 4 29 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. BI 1994 Machengzi 123°53’24” 41°18’ 3500 Burials 1 30 12 1 44 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. BII 1994 Machengzi 124°08’24” 41°18’ 3500 Burials 0 1 29 3 33 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. C 1994 Nanshan 130°03’36” 43° 4000 Settlement 48 0 15 9 72 Jilin THRT 1993 Village Nanshangen 118°45’36” 41°31’12” 4000 Settlement 13 0 0 52 65 Chinese Academy IMT I Village 1975 Nanshangen 118°45’36” 41°31’12” 3000 Settlement 14 0 4 8 26 Chinese Academy IMT II Village 1975 Nasitai 118°49’48” 43°22’12” 6000 Settlement 14 0 0 20 34 Balinyouqi Museum 1987 Village Nazhuangto 115°45’36” 39°13’48” 10000 Open site 5 0 2 8 15 Baoding Administration et u al. 1992 Pingyang 123°25’12” 46°25’48” 2000 Burials 284 1 1 17 303 Yang et al. 1990 Zhuanc hang Qiaonan 129°36’ 46°16’48” 1902 Settlement 20 2 2 3 27 Li et al. 2000 Village

155 Santang I 121°28’48” 39°33’ 5000 Settlement 26 8 3 37 Liaoning Kaogusuo 1992 Village Santang II 121°28’48” 39°33’ 4000 Settlement 44 5 6 11 66 Liaoning Kaogusuo 1992 Village Saodagou 126°28’48” 43°44’24” 3000 Burials 9 0 14 6 29 Duan et al. 1985

Shanchengz 123°53’24” 41°18’ 3500 Cave 1 31 41 4 77 Liaoning Kaogusuo et al. i BC 1994 Shihuichang 129°23’39” 44°16’12” 4000 Settlement 0 0 5 2 7 Mudanjiang Administration I Village 1990 Shihuichang 129°23’39” 44°16’12” 2000 Settlement 2 1 3 3 9 Mudanjiang Administration II Village 1990 Shilashan 125°50’24” 44°06’ 3000 Settlement 1 1 3 2 7 Jilin Kaogusuo 1991b Village Shuangtuozi 121°36’ 38°57’ Burials 3 2 11 7 23 Chinese Academy 1996b total Shuangtuozi 121°36’ 38°57’ 4000 Burials 5 5 21 6 37 Chinese Academy 1996b I Shuangtuozi 121°36’ 38°57’ 3500 Burials 3 15 37 21 76 Chinese Academy 1996b II Shuangtuozi 121°36’ 38°57’ 3000 Burials 17 14 122 1 154 Chinese Academy 1996b III Shuiquan 113°42’ 34°34’48” 7270 Settlement 10 0 64 130 204 Chinese Academy Henan Village Team 1995 Silengshan 119°23’24” 42°16’42” 5000 Settlement 43 0 5 20 68 Liaoning Museum et al. Village 1977 Wujiacun 122°19’48” 39°11’24” 5375 Settlement 69 6 7 10 92 Liaoning Kaogusuo et Village al.1994 Xiaga 129°46’48” 43°00’36” 2000 Settlement 0 1 4 2 7 Jilin Yan-Hun Team 2001 Village Xianrendong 116°53’24” 28°40’12” Cave 69 7 11 12 99 Jiangxi Administration total 1963 Xianrendong 116°53’24” 28°40’12” 10000 Cave 22 6 20 62 110 Jiangxi Administration I 1963 Xianrendong 116°53’24” 28°40’12” 9000 Cave 5 1 1 28 35 Jiangxi Administration II 1963 Xiaolaha I 124°27’36” 45°53’35” 5000 Settlement 20 8 0 0 28 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 1998 Xiaolaha II 124°27’36” 45°53’35” 3830 Settlement 18 6 8 10 42 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 1998 Xiaolaha III 124°27’36” 45°53’35” 2000 Settlement 6 6 7 3 22 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 1998 Xiaoshan 120°40’48” 42°22’48” 7000 Settlement 167 0 13 21 201 Chinese Academy IMT Village 1987 Xiaozhusha 122°19’48” 39°09’36” 7000 Settlement 5 2 1 5 13 Liaoning Museum et al. n I Village 1981 Xiaozhusha 122°19’48” 39°09’36” 5000 Settlement 12 0 3 16 31 Liaoning Museum et al. n II Village 1981 Xiaozhusha 122°19’48” 39°09’36” 4000 Settlement 11 2 4 10 27 Liaoning Museum et al. n III Village 1981 Xiapanwang 114°22’48” 36°21’36” 6000 Settlement 2 0 11 22 35 Hebei Administration 1975 I Village Xiapanwang 114°22’48” 36°21’36” 5000 Settlement 13 0 16 152 181 Hebei Administration 1975 II Village Xiapanwang 114°22’48” 36°21’36” 3000 Settlement 15 0 22 166 203 Hebei Administration 1975 III Village Xiduanliang 125°22’12” 42°31’48” 6000 Settlement 9 0 3 11 23 Jilin Kaogusuo 1991a shan I Village Xiduanliang 125°22’12” 42°31’48” 5500 Settlement 14 2 3 19 38 Jilin Kaogusuo 1992a shan II Village Xingcheng 129°19’48” 42°46’12” 3260 Settlement 40 5 41 21 107 Jilin Kaogusuo et al. 1998 Village Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” 8000 Settlement 18 4 3 32 57 Chinese Academy IMT Village 1997 Xinguang 129°34’12” 43°01’48” 2390 Settlement 14 0 4 15 33 Jilin WYHT 1992 Village Xinkailiu 132°22’48” 45°20’24” Both 32 4 7 47 90 Heilongjiang Kaogudui total 1979 Xinkailiu I 132°22’48” 45°20’24” 7000 Settlement 58 2 5 0 65 Heilongjiang Kaogudui Village 1979 Xinkailiu II 132°22’48” 45°20’24” 6000 Burials 205 16 69 5 295 Heilongjiang Kaogudui 1979 Xinle I 123°25’48” 41°49’12” 6415 Settlement 238 4 14 26 282 Shenyang Administration Village 1978

156 Xinle I-(2) 123°25’48” 42°49’12” 6500 Settlement 65 0 5 13 83 Shenyang Administration Village 1985 Xinle II 123°25’48” 43°49’12” 3000 Settlement 2 0 4 15 21 Shenyang Administration Village 1978 Xinlong 129°40’12” 42°56’24” 3000 Settlement 225 0 24 8 257 Hou 1994 Village Xinxingdong 130°02’24” 43° 3000 Settlement 280 3 4 14 301 Jilin Kaogusuo et al. Village 1992b Xishan 123°16’48” 40°16’12” 4650 Settlement 154 43 14 96 307 Xu et al. 1992 Village Xishuiquan 118°55’12” 42°19’48” 6000 Settlement 22 0 10 31 63 Chinese Academy IMT Village 1982 Xituanshan 126°30’ 43°48’36” 2500 Burials 46 90 14 23 173 Tong 1987

Yabuli 128°31’48” 44°55’12” 5000 Settlement 13 0 4 7 24 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo Village 1988b Yangjiaquan 120°50’24” 37°18’ 4440 Settlement 14 1 7 6 28 Bejing University et al. II Village 2000 Yaojingzi 123°36’ 44°30’36” 7000 Settlement 52 6 7 12 77 Jilin Kaogusuo et al 1992a Village Yinggeling I 128°55’12” 43°46’12” 4000 Settlement 0 2 0 7 9 Heilongjiang Kaogudui Village 1981 Yinggeling II 128°55’12” 43°46’12” 3000 Settlement 17 1 2 6 26 Heilongjiang Kaogudui Village 1981 Yuanbaogou 124°54’ 44°22’12” 6000 Settlement 18 2 2 3 25 Jilin Kaogusuo 1989 Village Zhangjiabao 124°08’24” 41°18’ 3500 Cave 31 0 58 3 92 Liaoning Kaogusuo 1994a A Zhaobaogou 120°02’24” 42°29’24” 7000 Settlement 96 0 52 65 213 Chinese Academy 1997 a Village Zhenxing I 129°45’ 45°16’48” 6000 Settlement 20 0 20 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Zhenxing II 129°45’ 45°16’48” 2500 Settlement 6 12 4 4 26 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Zhenxing III 129°45’ 45°16’48” 1800 Settlement 7 4 3 4 18 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Zhenxing IV 129°45’ 45°16’48” 1200 Settlement 8 6 3 15 32 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Zhenxing V 129°45’ 45°16’48” 900 Settlement 0 12 0 2 14 Heilongjiang Kaogusuo et Village al. 2001 Zhizhushan 118°58’12” 42°15’36” 6000 Settlement 19 0 3 21 43 Chinese Academy IMT I Village 1979 Zhizhushan 118°58’12” 42°15’36” 3965 Settlement 9 0 4 13 Chinese Academy IMT II Village 1979 Zhushan 126°57’ 44°24’36” 2500 Settlement 4 30 12 4 50 Jilin Wenwudui 1985 Village Zuojiashan I 125°01’12” 44°04’12” 6755 Settlement 6 1 1 3 11 Jilin University 1989 Village Zuojiashan 125°01’12” 44°04’12” 5000 Settlement 2 0 2 1 5 Jilin University 1989 II Village Zuojiashan 125°01’12” 44°04’12” 4000 Settlement 13 3 4 8 28 Jilin University 1989 III Village

157

APPENDIX 2. POLLEN DATA SITES QUOTED IN THIS THESIS

ID NAME LONGITUDE LATITUDE REFERENCE 1 291 Nongchang 131°45’04” 46°44’35” Ye et al.1983 2 853 Nongchang 132°46’12” 46°41’24” Ye et al.1983 3 Ajiagouyingzi 117°53’35” 43°05’35” Ren 1999 4 Aobao 107°42’36” 39°28’12” Ren 1999 5 Banpo 108°55’48” 34°18’ Ke & Sun 1990 6 Baoqingshuiku 132°14’06” 46°20’17” Xia 1988 7 Bendebei 132°28’14” 46°38’20” Ye et al.1983 8 Bielahonghe 133°43’37” 47°33’14” Xia 1988 9 Bolikong 119°41’20” 35°38’13” Ren 1999 10 Cangshang 119°54’07” 37°20’56” Li et al. 1995 11 Cangyi-aoli-401 119°35’13” 37°02’09” Li et al. 1995 12 Cangyi-aoli-501 119°31’30” 37°03’32” Li et al. 1995 13 Changchun 125°38’24” 43°44’24” Ren 1998 14 Changxingdao 121°18’43” 39°31’44” Chinese Academy 1977 15 Chaoli 121°01’26” 36°39’47” Ren 1999 16 Chichi 128°03’32” 42°02’24” Xu et al 1994 17 Chuangyie 134°17’46” 48°20’49” Xia 1988 18 Cuiluan 128°48’ 47°42’ Yin 1984 19 Cundong 120°14’31” 37°40’59” Li 1995 20 Dacuanbeigou 127°57’04” 43°32’56” Zhou et al. 1977 21 Dachuanxinangou 127°56’35” 43°32’02” Zhou et al. 1977 22 Dadianzi 126°57’ 42°29’24” Ren 1999 23 Dadianzi 119°39’ 42°40’12” Ren 1999 24 Dagushan 123°41’38” 39°52’55” Chinese Academy 1977 25 Dalianhuapao 121°48’29” 39°03’ Chinese Academy 1977 26 Danandao 123°08’35” 39°41’35” Chinese Academy 1977 27 Danshan 119°58’41” 37°23’49” Li 1995 28 Dawa 122° 41°12’ Liaoning Bureau 1983 29 Daziying 118°59’24” 39°51’14” Li & Liang et al. 1985 30 Diaojiaohaizi 112°34’26” 41°05’42” Yang 1998 31 Dongbeigou 128°00’21” 43°33’32” Zhou et al. 1977 32 Dusituhe 106°06’ 39°39’ Li 1995 33 Fuxi 120°02’31” 37°10’48” Li 1995 34 Genhe 121°27’47” 50°45’29” Na et al. 1997 35 Guangming 126°36’ 44°48’ Qiu et al. 1981 36 Gushantun Gu1 126° 42° Liu 1989 37 Gushantun Gu2 126° 42° Liu 1989 38 Gushantun Gu3 126° 42° Liu 1989 39 Haerba 129°03’ 43°24’ Ren 1999 40 Hailang 129°06’ 44°24’ Ren 1999 41 Hantingyangzi 119°06’25” 37°05’49” Li 1995 42 Haoluku 116°51’ 43°03’ Liu et al. 2000 43 Harbin 127°04’12” 45°27’36” Ren 1999 44 Hongsheng 126°31’48” 45°28’48” Ren 1999 45 Hongxing 129°18’ 48°12’ Zhou et al. 1984 46 Houdeng 119°58’59” 37°23’06” Li 1995 47 Huanghai No10 123° 38°54’ Zhou et al. 1984 48 Huanghai No8 122°36’ 38°30’ Zhou et al. 1984 49 Huangshan 126°30’ 45°48’ Qiu et al. 1981 50 Jiajihe 129°26’24” 47°37’48” Ren 1999 51 Jiangjunpaozi 117°22’48” 42°23’53” Liu et al. 2000

158 52 Jianjihe 128°06’ 48°42’ Yin 1984 53 Jisuitan 116°23’17” 39°54’18” Ren 1999 54 Kouzicun 119°25’19” 35°18’32” Ren 1999 55 Laodaomiao 129°33’ 44°35’24” Ren 1999 56 Laoxiehu 121°23’10” 37°36’36” Li 1995 57 Lexinju 116°23’13” 36°54’22” Ren 1999 58 Liangshuixiang 126°34’48” 43°29’24” Ren 1999 59 Lijiazhuang 120°12’25” 36°19’41” Li et al. 1995 60 Liuzhouwan 116°45’ 42°45’ Liu et al. 2000 61 Lizifang 123°25’01” 39°48’ Chinese Academy 1977 62 Manjiang 127°23’24” 41°51’36” Zhou et al. 1984 63 Manjiangzhenbei 127°30’ 42° Zhou et al. 1984 64 ManjiangzhenbeiB 127°20’24” 41°37’12” Zhou et al. 1984 65 Maohebei 119°10’44” 39°36’22” Li & Liang 1985 66 Maojiazhuang 120°13’05” 36°22’19” Ren 1999 67 Meikuangdongbei 120°21’40” 37°41’46” Ren 1999 68 Nanmaojiazhuang 120°08’53” 36°18’32” Li et al. 1995 69 Panshan 122° 41°12’ Liaoning Bureau of Geology 1983 70 Pulandian 122°04’08” 39°24’07” Chinese Academy 1977 71 Qianjin 128°18’ 48°18’ Yin 1984 72 Qianshangkong 120°01’22” 35°50’53” Li et al. 1995 73 Qianyang 124°09’29” 40°02’20” Chinese Academy 1977 74 Qiaoxitou 120°11’06” 36°20’46” Li et al. 1995 75 Qindeli 133°17’24” 48°04’37” Xia 1988 76 Qinghe 132°42’ 46°37’48” Ren 1999 77 Qingshantou 124°18’ 45°19’48” Li et al. 1984 78 Reshuitang 119°49’41” 42°42’25” Ren 1999 79 Sandaomiao 127°04’48” 42° Ren 1999 80 Shanjiaodi 120°07’16” 36°15’29” Li et al. 1995 81 Sheling 125°30’ 43°42’ Qiu et al. 1981 82 Shenjiadian 130°13’12” 46°04’12” Qiu et al. 1981 83 Shenjiadian 130°35’10” 46°58’30” Xia 1988 84 Shouguangyangkou 2 118°58’41” 37°10’26” Li 1995 85 Shouguanyangkou 1 118°56’28” 37°12’14” Li 1995 86 Tanghongling 128°21’36” 47°43’48” Ren 2009 87 Tanghongling 129°06’ 48°18’ Yin 1984 88 Tongyu 124°28’12” 45°01’12” Ren 2017 89 Wangjiagang 120°10’48” 35°58’26” Li et al. 1995 90 Wanglinzhuang 120°10’08” 36°17’20” Li et al. 1995 91 Wannan 121°55’34” 37°24’18” Ren 1999 92 Wudan 119°49’12” 42°42’ Ren 1999 93 Wulan 119°47’24” 42°46’48” Ren 2022 94 Xiachuan 112° 35°24’ Shi 2000 95 Xiaobaiyinsuhaihu 112°35’42” 41°06’36” Ren 1999

159 96 Xiaojingcun 120°00’47” 35°50’13” Li et al. 1995 97 Xiaoniuchang 116°54’ 42°39’ Liu et al. 2000 98 Xiaoquanyan 124°30’ 43°18’ Zhou et al. 1984 99 Xiaotan1 121°22’05” 36°44’38” Li 1995 100 Xinhebei2 119°36’40” 37°01’12” Li 1995 101 Xinjiadian 130°36’ 46°36’ Zhou et al. 1984 102 Xinkaidao 128°01’41” 43°34’34” Zhou et al. 1977 103 Xinle 128°22’59” 41°48’47” Liu 1988 104 Xinlitun 115°57’ 39°25’12” Zhou et al. 1984 105 Xinqing 129°09’36” 48°13’12” Zhou et al. 1984 106 Xituanshanzi 128°59’17” 43°32’42” Zhou et al. 1977 107 Yangmu 113°50’24” 45°33’ Ren 1999 108 Yangmuxiang 131°53’31” 45°34’48” Xia 1988 109 Yanjia 119°36’18” 37°03’47” Li 1995 110 Yaoxian 108°49’48” 34°55’48” Li et al. 2003 111 Yichun 128°48’ 47°42’ Zhou et al. 1984 112 Yingermen 125°06’ 42°06’ Zhou et al. 1984 113 Yingkou 122° 40°36’ Liaoning Bureau 1983 114 Yingnantou 119°38’24” 35°38’20” Li et al. 1995 115 Yongji 127°10’48” 43°45’36” Ren 1999 116 Zhoujia 126°50’24” 44°39’36” Ren 1999 117 Zhoujia 2 126°50’24” 44°39’36” Ren 1999 118 Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Xia et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2000 119 Zhaobaogou 120°02’38” 42°29’24” Xia et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2001 120 Hongshan 119°37’48” 42°42’36” Xia et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2002 121 Xiaoheyan 119°32’24” 42°22’48” Xia et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2003 122 Shuiquan 119°56’24” 41°37’48” Xia et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2004

160 APPENDIX 3. MAMMOTH DISCOVERIES AND C14 DATES IN NORTHEAST ASIA SITE LATITUDE LOGITUDE DATE BP DATE Cal. BP REFERNCE (68.3%POSSIBILITY) Afontova Gora 2 56°06’ 92°30’ 13930±80 16459-16959 Orlova 2000

Afontova Gora 2 56°06’ 92°30’ 13350±60 15783-16298 Orlova 2000

Aion Island 69°46’48” 168° 14120±170 16620-17235 Orlova 2000

Aion Island 69°46’48” 168° 14000±120 16518-17061 Orlova 2000

Aion Island 69°46’48” 168° 12950±130 14564-14580 Orlova 2000

Amydai 73° 119° 18700±100 21834-22560 Orlova 2000

Atchagyi-Allaikha 69° 147°18’ 12530±60 14292-14844 Orlova 2000

Atchagyi-Allaikha 69° 147°18’ 12570±80 14312-14819 Orlova 2000

Batpak 50°30’ 72°45’ 12570±400 14150-14946 Orlova 2000

Berelekh River 71° 145° 13700±800 15391-17532 Orlova 2000

Berelekh River 70°33’ 149°03’ 12000±130 13801-14305 Orlova 2000

Berelekh River 70°33’ 149°03’ 12240±160 14057-14393 Orlova 2000

Berelekh River 70°33’ 149°03’ 13205±150 15539-16210 Orlova 2000

Berelyokh River 70°33’ 149°03’ 10370±70 12092-12369 Orlova 2000

Berelyokh River 70°33’ 149°03’ 12850±110 15161-15796 Orlova 2000

Beryozovsky 59° 69° 12860±90 15160-15789 Orlova 2000

Bikada River 74°31’48” 106°18’ 12780±80 15158-15681 Orlova 2000

Bolshaya Balachnya 75°18’ 105° 16330±100 19147-19795 Orlova 2000

Bolshaya Balachnya 75°18’ 105° 13340±240 15624-16431 Orlova 2000

Bolshoi Istok 58°03’ 81°03’ 16000±385 18560-19622 Orlova 2000

Bur 71°24’ 119° 18680±120 21803-22547 Orlova 2000

Chikhen Agui 44°46’12” 99°04’12” 27432±872 Out of range Derevianko 2001

Chikhen Agui 44°46’12” 99°04’12” 11160±160 12982-13211 Derevianko 2001

Chukotka Peninsula 66°18’ 177° 14380±70 16970-17483 Orlova 2000

Chulym River 55°03’ 90° 19960±80 23345-23983 Orlova 2000

Danxingtun 46°32’24” 123°43’48” 11800±150 14989-13700 Gao 1988

Dyuktai Cave 59°15’ 132°43’48” 12520±250 16970-17483 Orlova 2000

Engelgardt Lake 75°.10 110°18’ 10100±100 14153-14887 Orlova 2000

Faddeevsky 75°15’36” 144° 18500±120 21601-22335 Orlova 2000

Gasya 48°45’ 135°36’ 12960±120 15173-15972 Derevianko 2001

Gasya I 48°45’ 135°36’ 10875±90 12826-13022 Derevianko 2001

Gocharka 48°19’48” 134°55’12” 10590±60 12718-12846 Derevianko 2001

Isha River 52°00’36” 86°19’12” 17600±500 20271-21593 Orlova 2000

Isha River 52°00’36” 86°19’12” 17220±245 20070-20920 Orlova 2000

Kamchatka River, U 55° 159° 12630±50 14345-14781 Orlova 2000

Khanty-Mansiysk 61° 67°30’36” 18250±1100 21236-22034 Orlova 2000

Khoro 44°09’ 131°46’48” 15300±140 17968-18603 Orlova 2000

161 Khorol 44°09’ 131°46’48” 17400±150 20338-21066 Orlova 2000

Khorol 44°09’ 131°46’48” 13750±780 15477-17546 Orlova 2000

Klummi 50°37’12” 137°00’36” 13260±100 15644-16228 Derevianko 2001

Klummi 50°37’12” 137°00’36” 10345±110 11941-12367 Derevianko 2001

Kolyma River 68°27’ 150° 15200±80 17885-18456 Orlova 2000

Kolyma River 68°27’ 150° 15130±90 17803-18377 Orlova 2000

Kolyma River 68°27’ 150° 15130±50 17816-18364 Orlova 2000

Kotel'nily Island 75° 138° 13700±100 16188-16701 Orlova 2000

Kotelny Island 75°18’ 140° 19990±110 23384-23966 Orlova 2000

Kotelny Island 75°18’ 140° 15420±100 18123-18724 Orlova 2000

Lena River 68° 123° 14340±50 16931-17438 Orlova 2000

Listvenka 55°55’12” 92°19’48” 16300±600 18684-20188 Orlova 2000

Lower Lena River 70° 125° 17780±80 20801-21478 Orlova 2000

Mamont River 75°09’ 96° 11450±250 13152-13581 Orlova 2000

Mayn River 65° 171° 15100±70 17777-18334 Orlova 2000

Middle Yenisey Riv 53°33’ 92° 19500±200 22698-23537 Orlova 2000

Minusa 53°18’ 91°24’ 19700±200 22959-23740 Orlova 2000

Mudanjiang 44°34’48” 129°34’48” 21540±100 Out of range Liu et al. 1984

Mutnaya Seyakha Ri 70°09’ 69° 10305±50 11947-12193 Orlova 2000

Nganasanskaya Rive 71°15’36” 92°43’12” 10680±70 12773-12899 Orlova 2000

Nizhnaya Taimya Ri 75°15’ 99°43’48” 9860±50 11195-11259 Orlova 2000

Nizhnaya Taimya Ri 75°15’ 99°43’48” 10300±100 11913-12346 Orlova 2000

Nizhnaya Taimyra R 75°15’ 99°43’48” 9670±60 11069-11174 Orlova 2000

Parisento River 70°06’36” 75°27’36” 17500±300 20345-21289 Orlova 2000

Qingshantou 45°13’48” 124°15’ 10940±120 12884-13052 Jin et al. 1984

Severnaya River 75°30’ 112° 12260±120 14077-14389 Orlova 2000

Severnaya River 75°30’ 112° 12450±120 14148-14917 Orlova 2000

Severnaya Zemlva I 79°18’ 98° 11500±60 13316-13509 Orlova 2000

Severnaya Zemlya I 79°18’ 98° 19970±110 23355-23951 Orlova 2000

Severnaya Zemlya I 79°18’ 98° 19270±300 22360-23345 Orlova 2000

Shestakovo 55°38’24” 88° 19190±310 22261-23262 Orlova 2000

Shestakovo 55°38’24” 88° 18040±175 21051-21826 Orlova 2000

Shirokostan Penins 72°21’36” 139°43’48” 15000±70 17665-18216 Orlova 2000

Shlenka 53°33’ 92° 18600±2000 20350-23809 Orlova 2000

Shokalskii Island 73° 74°24’ 13650±170 16080-16694 Orlova 2000

Studenoye 50°10’12” 108°13’12” 10450±300 11920-12846 Derevianko 2001

Studenoye 50°10’12” 108°13’12” 10780±150 12774-13007 Derevianko 2001

Taimyr Lake 74°03’ 93°06’ 11140±180 12957-13211 Orlova 2000

Taimyr Lake, Basku 74°01’48” 100° 12100±80 14012-14326 Orlova 2000

Taimyr Peninsula 76° 113° 9780±40 11199-11258 Orlova 2000

162 Tarachikha 55°09’ 91°06’ 18930±320 21953-22972 Orlova 2000

Ulakhan-Yuryakh Ri 72°07’12” 104° 14800±50 17447-17973 Orlova 2000

Ustinnovka-3 44°16’48” 135°18’36” 11965±65 13809-14122 Kononenko 2001

Ustinnovka-5 44°16’48” 135°18’36” 15800±140 18530-19192 Kononenko 2001

Ust-Karenga 54°27’ 116°36’ 11240±180 13113-13421 Derevianko 2001

Ust-Karenga 54°27’ 116°36’ 10760±60 12805-12951 Derevianko 2001

Ust-Kyakhta 50°31’12” 106°13’12” 11505±100 13308-13524 Derevianko 2001

Volchya Griva 54°30’ 80°12’ 14800±150 17401-18020 Orlova 2000

Volchya Griva 54°30’ 82°12’ 14200±150 16725-17314 Orlova 2000

Volchya Griva 54°30’ 80°12’ 13600±230 15965-16694 Orlova 2000

Wangel Island 71° 179° 12980±80 15261-15956 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 15400±100 18101-18700 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 3730±40 3989-4046 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 3920±30 4351-4414 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 4010±50 4418-4525 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 4040±30 4442-4488 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 4370±70 4850-4997 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 4400±40 4872-4982 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 4410±50 4857-5071 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 4740±40 5508-5581 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 4900±40 5598-5653 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 5110±40 5754-5813 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 5200±30 5921-5947 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 5250±40 5931-5998 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 5310±90 5989-6185 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 5480±50 6267-6309 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 6260±50 7158-7251 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 6360±60 7246-7329 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 6610±50 7460-7509 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 6760±50 7580-7622 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 6890±50 7671-7753 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 7040±60 7816-7875 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 7250±60 7998-8058 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 7295±95 8007-8179 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 7360±50 8148-8195 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 7710±40 8420-8480 Orlova 2000

Wrangel Island 71° 179° 12010±110 13809-14302 Orlova 2000

Xiaonanshan 46°46’48” 134°01’48” 12900±410 15077-10637 Orlova 2000

Xuetian 44°45’ 127°35’24” 38800±3500 Out of range Yu 1988

Xuetian 44°45’ 127°35’24” 40200±3500 Out of range Yu 1988

163 Xuetian 44°45’ 127°35’24” 35010±370 Out of range Yu 1988

Xuetian 44°45’ 127°35’24” 37840±420 Out of range Yu 1988

Yuribey River, Gyd 68°55’12” 76° 9600±300 10471-11261 Orlova 2000

Yuribey River, Gyd 68°55’12” 76° 9730±100 11067-11229 Orlova 2000

Yuribey River, Gyd 68°55’12” 76° 10000±70 11258-11444 Orlova 2000

Zelyonaya Seyakha 70°09’ 69° 14400±80 16989-16745 Orlova 2000

164 APPENDIX 4. C14 DATES OF NORTHEAST CHINA

SITE DATE BP* CAL.BC REFERENCE CULTURE LONGITUD LATITUDE SAMPLE LAB CODE (68.3% E possibility) Ang'angxi 11800±150 Huang et al 1984 Angangxi 123 53’24” 47 19’48” Fossils PV-369 11751-11549 ° ° bone Baijinbao 2790±65 1002-893 Kaogusuo 1983 Baijinbao 124°25’48” 45°31’48” Charcoals ZK-324 Baijinbao 2800±55 1006-896 Kaogusuo 1988 Baijinbao 124°25’48” 45°31’48” Charcoals ZK-2161 Baijinbao 2930±55 1134-1042 Kaogusuo 1988 Baijinbao 124°25’48” 45°31’48” Charcoals ZK-2157 Baijinbao 2960±55 1262-1109 Kaogusuo 1988 Baijinbao 124°25’48” 45°31’48” Charcoals ZK-2159 Baijinbao 3050±200 Heilongjiang Xiaolaha 124°25’48” 45°31’48” Charcoals ZK2162 1503-1020 Kaogusuo 1997a Baijinbao 3090±60 Heilongjiang Baijinbao 124°25’48” 45°31’48” Charcoals ZK_2159 1414-1293 Kaogusuo 1997a Baijinbao 3110±115 1517-1257 Kaogusuo 1988 Baijinbao 124°25’48” 45°31’48” Charcoals ZK-2156 Baijinbao 3260±20 Heilongjiang Baijinbao Charcoals ZK-2160 1530-1498 124°25’48” 45°31’48” Kaogusuo

1997a Baiyinchangha 6590±85 Yang 1994 Xinglongwa 117 48’36” 43 25’48” Charcoals n/a 5563-5477 ° ° n Baiyinchangha 7040±100 Inner Mongolia Xinglongwa 117°48’36” 43°25’48” Charcoals n/a n 5995-5836 Kaogusuo 1993 Bashan 4630±95 Jilin Kaogusuo Bashan 121 48’ 45 36’ Human ZK-1376 3525-3331 ° ° 1988 bone Bashan 4870±80 Jilin Kaogusuo Bashan 121 48’ 45 36’ Human Zk-1375 3731-3629 ° ° 1988 bone Beiniantou 6220±110 5304-5038 Yang 1994 Shangzai N/a N/a Charcoals BK84083 Chahai 6925±95 5891-5717 Yang 1994 Xinglongwa 121°36’ 42°06’36” Charcoals ZK-2138 Chahai 7360±150 Liaoning Xinglongwa 121°36’ 42°06’36” Charcoals n/a 6382-6278 Kaogusuo 1994 Changshesha 2340±75 Kaogusuo 1983 Xituanshan 126 33’36” 43 33’36” Charcoals ZK-96 522-355 ° ° n Cunhou 4110±90 Kaogusuo 1983 Shuangtuozi I 121 12’ 38 46’48” Carbonized ZK-415 2709-2573 ° ° seed Dachengzi 2160±90 234-93 Kaogusuo 1983 Tuanjie 131°04’48” 44°03’ Charcoals ZK-215 Dadianzi 3390±90 Kaogusuo 1983 Lower 120 36’ 42 18’ Rotten ZK-402 1771-1599 ° ° Xiajiadian Wood Dadianzi 3420±85 Kaogusuo 1983 Lower 120 36’ 42 18’ Rotten ZK-480 1780-1620 ° ° Xiajiadian Wood Dajing 2720±90 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper 118 16’48” 43 40’12” Charcoals BK77024 942-800 ° ° Xiajiadian Dajing 2780±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper 118 16’48” 43 40’12” Charcoals ZK-412 942-800 ° ° Xiajiadian Dajing 2970±115 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper 118 16’48” 43 40’12” Charcoals Bk77028 1317-1040 ° ° Xiajiadian Daliudaogou 2180±60 259-168 Kaogusuo 1978 Daliudao? 130°24’ 42°54’ Charcoals ZK-283 Daliudaogou 2220±75 331-202 Kaogusuo 1978 Daliudao? 130°24’ 42°54’ Charcoals ZK-282 Daliudaogou 2310±100 518-329 Kaogusuo 1978 Daliudao? 130°24’ 42°54’ Charcoals ZK-281 Danangou 3535±120 Liaoning Xiaoheyan 119°00’36” 42°31’48” Human ZK-542-0 1983-1735 Kaogusuo et bone al 1998 Danangou 3640±120 Liaoning Xiaoheyan 119°00’36” 42°31’48” Human ZK-542-0 2148-1877 Kaogusuo et bone al 1998 Danangou 3675±100 Liaoning Xiaoheyan 119°00’36” 42°31’48” Human ZK-740-0 2153-1918 Kaogusuo et bone al 1998 Danangou 3785±100 Liaoning Xiaoheyan 119°00’36” 42°31’48” Human ZK-740-0 2347-2120 Kaogusuo et bone al 1998 Danxingtun 11800±150 Huang et al 1984 Small stone 123 43’48” 46 31’48” Fossils PV-369 11751-11549 ° ° tools Dashanqian 3403±83 Kaogusuo 1999 Lower 118°36’ 41°54’ Charcoals ZK-2939 1775-1603 Xianjiadia n

165 Dashanqian 3462±79 Kaogusuo 1999 Lower 118°36’ 41°54’ Charcoals ZK-2941 1882-1686 Xianjiadia n Dashanqian 8674±123 7843-7583 Kaogusuo 1999 ? 118°36’ 41°54’ Charcoals ZK-2940 Dazuizi-III 2945±75 Dalian Shuangtuozi-III Carbonized ZK-2257 1261-1039 121°13’12” 39°02’24” Administrati seeds

on 2000 Dazuizi-III 3053±86 Dalian Shuangtuozi-III 121°13’12” 39°02’24” Charcoals n/a 1412-1210 Administrati on 2000 Dazuizi-III 3170±75 Dalian Shuangtuozi-III 121°13’12” 39°02’24” Charcoals ZK-2258 1521-1379 Administrati on 2000 Dazuizi-III 3384±92 Dalian Shuangtuozi-III 121°13’12” 39°02’24” Charcoals n/a 1754-1598 Administrati on 2000 Dongkang 1695±85 Kaogusuo 1983 Dongkang 129 13’48” 44 07’48” Carbonized ZK-85 AD 238-433 ° ° seed Dongshanzui 4895±70 3765-3638 Yang 1994 Hongshan 119°28’12” 41°10’48” Charcoals BK-82 Fengxia 3550±80 Kaogusuo 1983 Lower 120 39’ 41 50’24” Charcoals ZK-153 1977-1855 ° ° Xiajiadian Fuhegoumen 4735±110 3638-3497 Yang 1994 Fuhe 118°34’48” 44°07’12” Birch bark ZK-0188 Gangyaodidia 7540±170 Yu 1992 Gangyaodidian 122 55’48” 47 01’48” Charcoals n/a 6530-6218 ° ° n Gaolichengsha 3120±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Shangmashi III 122 37’48” 39 16’48” Charcoals ZK-732 1509-1287 ° ° n Gaolichengsha 3345±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Shangmashi III 122 37’48” 39 16’48” Charcoals ZK-732 1744-1516 ° ° n Gaolichengsha 3710±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper 122°37’48” 39°16’48” Charcoals BK78065 n 2206-1950 Xiaozhush an Gaolichengsha 3860±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper 122°37’48” 39°16’48” Shell BK78068 n 2465-2199 Xiaozhush an Gaotaishan 3370±90 1743-1525 Kaogusuo 1983 Gaotaishan 122°52’12” 42°03’ Charcoals BK77018 Guntuling 1955±70 Heilongjiang Guntuling 131°07’48” 46°40’12” Charcoals n/a 2-AD127 Kaogusuo 1997 Guntuling 2140±70 Heilongjiang Guntuling 131°07’48” 46°40’12” Charcoals n/a 209-88 Kaogusuo 1997 Guojiacun 4080±70 2697-2559 Kaogusuo 1983 Shuangtuozi I 121°12’ 38°46’48” Charcoals BK78032 Guojiacun 4110±90 Kaogusuo 1983 Shuangtuozi I 121 12’ 38 46’48” Carbonized ZK-415 2709-2573 ° ° seeds Guojiacun 4180±90 2819-2662 Kaogusuo 1983 Shuangtuozi I 121°12’ 38°46’48” Charcoals ZK-413 Guojiacun 4202±90 2819-2663 Kaogusuo 1983 Shuangtuozi I 121°12’ 38°46’48” Charcoals ZK-287 Guojiacun 4230±100 2820-2662 Kaogusuo 1978 Guojiacun II 121°12’ 38°46’48” Charcoals ZK-288 Guojiacun 5015±100 3820-3707 Kaogusuo 1983 Guojiacun I 121°12’ 38°46’48” Charcoals ZK-414 Guoshuchang 2285±70 317-229 Kaogusuo 1981 ? 129°37’12” 42°18’ Charcoals ZK-784 Hedong 2090±80 Kaogusuo 1981 ? 130 19’12” 43 43’48” Skin of the ZK-569 316-229 ° ° crop Houshishan 2275±70 Kaogusuo 1985 Xituanshan 126 30’ 43 49’48” Human ZK-781-0 316-229 ° ° bone Houshishan 2340±90 Kaogusuo 1983 Xituanshan 126 30’ 43 49’48” Human ZK-779-0 524-353 ° ° bone Houshishan 2780±200 Jilin Kaogusuo et Xituanshan 126 30’ 43 49’48” Charcoals BK79060 1263-777 ° ° al. 1993 Houshishan 2990±100 1320-1110 Kaogusuo 1984 Xituanshan 126°30’ 43°49’48” Charcoals ZK-780 Houshishan 3030±120 Jilin Kaogusuo et Xituanshan 126 30’ 43 49’48” Charcoals BK79061 1414-1125 ° ° al. 1993 Houwa 4465±90 3338-3207 Xu et al. 1989 Houwa II 124°07’12” 39°53’24” Charcoals n/a Houwa 5415±150 Xu et al. 1989 Lower 124°07’12” 39°53’24” Charcoals n/a 4361-4043 Xiaozhush an Houwa 5515±90 Xu et al. 1989 Lower Charcoals n/a 4456-4320 124°07’12” 39°53’24” Xiaozhush

an Houwa 5525±100 Xu et al. 1989 Lower 124°07’12” 39°53’24” Charcoals n/a 4461-4317 Xiaozhush an Houwa 5550±80 4461-4331 Xu et al. 1989 Lower 124°07’12” 39°53’24” Charcoals n/a

166 Xiaozhush an Houwa 5600±110 Xu et al. 1989 Lower 124°07’12” 39°53’24” Charcoals n/a 4550-4333 Xiaozhush an Huangjiaweizi 10585±140 10926-10632 Kaogusuo 1987 ? 123°30’ 46°10’12” Shell ZK-2078 Huangyuquan 2815±125 Jilin Wenwudui Xituanshan 126 25’48” 44 31’12” Charcoals n/a 1126-832 ° ° 1985 Jiangjialiang 6850±80 Hebei Yujiagou Human n/a 5798-5662 113°47’24” 40°21’ Wenyansuo bone

2001 Jianzigou 2370±85 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper 117 19’48” 40 55’48” Human ZK-585-0 544-376 ° ° Xiajiadian Bone Jingu 3270±155 Liu 1995 Upper 129 36’ 42 40’12” Rotten ZK-675 1734-1388 ° ° Yinggeling wood Jingu 4465±100 Liu 1996 Lower 129 36’ 42 40’12” Charcoals ZK-785 3340-3206 ° ° Yinggeling Liutingdong 3160±90 Yanbian Museum Liutingdong 129 28’12” 48 50’24” Charcoals ZK-674 1523-1367 ° ° 1983 Longtoushan 1985±100 Yanbian Museum Dongkang 129 30’ 44 42’ Charcoals ZK-767 113-AD129 ° ° 1983 Minzhu 2715±95 944-798 Kaogusuo 1991 Liutingdong 128°06’ 41°24’ Charcoals ZK-2500 Nanshan 2975±75 1312-1110 Kaogusuo 1990 Liutingdong 130° 42°54’ Charcoals ZK-2277 Nanyao 4220±300 Liaoning Upper Charcoals BK78061 3136-2460 122°18’ 39°07’12” Museum et Xiaozhush

al. 1981 an Niuheliang 4605±125 Liaoning Hongshan 119°28’12” 41°19’12” Charcoals Zk-1354 3520-3306 Kaogusuo 1986 Niuheliang 4970±80 Liaoning Hongshan 119°28’12” 41°19’12” Charcoals ZK-1351 3801-3675 Kaogusuo 1986 Niuheliang 4975±85 Liaoning Hongshan 119°28’12” 41°19’12” Charcoals ZK-1352 3520-3306 Kaogusuo 1986 Niuheliang 4995±110 Liaoning Hongshan 119°28’12” 41°19’12” Charcoals ZK-1355 3817-3691 Kaogusuo 1986 Pinganpu 2770±100 Liaoning Gaotaishan Human ZK-2405 1021-813 122°31’48” 42°25’12” Kaogusuo et Bone

al. 1992 Pinganpu 2980±100 Liaoning Gaotaishan 122°31’48” 42°25’12” Human ZK-2406 1317-1107 Kaogusuo et Bone al. 1992 Pinganpu 3435±90 Liaoning Gaotaishan 122°31’48” 42°25’12” Charcoals ZK-2407 1829-1679 Kaogusuo et al. 1992 Pinganpu 5655±85 Liaoning Hongshan 122°31’48” 42°25’12” Charcoals ZK-2408 4552-4432 Kaogusuo et al. 1992 Qiaonan 1879±52 AD76-AD180 Li et al. 2000 Qiaonan 129°30’ 46°18’ Charcoals ZK-3058 Qiaonan 1902±53 AD51-AD135 Li et al. 2000 Qiaonan 129°30’ 46°18’ Charcoals ZK-3057 Qingshantou 9095±115 Jin 1984 ? 124 15’ 45 13’48” Human ZK-1374 8477-8204 ° ° Bone Redianchang 3430±250 Kaogusuo 1988 Lower 120 27’ 42 34’48” Charcoal ZK-2223 2039-1432 ° ° Xiajiadian Redianchang 3535±55 Kaogusuo 1988 Lower 120 27’ 42 34’48” Charcoal ZK-2222 1845-1770 ° ° Xiajiadian Redianchang 3580±75 Kaogusuo 1988 Lower 120 27’ 42 34’48” Charcoal ZK-2224 2031-1875 ° ° Xiajiadian Redianchang 3725±135 Kaogusuo 1988 Lower 120 27’ 42 34’48” Charcoal ZK-2225 2308-1937 ° ° Xiajiadian Shabayingzi 2405±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Warrior State 120 57’ 42 15’ Carbonized ZK-688 556-395 ° ° Seed Shabayingzi 2530±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Warrior State 120 57’ 42 15’ Carbonized BK79001 725-537 ° ° Seed Shanchengzi 3300±80 Liaoning Machengzi Human PV-265 1684-1503 123°53’24” 41°13’48” Cave B Kaogusuo et bone

al. 1994 Shanchengzi 3600±80 Liaoning Machengzi Human PV-266 2040-1877 123°53’24” 41°13’48” Cave B Kaogusuo et bone

al. 1994 Shangmashi 3130±100 1073-830 Kaogusuo 1983 Shangmashi III 122°18’ 39°14’24” Shell ZK-718-I

167 Shangmashi 3170±150 1622-1259 Kaogusuo 1983 Shangmashi III 122°18’ 39°14’24” Shell ZK-720 Shangmashi 4045±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper Shell ZK-719 2701-2462 122°18’ 39°14’24” Xiaozhush

an Shangmashi 4400±110 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper Shell BK78069 3104-2904 122°18’ 39°14’24” Xiaozhush

an Shangzai 6000±105 5001-4774 Yang 1994 Shangzai N/a N/a Charcoals BK85078 Shangzai 6340±200 5491-5053 Yang 1994 Shangzai N/a N/a Charcoals BK84109 Shangzai 6540±100 5561-5465 Yang 1994 Shangzai N/a N/a Charcoals BK85079 Shangzai 6850±120 5840-5632 Yang 1994 Shangzai N/a N/a Charcoals BK85077 Shipengshan 3640±120 Yang 1994 Xiaoheyan 119 32’24” 42 22’48” Carbonized ZK-0542 2148-1877 ° ° bone Shipengshan 3785±100 Yang 1994 Xiaoheyan 119 32’24” 42 22’48” Human ZK-0740 2347-2120 ° ° bone Shipengshan 4345±80 3045-2883 Yang 1994 Xiaoheyan 119°32’24” 42°22’48” Bark WB-82-8 Shuangtuozi 3120±90 1463-1290 Kaogusuo 1983 Dazuizi-III 121°31’48” 38°57’ Charcoal ZK-79 Shuangtuozi 3230±90 Chinese Dazuizi-III 121°31’48” 38°57’ n/a n/a 1605-1412 Academy 1996b Shuangtuozi 4010±95 2640-2401 Kaogusuo 1983 Dazuizi-I 121°31’48” 38°57’ Charcoals ZK-78 Shuiquan 3780±90 Kaogusuo 1981 Lower 119 56’24” 41 37’48” Charcoals ZK-699 2313-2120 ° ° Xiajiadian Shunshantun 2960±90 Kaogusuo 1983 Upper 123 19’48” 42 46’12” Charcoals BK77059 1306-1043 ° ° Xiajiadian Shunshantun 3350±90 1696-1522 Kaogusuo 1983 Gaotaishan 123°19’48” 42°46’12” Charcoals ZK-604 Taipingnangan 5165±85 Kaogusuo 1987 Xiaolaha I-1 123 30’ 46 10’12” Shell ZK-2079 4044-3913 ° ° g Tanghulugou 2475±250 844-352 Kaogusuo 1983 Dongkang 129°30’ 44°10’12” Charcoals ZK-766 Tengjiagangzi 4741±87 Kaogusuo 1997 ? 123 30’ 47 10’12” Human ZK-2884 3637-3501 ° ° bone Tengjiagangzi 6981±69 5914-5783 Kaogusuo 1999 Gangyaodidian 123°30’ 47°10’12” Charcoals ZK-2943 Tengjiagangzi 7570±85 5475-6373 Yu 1992 Gangyaodidian 123°30’ 47°10’12” Bone PV-370 Tuanjie 1925±80 137-0 Kaogusuo 1983 Tuanjie 131°06’36” 43°57’ Charcoals ZK-554 Tuanjie 2085±95 202-AD4 Kaogusuo 1983 Tuanjie 131°06’36” 43°57’ Charcoals ZK-557 Tuanjie 2120±85 209-41 Kaogusuo 1983 Tuanjie 131°06’36” 43°57’ Charcoals ZK-556 Tuanjie 2355±100 544-356 Kaogusuo 1983 Tuanjie 131°06’36” 43°57’ Charcoals ZK-555 Wangtun 2810±85 1505-887 Kaogusuo 1990 Xituanshan 126°24’ 44°06’ Charcoals ZK-2339 Wanliu 3085±75 Liaoning Gaotaishan 123°13’48” 42°21’ Charcoals ZK-2268 1050-887 University et al. 1989 Wanliu 3150±85 Liaoning Gaotaishan 123°13’48” 42°21’ Charcoals ZK-2267 1519-1369 University et al. 1989 Weiyingzi 2725±100 978-801 Kaogusuo 1983 Weiyingzi 120°27’ 41°34’48” Charcoals WK77-10 Wudaowan 4455±85 Yang1994 Hongshan 119 30’ 42 24’ Human ZK-1180 3335-3210 ° ° Bone Wuolong 3030±85 1396-1208 Kaogusuo 1987 Baijinbao 124°07’48” 45°42’ Charcoals ZK-2028 Wutun 4830±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Middle 121° 39° Wood BK78064 3710-3515 Xiaozhush an Xiaolaha 3688±104 Heilongjiang Xiaolaha I-2 124°27’36” 45°53’24” Animal n/a 2203-1919 Kaogusuo bone 1997a Xiaolaha 3830±340 Heilongjiang Xiaolaha 124°27’36” 45°53’24” Fragment Kaogusuo of 2698-1877 1997a ceram ic Xiaolaha 4000±360 Heilongjiang Xiaolaha I-2 124°27’36” 45°53’24” Fragment Kaogusuo of 2925-2008 1997 ceram ic Xiaonanshan 13000±160 Yang 1981 Small stone 134 01’12” 47 04’48” Bone n/a 14098-13260 ° ° tools? Xiaoshan 6060±85 5058-4843 Yang1994 Zhaobaogou 120°40’48” 42°22’48” Charcoals ZK-2062 Xiaoshan 6150±85 5149-4957 Yang1994 Zhaobaogou 120°40’48” 42°22’48” Charcoals ZK-2061 Xiaoshandego 5915±125 Yang1994 Zhaobaogou N/a N/a Charcoals ZK-2269 4863-4668 u Xiaoshandego 6045±90 5051-4833 Yang1994 Zhaobaogou N/a N/a Charcoals ZK-2270

168 u Xiaozhushan 5270±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Middle 122°21’ 39°10’48” Charcoals BK78062 4863-4668 Xiaozhush an Xiaozhushan 5410±300 Kaogusuo 1981 Middle Charcoals ZK-725 122°21’ 39°10’48” Xiaozhush 4551-3939 an Xiaozhushan 5620±110 Kaogusuo 1981 Middle 122°21’ 39°10’48” Charcoals ZK-726 4552-4341 Xiaozhush an Xiaozhushan 5810±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Middle Charcoals BK78062 4739-4544 122°21’ 39°10’48” Xiaozhush

an Xiaozhushan 5890±150 Kaogusuo 1981 Middle Shell ZK-728-I 4859-4577 122°21’ 39°10’48” Xiaozhush

an Xiliang 5435±160 Kaogusuo 1991 Hongshan 120 16’12” 42 16’12” Animal ZK-2303 4370-4217 ° ° Bone Xingcheng 3505±95 Kaogusuo 1989 Upper 129 19’48” 42 46’12” Charcoals ZK-2253 1944-1732 ° ° Yinggeling Xingcheng 3585±95 Liu & Wang 1998 Upper 129 19’48” 42 46’12” Charcoals ZK-2252 2038-1861 ° ° Yinggeling Xingcheng 4170±95 Kaogusuo 1991 Upper 129 19’48” 42 46’12” Charcoals ZK-2352 2822-2660 ° ° Yinggeling Xingcheng 4320±90 Kaogusuo 1990 Upper 129 19’48” 42 46’12” Charcoals ZK2251 3096-2869 ° ° Yinggeling Xinglongwa 3640±85 2066-1892 Kaogusuo 1994 ? 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-2718 Xinglongwa 4110±112 2783-2569 Kaogusuo 1994 ? 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-2719 Xinglongwa 5660±170 'Yang1994 Xinglongwa? 120 43’12” 42 22’12” Animal ZK-1389 4692-4342 ° ° bone Xinglongwa 5735±85 4624-4495 'Yang1994 Hongshan 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-2064 Xinglongwa 5865±90 4807-4603 'Yang1994 Hongshan 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-1394 Xinglongwa 6534±128 5562-5457 Kaogusuo 1994 Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-2715 Xinglongwa 6630±107 5636-5479 Kaogusuo 1994 Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-2714 Xinglongwa 6753±117 5740-5601 Kaogusuo 1994 Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-2716 Xinglongwa 6775±105 5749-5612 Kaogusuo 1994 Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-2711 Xinglongwa 6895±205 5928-5622 'Yang1994 Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-1390 Xinglongwa 6965±95 5895-5736 'Yang1994 Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-1393 Xinglongwa 7240±95 Chinese Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-? 6114-6013 Academy 1997 Xinglongwa 7470±115 6114-6013 Yang1994 Xinglongwa 120°43’12” 42°22’12” Charcoal ZK-1391 Xinguang 2390±80 Jilin Wang-Yan Liutingdong 129°34’12” 43°01’48” Charcoal Zk-2340 543-390 High way Team 1992 Xingxingshao 3055±100 Kaogusuo 1983 Xituanshan 126 03’ 43 39’36” Human Zk-679-0 1427-1209 ° ° bone Xinjingcun 5915±125 4863-4668 Kaogusuo 1990 Zhaobaogou? 118°54’ 42°12’ Charcoal ZK-2269 Xinjingcun 6045±90 5051-4833 Kaogusuo 1990 Zhaobaogou? 118°54’ 42°12’ Charcoal ZK-2270 Xinkailiu 5430±90 Heilongjiang Xinkailiu 132°.38 45°.33 Human ZK-424-0 4357-4220 Kaogudui19 bone 79 Xinle 6145±120 Shenyang Lower Xinle 123°25’48” 41°49’12” Charcoal ZK-0267 5213-4939 administrati on 1978 Xinle 6150±95 5151-4947 Kaogusuo 1991 Xinle 123°25’48” 41°49’12” Charcoal BK-78054 Xinle 6335±95 5385-5229 Kaogusuo 1991 Xinle 123°25’48” 41°49’12” Charcoal WB 79-05 Xinle 6620±150 5666-5468 Kaogusuo 1991 Xinle 123°25’48” 41°49’12” Charcoal ZK-0677 Xinle 6620±150 Shenyang Lower Xinle 123°25’48” 41°49’12” Charcoal ZK-667 5666-5468 administrati on 1978 Xishan 4210±110 2824-2658 Xu et al. 1992 Pianpu 123°16’48” 40°16’12” Charcoal n/a Xishan 4390±150 3135-1885 Xu et al. 1992 Pianpu 123°16’48” 40°16’12” Charcoal n/a Xishan 4650±100 3538-3340 Xu et al. 1992 Pianpu 123°16’48” 40°16’12” Charcoals n/a Yangtun 2440±90 Kaogusuo 1983 Xituanshan 126 27’ 44 06’36” Human ZK-807 553-406 ° ° bone Yimin 4045±140 2763-2457 Kaogusuo 1983 ? 119°46’48” 4837’48” Bone ZK-858-0 Yinggeling 2985±120 Heilongjiang Upper 128 54’36” 43 46’12” Carbonized ZK-88 1320-1084 ° ° Kaogudui Yinggeling bark

169 1981 of birch Yinggeling 3025±90 Heilongjiang Upper 128°54’36” 43°46’12” Charcoal ZK-89 1395-1206 Kaogudui Yinggeling 1981 Yuanbaogou 5490±145 Jilin Kaogusuo Zuojiashan 124 54’ 44 22’12” Animal ZK-? 4462-4220 ° ° 1989 bone Yujiacun 3280±85 1638-1491 Kaogusuo 1983 Dazuizi-I 121°07’12” 38°46’12” Charcoal BK78031 Yujiacun 3630±80 2049-1884 Kaogusuo 1983 Dazuizi-I 121°07’12” 38°46’12” Charcoal BK78033 Yujiacun 3655±80 1638-1491 Kaogusuo 1983 Dazuizi-I 121°07’12” 38°46’12” Charcoal ZK-566 Yujiacun 4085±100 2703-2554 Kaogusuo 1983 Dazuizi-I 121°07’12” 38°46’12” Charcoal ZK-567 Yujiacun 4225±150 2937-2578 Kaogusuo 1983 Dazuizi-I 121°07’12” 38°46’12” Wood ZK-731 Yushushan 5325±135 4255-4037 Kaogusuo 1991 Hongshan 119°40’12” 42°28’12” Charcoal ZK-2301 Yushushan 5925±120 Kaogusuo 1991 Hongshan 119 40’12” 42 28’12” Animal ZK-2302 4255-4037 ° ° Bone Zhalainuoer 6170±200 5316-4901 Kaogusuo 1983 Zhalainuoer 117°34’48” 49°21’ Charcoals ZK-825 Zhangjiapu 3090±55 Liaoning Machengzi 123°53’24” 41°13’48” Charcoals ZK-2165 cave A 1413-1294 Kaogusuo 1994 Zhangjiapu 3115±60 Liaoning Machengzi 123°53’24” 41°13’48” Charcoals ZK-2166 cave A 1444-1305 Kaogusuo 1994 Zhangjiapu 2980±55 Liaoning Machengzi 123°53’24” 41°13’48” Charcoals ZK-2164 cave A 1309-1126 Kaogusuo 1994 Zhangjiapu 3065±60 Liaoning Machengzi 123°53’24” 41°13’48” Charcoals ZK-2163 cave A 1407-1261 Kaogusuo 1994 Zhangjiapu 3585±65 Liaoning Machengzi 123°53’24” 41°13’48” Charcoals ZK-2167 cave A 2030-1877 Kaogusuo 1994 Zhaobaogou 6155±95 5152-4958 Yang 1994 Zhaobaogou 120°02’24” 42°29’24” Charcoals ZK-2137 Zhaobaogou 6210±85 5184-5058 Yang 1994 Zhaobaogou 120°02’24” 42°29’24” Charcoals ZK-2135 Zhaobaogou 6220±85 Chinese Zhaobaogou 120°02’24” 42°29’24” Charcoals ZK-2136 Academy 5182-5063 Inner Mongolian Team 1997 Zhihuchong 3125±80 1461-1295 Kaogusuo 1983 Gaotaishan 123°19’48” 41°40’12” Wood WB79-3 Zhihuchong 3340±85 1692-1521 Kaogusuo 1983 Gaotaishan 123°19’48” 41°40’12” Charcoals ZK-668 Zhizhushan 3965±90 Chinese Lower 118°55’48” 42°16’48” Charcoals ZK-176 Academy Xiajiadian 2579-2331 Inner Mongolian Team 1979 Zhuangke 3035±80 Zhangjiakou Lower 114 55’48” 40 01’48” Human ZK-2012 1398-1210 ° ° Team 1984 Xiajiadian bone Zhuangke 3245±135 Zhangjiakou Lower 114 55’48” 40 01’48” Human ZK-2013 1689-1388 ° ° Team 1984 Xiajiadian bone (n/a - not accessible; ?- not clear)

170 APPENDIX 5. C14 dates of domestic seeds found in northeast Asia

Date BP* Cal. BC Site Cultures Longitude Latitude Crops Reference Shenyang 6620±150 5666-5468 Xinle Xinle 123°25’34” 41°48’ Broomcorn millet Administration et al 1985 Liaoning Museum et 4110±90 2709-2573 Guojiacun Guojiacun II 121°59’24” 38°46’48” Millet al. 1984 4110±90 2709-2573 Cunhou Shuangtuozi II 121°11’56” 38°46’48” Millet An 1988

4000 Zhizhushan Neolithic? 118°55’34” 42°16’34” Millet An 1989 Broomcorn millet, 3500? Hogokdong Hogokdong 129°.285 42°22’05” Kim, W.Y. 1986 sorghum Crawford provided in 3260 Baijinbao Baijinbao 124°25’58” 45°31’41” Broomcorn Millet this thesis Rice, millet, barley, 3210±70 1529-1407 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum 3000? Odong Odong 129°33’ 42°21’36” Soybean Kim, W.Y. 1986

3000? Soktalli ? 125°25’12” 38°35’24” Millet, red bean Kim, W.Y. 1986

3000? Namkyong ? 125°46’01” 39°01’48” Kim, W.Y. 1986 Rice, millet, barley, 2980±70 1316-1344 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’31” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Shuangtuozi Rice, broomcorn Dalian Kaogusuo 2945±75 1261-1039 Dazuizi 121°13’12” 39°01’48” III millet 2000 Rice, millet, barley, 2920±70 1316-966 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Rice, millet, barley, 2696±160 1053-759 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Rice, millet, 2665±60 844-796 Songgungni Chulmun 127°00’28” 36°11’06” Nelson, M. S.1993 soybean Rice, millet, barley, 2660±160 1007-755 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24: 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Rice, millet, barley, 2620±100 902-758 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum 2590±70 830-758 Dahaimeng Xituanshan 126°34’48” 43°32’24” Soybean Liu, et al. 1987 Rice, millet, 2565±90 718-539 Songgungni Chulmun 127°00’28” 36°11’06” Nelson, M. S.1993 soybean Rice, millet, barley, 2540±150 806-500 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Rice, millet, barley, 2520±220 897-389 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Klushanov, A. Y. 2430±50 541-406 Near Vladivostok ? n/a n/a Barley 1993 Rice, millet, barley, 2290±60 403-352 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Millet， broom Klushanov, A. Y. 2260±80 322-203 Borcai Borcai 135°08’20” 48°22’12” millet 1993 Rice, millet, barley, 2145±60 209-91 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Rice, millet, barley, 2110±60 202-44 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum Rice, millet, barley, 2089±60 177-40 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’53” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum 1908±95 BC95-AD130 Xiaobalang ? 130°23’56” 46°05’56” Millet? Kaogusuo 1997 Rice, millet, barley, 1810±190 AD1-AD427 Hunamni Chulmun 127°26’24” 37°26’24” Nelson, M. S.1993 sorghum 1695±85 AD238-AD433? Dongkang Dongkang 129°11’57” 44°15’ Millet Kaogusuo 1974 Millet, Broomcorn Vostretsov, et al 4640±40 3501-3432 Krounovka Zaisanovka? n/a n/a millet 2003

171 APPENDIX 6. Preliminary Report of fieldwork of Northeast China in 2001 Peter Weiming Jia （贾伟明）The University of Sydney) Gang Tao (陶刚) Director of Mudanjiang Relics Administration Zuojun Shen（申佐军）Administrator of Mudanjiang Relics Administration

As the PhD research project required, field observation collaborating with Chinese archaeologists has been conducted in Northern Northeast China. The duration of the fieldwork is during the May and June 2001, which is the spring in China and an appropriate season for field reconnaissance. This fieldwork is sponsored by Carlyle Greenwell Bequest of Faculty of Arts, The University of Sydney, Australia.

The major task for this fieldwork was to examine whether deposits from prehistoric sites in Northern Northeast China (Mudanjiang and Suifenhe areas) consisted of domestic crops and when domestic crops emerged in this region. The fieldwork included two major tasks taking soil samples from the deposit of the sites, and conducting the floating process to find whether the carbonised seeds are contained in the soil samples.

Two counties of the administrative area were involved in this fieldwork and the areas belong to two separate natural drainage systems in a mountainous landscape. The first drainage system is Suifenhe River area, consisting of one county – Dongning. This area is actually one of the conjunction regions between Northeast China and the Primorye Region of Russian Far East. The Suifenhe River is originated from the eastern slope of Changbai Mountain and runs down to the Bay of Peter The Great near the city of Vladivostok by passing the south end of Xingkai plain. The total length of this river is about 300km, which is a considered quite small. The major area of observation was along the upper Suifenhe R. Changbai Mountain around 1000-1500m above sea level, where is covered by secondary forest consisting of broad leaf mixed with some coniferous forest, such as birch, pine, Oak and elm. Wolf, bear and tiger are the major mammals, and fresh water fish and Suifenhe salmon are the dominant aquatic resources. Modern towns and villages are distributed along the valley of the river where is about 200-500m above sea level.

The second area is located at upper Mudanjiang River around the Jingbo Lake belonging to Ningan County. The Jingbo Lake was formed by volcanic eruptions

172 during the Cenozonic era, which blocked part of the Mudanjiang River. C-14 dates revealed that the last volcanic eruption was around 2000 years ago. The Changbai Mountain range in this region is about 500-1000m above sea level – fairly low compared to the Suifenhe area. The botanic and fauna distributions are quite similar to the Suifenhe R. area. Today, Jingbo carp and Xiangshui rice are the popular local products in Northeast China. (Fig.1)

Fig. 1 Fieldwork areas

The methods of reconnaissance in the field are quite conservative working without any updating equipment, such as satellite position system or sediment drilling tools. The site survey was undertaken by walking across the surface in order to assess the area of artefact distribution. The distribution pattern of artefacts is interpreted as delimits the size of the site. However, the surface distribution of the artefacts is not an accurate measure of subsurface distributions. Local informants have told us that in the late 1950s, local farmers were encouraged to plough about 20cm deeper than they usually did during routine farming practices in some crop fields. Apparently this practice increased the chance of moving artefacts to the surface, which would increase the number of artefacts recorded during recent surface surveys. More time was spent investigating cliff or gullies because of the exposed sections and the potential to

173 collect soil samples for flotation. Less time was spent on surface survey due to levels of visibility from vegetation cover. About 3 hours on average were involved in surveying and sample collection at each site.

One site (table 1, No.1) in the Suifenhe River area (Dongning county) and one site (table1 No.2) in the Jingbo lake area were surveyed. Four litres of the soil sample were collected from the two sites, Qiaohexi and Yinggeling. Some crop remains were found in the Qiaohexi samples and none of the crop seed was recovered in the Yinggeling samples.

Number of site Name of Site Area (sqm) Soil sample Charcoal or Date Name of Seed County

1 (QHX) Qiaohexi 42,000 Yes Seed c. 400BC Dongning 2 (YGL) Yinggeling 10,000 Yes Charcoal c. 2000-1000BC Ningan Table 1 Observed sites

The sites revealed sections, formed by either natural erosion or modern human activities that could be sampled. The stratigraphic layers of the sites appeared in the sections of the gullies or ditches, providing the opportunity to collect soil samples and record sequences without archaeological excavation.

Qiaohexi site (QHX)

The Qiaohexi site is located about 50m south of Daohe village, along the left bank of Suifenhe River (Fig. 2). The site is bout 4.2 hectares in size. The modern village has overlapped with the site because the modern houses of the village were built on the top of the northern end of the site, so the full size of the site could not be accurately recorded.

174

Fig. 2. Location of Qiaohexi site

The Qiaohexi site appeared in the archaeological records as early as the 1960s, after the first field observation was conducted by the Heilongjiang Provincial Museum. The description of the site was based on the surface collection, such as handmade ceramic pots and a few polished stone axes. No age was attributed to the site as chronological analysis was impossible without any comparative material, and it was assumed to be a prehistoric settlement.

The new railway construction in Daohe village began in early spring of 2001. The construction was designed to build a bridge across the river to connect the west bank to the east side of the river. The west site is a old single railway line that was built during second world war along the west side of the village and the bridge crossing the river to connect the new railway at the east site of the river. The railway foundations at least need a 20m wide. The foundations have already been excavated to nearly 0.3m across the Qiaohexi site when the observation team arrived. A ditch has also been excavated which is 3m long, 0.5m wide and 0.4m deep.

The 0.4m deep sections contain three horizons. The first horizon has already been removed by the construction workers before they were informed to temporally stop working by the archaeologists. The first horizon (QHX-H1) is estimated to be around 20-30cm thick and consists of black soil that has been ploughed yearly by the farmers.

175 The second horizon (QHX-H2) is light brown in colour with evenly mixed sand and charcoal fragments. The third horizon (QHX-H3) is brown colour but is slightly darker than second layer. Horizon 3 seems to contain less charcoal fragments than horizon 2, as evidenced by the small amount of charcoal observed in the section. Soil samples were obtained from both the second and the third horizons. Deeper horizons were likely to contain more material but were not exposed in this section.

No carbon dating method or other scientific dating methods have been practised previously for the site. The ceramics unearthed from Qiaohexi serve as the only reference for chronological analysis. The similar type of ceramics was discovered from Tuanjie site about 20km away to the east of Qiaohexi which has been excavated and dated during the 1970s (Lin 1985; Jia 1985; Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1979). The Qiaohexi site would be dated to about 300BC when compared to the very similar assemblage discovered at the Tuanjie site, which obtained the several dates from C-14 dating (Table 2).

Code Name Date Longitude Latitude Cal. BP Sample Lab code Reference of unit The Institute of Archaeology of Dachengzi 2160±90 131°04’59” 44°03’ 2150±100 Charcoal F2 ZK-215 CASS 1983. The Institute of Archaeology of Tuanjie 1925±80 131°06’36” 43°57’ 1885±85 Charcoal F1 ZK-554 CASS 1983.

The Institute of Archaeology of Tuanjie 2085±95 131°06’36” 43°57’ 2060±105 Charcoal F9 ZK-557 CASS 1983.

The Institute of Archaeology of Tuanjie 2120±85 131°06’36” 43°57’ 2100±100 Charcoal F6 ZK-556 CASS 1983.

The Institute of Archaeology of Tuanjie 2355±100 131°06’36” 43°57’ 2370±105 Charcoal F5 ZK-555 CASS 1983. Table 2 C14 dates of Tuanjie culture

The assemblage from both sites is characterized by the three major potteries: Jar, steam bowl and the plate with tall holder (Dou). The jar is featured by straight sides surrounding the cylindrical body and small shoulder. Two handles are usually fitted on both sides of the shoulder. There is no decoration on the surface of this pottery except a few black painted designs from the Tuanjie site. The steam bowl termed in Chinese as the “Zeng” is a typical pottery with small holes on the flat bottom for the steaming purpose. Another shape of the pottery is the high held plate, which is a flat plate resting on top of a tall stand called “Dou” in Chinese. Both “Zeng” and “Dou” became the popular pottery during the first millennia BC in a large region of including

176 the Suifenhe R. area, also the east coast of North Korea and the southern end of Primorye Region of Russia Far East. Stone tools in this assemblage including polished stone axes, adzes and long-knives. In particular the long-knives with one or two holes on it are usually seen as the harvesting tools during gathering or farming practice.

Yinggeling site (YGL)

The Yinggeling site is located at the bank of Jingbo Lake and this area belongs to Ningan County. This site was excavated in 1963 during which C14 dating was practised twice. Two levels representing two different assemblages, Upper and Lower Yinggeling have been discovered during the excavation. The Upper Yinggeling is around 1100BC according to the C14 dates. The assemblage of Upper Yinggeling consists of plain surface cylindrical shape of the pottery and animal figurines such as pigs, bears and dogs. Polished stone-tools and some bone tools also unearthed. The Lower Yinggeling deposition contains the layers at the bottom of the sedimentation, which is estimated to be earlier than 2000BC. The ceramics were decorated with scratched lines forming geometric patterns on the cylindrical pots (Heilongjiang Kaogusuo 1981). Some large chipped stones – “plough” also unearthed, which resembles the shapes of similar discoveries in Suifenhe R. area as well as the entire northern Changbai Mountain area.

Yinggeling site is located at the south Bank of Jingbo Lake. Soil erosion formed a 2- 5m high cliff on the north end of the site. The soil of the bank has been eroded by the water of the lake revealing a rather long stratigraphic section on the cliff. The deposit contains three horizons appeared in the section. The first horizon (YGL-H1) is about 30cm deep consisting black humus. Trees and grass are found well growing on top of this layer, as well as ploughed marks left by present farmers. The second horizon (YGL-H2) is dark brown with a depth of approximately 50cm and the third horizon (YGL-H3) is light brown and 30cm deep. The house remains were found under the second horizon, which is a 50cm deep pit dug through the third and the fourth horizons. The sedimentations in the house were found to be brown soil mixed with charcoal fragments and some ashes caused by fire forming different sub-horizons within it. The fourth horizon (YGL-H4) is made of yellow sandy soil which seems a

177 natural deposit. The YGL-H2 belongs to Upper Yinggeling and the YGL-H3 together with the house remains (H1) belong to Lower Yinggeling assemblage according to the ceramics collected from the deposits. Soil samples were taken from the YGL-H2 and YGL-H3, also from the deposits within the H1.

Floating process

The floatation procedure was conducted at the Bohai Station of the Archaeological Institute of Heilongjiang province. A manual-water pump supplied the water from underground water resources. The tools of floatation were simple, only a few basins, sieves and water jars (Fig 3).

Fig 3 Floating tools

Only 5 seeds were found from the soil sample taken from Qiaohexi site which has been examined by Dr. Peter Michael at The school of Agriculture, The University of Sydney (Fig 4). The crop includes two wheat seeds, Triticum (Fig 4 –1, 5), a hemp seed, Cannabis sativa (Fig 4-2) and a broomcorn millet, Panicum miliaceum (Fig 4-3). One (Fig 4-4) remains unknown identification due to the damage of the seed.

178

Fig. 4 Carbonised seeds

The fieldwork has obtained the cereal seeds in Qiaohexi Tuanjie assemblage around 2ka BP. It indicates that the wheat, broomcorn millet and hemp were distributed in Suifenhe region with no late than 2ka BP. However, this date should be ensure if the AMS dating method is available. In Mudanjiang region around 4-3ka BP, there seems no evidence to show the plant cultivation since there is no cereal seed recovered during the process of the floatation. This region, the Upper Mudanjiang River (Heilongjiang province) and the Tumenjiang River area (Jilin province), was occupied by Lower Yinggeling and Upper Yinggeling assemblage (it is also called Xingcheng Culture in some Chinese documents) during 4-3kaBP. Many Chinese archaeologists believe that plant cultivation existed in these assemblages during this period according to the discoveries of the stone “hoe” and grinding stone that are considered as the agricultural functions in the assemblages. However, this fieldwork has led to this speculation become questionable. Stone “hoe” and grinding stone certainly are the major tools in prehistoric agricultural economy, but are the gathering tools in foraging economy as well. The discoveries of these tools do not necessarily indicate the agricultural activities, it may still used for the foraging purposes. The result of none crop seed recovered in the Yinggeling site during the floatation may just reflect the similar situation as the analysis of the above. The Lower and Upper Yinggeling societies were very likely to remain in a hunting-gathering economy but using the stone “hoe” and the grinding stone. 9 August 2001

179 Acknowledgment:

This fieldwork was collaborated with The Relics Administration of Mudanjiang, Ms Yumei Yao (姚玉梅) and Huizhi Xiao(肖惠志) also helped to complete the fieldwork and the floatation procedure.

Reference:

Heilongjiang Kaogusuo1979 黑龙江省博物馆：《黑龙江东宁大城子新石器时代居址》，《考古》1979 年 1 期。The Neolithic Settlement Site of Dongning Dachengzi, Heilongjiang. Kaogu No.1. Heilongjiang Kaogusuo1981 黑龙江省文物考古工作队：《黑龙江宁安县莺歌岭遗址》，《考古》1981 年 6 期。The Ningan Yinggeling Site, Heilongjiang. Kaogu No.1. Jia, Wei Ming 1985 贾伟明：《论团结文化的类型、分期和相关的问题》，《考古与文物》1985 年 1 期。 Chronological and Typological Analysis of Tuanjie Assemblage. Kaogu yu Wenwu No.1. Lin, Yun 1985 林云：《论团结文化》，《北方文物》1985 年创刊号。Analysis of Tuanjie Culture. Northern Cultural Relics No.1. The Institute of Archaeology of CASS 1983: Radiocarbon Dating in Chinese Archaeology. Relics Press, Beijing.

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