1 INTRODUCTION

In December 2004, Environmental Resources Management Limited (“ERM”) in association with ERA-Maptec Ltd was commissioned by North County Council to prepare a Landscape Character Assessment of . The objective of the study was to complete a thorough assessment of the character, value and sensitivity of North Tipperary’s landscape in order to provide the basis for policy formulation and informed decision-making regarding landscape management in the County.

North Tipperary (shown in Figure 1) contains a variety of landscapes. The extensive upland areas of the County rise dramatically above the fertile limestone plains. These upland zones support a variety of habitats and land uses ranging from blanket bog to coniferous forestry. The geological faults around the led to the deposition of metallic deposits that were to be exploited by humans 400 million year later. The low lying pastoral plains provide important communication corridors between the upland zones and the less accessible raised bogs areas in the north and eastern extremities of the county. To the west, and the provide further landscape variety within the County and are important recreational, tourism and ecological resources for North Tipperary.

As a landlocked county, North Tipperary is bounded by a number of counties with landscape features providing many natural boundaries. For example, the River Shannon and Lough Derg, define the boundary between the counties of Clare, Galway and Offaly. Extensive raised bog defines the eastern boundary with Counties Laois and Kilkenny. The valley between the Silvermines and offers a further natural boundary with Counties and . Human interaction with the natural environment has created a wide range of distinctive, predominantly rural landscapes and settlement patterns. The influence of humans on the landscape has had the most profound influence on the contemporary North Tipperary landscape.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE REPORT

In October 2004, North adopted a new County Development Plan. The Plan outlined the intention to prepare a County Landscape Character Assessment to provide guidance on the significant landscape and visual impacts associated with a number of development types. The assessment will facilitate a planning-led and informed approach to development that has the potential to impact on the landscapes of the County.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 1

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 2 Two key tasks are required as part of this assessment and plan process namely:

1. The preparation of an objective and unbiased assessment of the landscape of North Tipperary which enables a thorough understanding of the landscape in respect of its capacity to accommodate a range of development types without causing an unacceptable deterioration in the quality of the receiving landscape – A Baseline Landscape Character Assessment.

2. A study of the key development issues that represent forces for change to the North Tipperary landscape and the development of specific recommendations in relation to each force for change -A Landscape Strategy for North Tipperary

1.2 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

This Draft Final Report presents initial findings on the landscape character, diversity, key characteristics, sensitivity and forces for change. It provides a detailed baseline picture of landscapes in North Tipperary and is an important platform upon which the Landscape Strategy has been developed. This Draft Final Report will subject to public consultation currently planned for Autumn 2005 and the outcomes of that consultation process will most likely result in the revision of the Draft Landscape Character Areas.

Chapter Two: The Evolution of the North Tipperary Landscape. The landscape patterns we see today have evolved gradually over millions of years through both natural and human forces. The Landscape Character Assessment report begins by describing the principal forces that have shaped the North Tipperary landscape. Important and distinctive geological, cultural and habitat features and their distribution are described.

Chapter Three: The Present Day Landscape of North Tipperary. This chapter provides the definition and identification of Landscape Character Types (LCTs) found within the County. A description of each LCT is presented, accompanied by an initial identification of forces for change for each LCT.

Chapter Four: A presentation of each Landscape Character Area (LCAs). These presentations are accompanied by written descriptions on formative influences, elements and features defining each LCA, including human influences, principal forces for change, current condition of the landscape and sensitivity to change. Attention is drawn to those characteristics that are particularly distinctive, rare or vulnerable.

Chapter Five: Forces for Change. This chapter discusses the forces for change operating currently on the landscape and discusses them in terms of landscape implications, policy directions and recommendations for landscape management.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 3 2 THE EVOLUTION OF THE NORTH TIPPERARY LANDSCAPE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In order to understand the landscapes within North Tipperary, it is necessary to outline the physical and historical influences that have created the contemporary landscape.

The interplay between solid geology, glacial processes, soil formation, hydrology and ecology has formed the basic materials upon which human activities have impacted. This is, however, a constant and ongoing interrelationship, with topography, access to water and soil conditions influencing the spatial distribution and types of human activities practiced within the County over the past several millennia.

Although human habitation has been the most recent landscape influence, in many ways it has been the most profound. Patterns of land ownership, settlement development, agricultural and ritual activities have all been modified in response to local variations of biotic and abiotic elements and constraints. A description of the physical landscape of North Tipperary is presented below and is followed by an overview and analysis of human activities within the Tipperary landscape from prehistoric to contemporary times.

2.2 PHYSICAL INFLUENCES

2.2.1 Solid Geology(¹)

The underlying geology of North Tipperary (Figure 2) is formed from two principal rock formations, each rock type generally being associated with particular landscapes.

Much of the County is composed of limestone lowlands from the lower Carboniferous Series (approximately 325 million years ago), and generally covered by glacial deposited sediments. The limestone in this area supports generally good quality pastoral farmland but in areas such as the Shannon Callows, and the eastern boundary with Laois and Kilkenny, the poorly drained geology has led to the creation of raised bog since the end of the last glacial period in Ireland (approximately 10,000 years ago, the Midlandian period). Elsewhere within the County, blocks of harder, less easily eroded limestone create distinct landscape elements within the wider, flatter limestone surround, by forming small hills and stretches of limestone ridges. In themselves, such hills and ridges are not particularly elevated, (commonly around 200m OD); however they create visual interest in an otherwise low

(1) Geology of Tipperary, Geological Survey of Ireland, 1996

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ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 5 lying area. Examples of these limestone ridges can be found south of the Callows and Redwood Bog and in areas such as Black Hill, east of .

The mountains and hills that rise above these lower areas are composed of a variety of older rocks of differing age and composition. Old Red Sandstone is generally found around the perimeter of these uplands, whilst the interiors are formed by far older Lower Palaeozoic rocks, largely composed of greywacke, mudstone, and slate.

Old Red Sandstone is a tough rock, resistant to erosive influences and this characteristic generally creates upland moorland or blanket bog at the summits of these hills. The Devilsbit formation is considered to contain the oldest of the Old Red Sandstone rocks in the South Midlands while the highest peak in North Tipperary (, 695m) is capped by this rock.

Palaeozoic rocks are more susceptible to erosion and the difference in erosion rates can lead to significant height disparities between Red Sandstone and Palaeozoic rocks within mountain ranges. An example of this can be found on the steep slopes on the northern aspect of Keeper Hill. Elsewhere, Palaeozoic rocks can sometimes support upland blanket bog summits, such as Mauherslieve. More commonly, these rocks create a thin soil on rounded hills.

The County also contains two faults caused by the displacement of terrenes (blocks of rocks) by a sideway movement along a northeast-southwest fracture of the earth’s crust. The Navan-Galtee Fault, which is situated below the limestone floored corridor around , and a tributary (splay) known as the Silvermines Fault running in the same orientation around the Silvermines area. These faults acted as conduits for significant metallic deposits and the creation 400 million years later of mineral extraction within the Silvermines and Lisheen areas.

The influence of geology is most apparent in the southern uplands of the County. However, even in the drift covered lowlands, isolated rock outcrops, stone walls and building materials reflect the geological foundation of the landscape.

2.2.2 Effects of Glaciation – Drift Geology and Surface Geology (1)

Glacial deposition rather than erosion has been the major landscape influence within the County. However, there are two areas that clearly display the influence of erosive factors. The uplands were eroded as the Midlandian ice sheets moved in a general southerly direction and created a small number of corries, most notably the northern face of Keeper Hill. Another interesting feature concerns the Killaloe Gorge, where the River Shannon departs from the limestone based lowlands of east Clare and cuts through the Sliabh Bernagh (Co Clare) and Arra Mountains. This is unusual as the Sliabh

(1) Much of this information is derived from Geological Survey of Ireland, Sheet 18.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 6 Bernagh/ Arra ranges are generally composed of the hard rock of Old Red Sandstone and the easier course for the river would have been to remain within the limestone based east Clare lowlands and enter the at Newmarket on Fergus. As of yet, there is no satisfactory explanation for this anomaly but clearly glacial erosion facilitated this routing of the river. In landscape terms, this has created a stunning background to the Lough Derg with uplands framing the sides of Lower Lough Derg.

Elsewhere glacial deposits led to deposits of boulders, pebble, sand and mud and thereafter their smoothing and rounding over by ice. Drumlins are not a common landscape element within the County, although some kames are present.

2.2.3 Topography and Drainage

Upland areas and hills within the County provide interest and contrast with the largely lowland areas. Figure 3 illustrates the topography of the County as evidenced from satellite photography. These uplands are concentrated in the western and southern parts of the County and include the Slivermines, containing the highest peak in the County at Keeper Hill (694m), the Arra Mountains, Slieve Felim, Devilsbit and Knockseefin. The Black Hills, south east of Roscrea, are surrounded by lowland peat, and although not high (228m OD), are a distinctive landscape feature within this part of the County.

Drainage in the northern and western parts of the County is largely defined by the River Shannon, its tributaries and Lough Derg. As the Shannon flows from Lough Allen to Ballina, a distance of over 205km, the elevation declines by only 17m; the river meanders extensively and is subject to frequent seasonal flooding in places, most notably the Shannon Callows in northern Tipperary and . Rivers draining into Lough Derg include the Ballyfinboy, , Newtown Rivers, whilst the Mulkear drains through the Slieve Felim and Silvermines and enters the Shannon, near Annacotty in Limerick.

The other principal river in the County is the Suir, which rises near Benduff, in the Devil’s Bit mountains and runs south through , Thurles and thereafter flows easterly, entering the sea near Dunmore East in Waterford. The rivers Drish, Clodiagh and Cromogue are tributaries of the Suir found within North Tipperary.

With the exception of Lough Derg, lakes are relatively sparse within the County, reflecting the lack of drumlins to capture waterbodies and the predominantly limestone bedrock.

The water table in the low lying areas is generally within 10m of ground surface, with the exception of the harder limestone ridges and hills. The water table in the uplands varies considerably depending on seasonality and may be within a few metres of ground level in winter, dropping to more than 20m below ground in the summer months.

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2.2.4 Soils and Agricultural Capability

In North Tipperary, the various types of soil have developed from a combination of numerous factors, most notably topography, climate and geological parent material. The principal soil types identified within the County are illustrated in Figure 5. Of the nine principal soil types (great soil groups) identified in the National Soil Survey, the most commonly occurring type or group is the grey brown podzol. This type is located to the south and east of Thurles and also occupies large areas of the north western part of the county north of Nenagh. Geologically, this soil is derived from glacial till composed generally of limestone. It has a heavy texture although the structure is sufficiently good to facilitate drainage. The soil type is suited to most agricultural enterprises although the heavier textured types in this category are more poorly drained and therefore primarily suited to pastoral uses. In addition, these soils are likely to be highly productive from a forestry cropping standpoint.

The next most frequently occurring soil type is the gley which is generally found in the southern part of the – Kilcommon area and on low lying ground to the south and east of the Arra mountain range. Glacial till comprising mostly shales is the foundation geology for this soil type. In terms of agricultural uses, this soil type is limited largely due to weak structure and poor drainage characteristics. Pastoral uses can be considered although this activity is restricted by the vulnerability of this soil type to poaching by livestock. The nutrient content of this type is such that forestry could be considered however this would be vulnerable to windthrow due to the poor rooting capacity of this soil.

Peat soil types account for just over 14% of the soil cover in the County. Much of this is associated with the raised bogs on the eastern edge of the County. This soil type is not suited to any enterprise other than amenity and conservation value.

Brown podzolic soils account for over 13% of the County coverage and are generally located in the foothills area to the south and west of Devils Bit Mountain. Glacial till comprised of shale is the geological basis for this soil type. In general, these soils have good drainage characteristics which facilitate a variety of agricultural landuses. The nutrient content is however low and hence such soils are in need of nutrient management as part of agricultural practice. These are ideal forest soils however they are generally unavailable for this use.

The remaining soil groups each occupy a relatively small % area of the County and are identified together with the principal types in Table 2.1.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 9 Table 2.1 Soil Types in Tipperary North

Soil Group (National Soil Survey) % Cover in County Grey Brown Podzolic Soils 35.49 Gley 20.17 Peat 14.19 Brown Podzolic Soils 13.41 Podzols 3.59 Brown Earths 2.83 Rendzina 1.12 Regosol 0.07 Lithosol 0.01 Other 9.12

2.2.5 Ecological Resources

North Tipperary comprises a mosaic of vegetation and habitat types that have evolved in response to the underlying surface geology, topography, soil and human activities. Figure 4 illustrates the principal landcover and Figure 6 the nature (and built heritage) designations found within North Tipperary.

According to the data provided by the most recent Corine analysis of the County, the predominant land cover within the County is grassland utilised for agricultural pasture. The fertile loamy soils of North Tipperary have facilitated a strong tradition in agriculture.

Figure 2.1 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 10 The northern extremity of North Tipperary bordering is an ecologically rich area dominated by raised boglands and the callows of the Shannon and the Little Brosna River. Raised bogs are listed under Annex I of the E.U. Habitats Directive. Redwood Bog located in this area is a Special Area of Conservation (SAC). This bog contains three habitats listed in Annex I of the Directive and is a site of considerable conservation significance as it supports a diversity of raised bog microhabitats. It is also one of the few floodplain raised bogs left in Ireland.

Further examples of good raised bogs in this area of North Tipperary are the Ballyduff and Clonfinane raised bog complex to the southeast of . Clonfinane is a large flat lowland raised bog while Ballyduff is a smaller domed bog, both of which are candidate SACs. Liskeenan Fen, a site selected for Cladium Fen, a habitat listed on Annex I of the E.U. Habitats Directive is located near Aglish. This turlough-like fen is the only fen in the area and the Cladium fen habitat is of special interest in a European context.

The north east shore of Lough Derg is of significant ecological interest with six habitats (four of which are priority habitats) listed on Annex I. Cladium fen occurs along the lake margins and an extensive area of yew woodland is located at Cornalack. Deciduous woodlands are also a notable feature of the site and support a diverse herbaceous layer.

Lough Derg is a nationally important site for wildfowl and there is significant conservation interest for its fish and freshwater invertebrates. Lampreys reside in the lake and a landlocked population of Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) occurring in the Lake is unique to Ireland. In addition to this ,the endangered fish species Pollan (Coregonus autumnalis pollan) is recorded from Lough Derg, one of only three sites in Ireland and Western Europe.

A number of Special Protection Areas are also located in this part of Tipperary. Both the Little Brosna River and the Shannon Callows are Special Protection Areas while Lough Derg in its entirety is also listed as an SPA.

Figure 2.2 Typical Photograph

Extending south from Ballinderry to Nenagh and east to the Offaly border the land cover is dominated by improved pasture and arable land with a noticeable lack of peat bogs. This area is not characterised by the same ecological richness that is evident further north.

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Apart from the outcrops of upland blanket bog along Slieve Arra and the Silvermines Mountains, the southwest corner of North Tipperary is dominated by improved agricultural pasture land. Four cSACs have been assigned to the Silvermines range due to the occurrence of intact upland blanket bog and species rich Nardus grasslands, both priority habitats under the Habitats Directive. The Silvermines is also important for birds with up to 11 pairs of Hen Harriers known to use these uplands as part of a wider range between the Silvermines and Slieve Felim to the south. Peregrine Falcon, a species listed in Annex I of the E.U. Birds Directive, breeds within the Keeper Hill SAC, while the Red Grouse occurs amongst the tall heather east of the summit. Extensive afforestation has occurred on the lower slopes of these uplands reducing the percentage of bog and wet heath land cover. However changes in plantation practice and the protection of these habitats through the Habitats Directive should ensure the future conservation of these sites.

Elsewhere, in the environs of the southwest corner of North Tipperary, interesting sites of ecological diversity and nature conservation occur, such as Clare Glens on the Limerick – Tipperary border in the western foothills of the Slieve Felim Mountains. The woodland of the site is of mixed composition with a predominance of native species such as Oak (Quercus spp.), Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) and Willows (Salix spp.). The site also contains a rich bryophyte flora and is of further importance for the presence of the rare and protected Killarney Fern (Trichomanes speciosum), an Annex II listed species on the E.U. Habitats Directive.

The southern section of the County, to the east of the Silvermines, is again dominated by improved pasture mixed with arable farmland. This area of North Tipperary, often described as an extension of the Goldenvale is intensively farmed. However towards the southeastern part of the County, a peaty substrate dominates the land cover forming an extensive tract of raised bogland that stretches along the North Tipperary and Kilkenny/Laois borders from Littleton to Roscrea. Much of this bogland has been heavily modified due to industrial harvesting of the peat by Bord na Mona and is of less ecological importance.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 14 Figure 2.3 Typical Photograph

In the northeast of the County the only site of recognised ecological merit is located at the Kilduff and Devilsbit Mountains. This area is a cSAC and contains a range of habitats including upland grasslands, heath and woodland. The Peregrine Falcon breeds within the site while populations of the rare Small-white Orchid (Pseudorchis albida) occur in the unimproved grass lands.

In general the eastern section of the County has undergone more anthropogenic change than elsewhere and as a consequence of this the natural habitats of the region have been depleted with fewer sites of ecological interest.

2.3 HUMAN INFLUENCES

2.3.1 Overview

Since the Neolithic period each successive generation has left an imprint on the landscape whether it be in the form of settlements, enclosures, farms, fortifications, ritual sites or communication routes. However, some events and settlers left a stronger, more durable imprint than others. For example, Neolithic settlers, who farmed the pastures and cleared forests have left no evidence of their dwellings but their ritual activities have left an enduring landscape feature through the presence of a number of wedgetombs in the western part of the County.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 15 The influence of current land-use is considered elsewhere in this report (Chapters Four and Five). In this section, an overview is provided of past human activity in North Tipperary, the influence of past practices on the landscape and the extent to which archaeological and historic elements survive in, or influence, the modern landscape.

2.3.2 Prehistoric Tipperary

With the improvements in climatic conditions around 8,500 BC, glacial sheets retreated, and early vegetation began to pioneer across the glaciated landscape. Pine forests grew upon the higher ground and elm and hazel developed in the lowlands. The first evidence of human settlement in North Tipperary comes from the court tombs at Shanballydesmond, close to and Kilcommon, and suggest human settlement in this area about 4,000BC. These Neolithic farmers cleared forests with polished stone axeheads, which have been found scattered throughout the County. Excavations at Shanballydesmond, suggest the farming economy of these Neolithic people was also supplemented by hunting. Excavations, at Ashleypark near , have revealed extensive cattle bones and provides further evidence of a pastoral farming tradition by the Neolithic people.

The early Bronze Age was characterised by a considerable expansion of settlement in the County. The people of this era preferred well drained lightly forested upland pastures. These lightly forested slopes were easier to clear with the available technology and the cleared soil was worked until depleted. Thereafter, the community moved to new ground. The Rearcross-Kilcommon complex contains 12 wedge tombs and are scattered from 700 to 1,100 feet. Pasture and cattle raising was the key to the Bronze Age economy in the County, while sheep and pigs were also kept.

Single burials were also a feature in the Bronze Age, however these are more closely associated with the eastern part of the County. Generally, these people preferred sand and gravel land and practiced tillage.

The improved technology associated with the Bronze Age also assisted the farmers in improving control over their environment, by more extensive farming practices and forestry clearances. The pollen analysis carried out at Littleton bog suggests limited forestry clearance in the Neolithic but more extensive clearance in the Bronze Age.

The late Bronze Age is characterised by increased deposition of hoards and this may represent a general response to climatic deterioration in the latter half of the second millennium. During this period, climate change and the impacts of farming are believed to have been partially responsible for the development and spread of blanket bog; tree regeneration was hampered by farming practices and soils became wetter, less well drained and more conducive to peat creation.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 16 Iron Age activity in the County is largely derived from habitation sites, burials and artifacts. The spread of ringforts which are numerous in Tipperary are indicative of the ongoing spread of settlement, particularly in the more agriculturally favourable parts of the County. Other examples include hillforts, which can be found near , Knigh and Ballincurra hill. Burial mounds were also identified within the ringforts at Knigh and Ballincurra hill. This feature is reflected in approximately one third of the hillforts in the whole of . Raleigh (1985) suggests the sitting of hillforts on older sites may signify attributed ritual significance to the location due to the presence of earlier burial mounds. Alternatively this feature could suggest a continuity of population settlement from Neolithic to Iron Age. If the objective of some of these ringforts was defensive, then obviously their location in elevated sites would confer a visual advantage to the inhabitants.

A marked decline in agricultural activity (again evidenced by pollen analysis at Littleton Bog) suggests a contraction in settlement during the Iron Age. Evidence of the Iron Age in North Tipperary is limited, concentrated around the northern part of the County, with the hillforts already discussed and a bridle bit from .

2.3.3 Early Historic (c. 500–1170s)

The introduction of Christianity by St. Patrick in the fifth century brought significant change and one of the major developments was the introduction of the written word. The earliest writing in Ireland probably began around 300 AD with the Ogham alphabet, after Ogmios the Celtic god of writing. Of the three hundred Ogham stones in Ireland, there is little evidence of any such structures in North Tipperary.

The introduction of Christianity also facilitated closer contacts with the Roman world, easing the transfer and spread of technologies such a new ploughs and the horizontal mill. These technologies improved agricultural productivity and encouraged population increases. Population expansion led to the on-going construction of ringforts and raths. These may be identified as banks marking the perimeter of enclosed single farmsteads involved in a principally pastoral economy. They are typically sited on sloping sites within lowland areas where there was access to better drained soils and views over the surrounding landscape. Crannogs were broadly contemporary with ringforts and raths, occupying semi-artificial islands of timber, sods and stones. To date, few crannogs have been identified within North Tipperary, possible due to the lack of surface water features (excepting Lough Derg) within the County. Crannogs are known from Ashleypark and Rathurles but they were sometimes inhabited for centuries and their provenance is unknown.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 17 A number of small religious enclosures of earth or stone were established throughout the fifth and sixth centuries. A proportion of these developed into full scale monasteries, or as the foci of social organisation, and became the sites of later towns and villages. Others however, remained as isolated church and graveyard sites or burial grounds (Allen, 1997).

A number of ecclesiastical enclosures and early Christian establishments are known in North Tipperary, commonly sited in low lying areas, with access to strategic rivers or water bodies. For example, St Ruan established monastic settlements at and Nenagh. The site at may have been founded by St Colum, and is mentioned in many manuscripts including the Annals of the Four Masters, and the Book of which is thought to have been partly written at Terryglass. Iniscealtra, on Lough Derg, founded by St Caimin, in the sixth century, remains a key landscape element in the expanse of Lough Derg. Other principal monasteries were located at Killaloe and Derrynaflan. Elsewhere, illuminated manuscripts were created in Lorrhaa, Birr (Co Offaly) and Roscrea.

2.3.4 Medieval North Tipperary (c. 1200–1540)

The twelfth century saw the introduction of monastic orders from continental Europe. These orders were to have a significant impact on the organisation and management of the landscape within the County. The Cistercians were the first to arrive in Ireland and had established thirty-three monasteries by 1230. Cistercians played a significant role in agricultural development and divided monastic lands into farms or granges. They also modified the landscape considerably, clearing woodlands and reclaiming wetlands. Their preference for richer, freely draining soils better suited for cultivation remained throughout the Norman period (1). Examples of early Cistercian houses can be found at Holy Cross, whilst older monastic communicates such as those at Roscrea, Lorrha and Monaincha adopted Augustinian rule (Empey, 1985).

The medieval county of Tipperary represented the eastern half of the former kingdom of Limerick (ibid). By 1254 there are indications that the County was under its own Sherriff administration. Between 1185-1206, the Gaelic order in the County was disrupted and, in the south especially, replaced by the feudal Norman regimes. Norman occupation was carried out according to the customs of feudalism, the colony being divided on the basis of Knight’s fees and further sub-divided as lands that were distributed to sub-tenants. ‘It is clear from the location of manors on the best agricultural land that the Normans laid at least as much emphasis on agriculture as they did on lordship” (Empey, 1985,80). In 1328, Tipperary became a liberty, under the direct control of the Earl of Ormond (James Butler and his heirs), although the church lands laid outside this control.

(1) Aalen, Whelan and Stout, 1997.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 18 The colonial settlement became thinner the further north in the County, with the O’Kennedys, O’Carrolls and O’Briens continuing to play an important role in land holdings and management. Throughout the fourteenth century in particular, when the Black Death (1348) had decimated the heavily populated parts of the County, and infighting amongst the Butlers was endemic, the O’Carrolls recovered most of Elyocarroll, the O’Kennedys much of the of Ormond (although Nenagh remained under Butler control), whilst the Mac Ui Brian, a late arrival, established themselves in . Meanwhile the O’Kennedys, in a similar method to the O’Briens in Clare, remained within the sphere of the chief landlords, the Butlers and worked this to their advantage for a number of centuries.

Figure 2.4 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 19 The northern part of the County was more subject to war and incursions by the remaining Gaelic families. , is the only motte castle in the County, asides from Thurles, but may well be representative of the northern baronies in that there was no borough attached to the fief and few tenants of colonial origin. Such regions were likely to be less popular with Norman settlers, in addition to being closer to the more marginal boggy and upland areas.

Remnants from the medieval period in North Tipperary are amongst the most impressive features of the landscape and many of the larger urban centres evident today have their origins in the Norman period. Thurles is one of the finest examples, largely developed by Theobald Walter in conjunction with the construction of his defensive castle. The central location of Thurles was significant, taking advantage of the good lands for diverse agricultural production and location on a principal river.

2.3.5 Post-Medieval period (1540-1700)

The Civil Survey of 1654, recognises that County Tipperary had been well settled, and by the mid seventeenth century comprised at least 1,200 defined settlement communities (all of County Tipperary). Each parochial unit was described and the delineation of boundaries reflects this settlement tradition with a diverse range of landscape elements identified including:

‘highways, lanes, butts, marks, bushes, crops, firm banks, dry or wet ditches, quickset hedges’ (Smyth, 1985, 119). Figure X shows the baronies of County Tipperary.

The survey also reveals the extent of habitation within the various baronies. The hill country of Owney and Arra , the boggy areas of Lower Ormond and the extensive raised bogs in the north and east were lightly populated. This contrasts with higher populations in Upper Ormond around Nenagh, and the drumlin area in northern Lough Derg. Central , namely around Thurles was also heavily settled.

Grazing lands dominated in Owney and Arra, whilst Lower Ormond supported more arable production. The production of corn on these arable lands is further supported by the high number of working mills along the Nenagh River. The areas around Roscrea, Borrisoleigh, Thurles and reflected a commercialised mixed farming economy where corn mills, bawns (associated with strongly pastoral zones) and tucking mills overlap.

Essentially, long established patterns of intensive agricultural activity, particularly tillage was associated with heavier settlement patterns, urban centres and on more favourable land, whilst the pastoral regimes in the remoter upland and wetland areas supported a lower population density. These settlement patterns have continued to be reinforced down through the centuries.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 20 2.3.6 Cromwellian Plantations

Following the Battle of Kinsale in 1601, the Gaelic families were defeated. In recognition of their assistance in the Cromwellian wars, the baronies of Lower Ormond, Upper Ormond, Kilnamangh were reserved for Cromwellian soldiers, whilst the remaining baronies (Eliogarty, Owney and Arra, and ) were reserved for adventurers. These settlers were eager for agricultural improvement and landlord demesnes. As the seventeenth century progressed, the estate system spread throughout most of the populated, good to moderate lands of the County. A feature of this period is how much of the earlier settlement evidence is now supplanted by landlord demesnes, in particular around Lower Ormond. The clearance of medieval settlements was replaced ‘by the new geometric landscapes of the late seventeenth and particularly eighteenth centuries’ (Smyth, 1985, 120).

The plantation marked a new era of landscape change centred on the demesne and influenced by prevalent concepts concerning agricultural improvement operating within a reformed and rationalised field system. The settlers embraced new crops, planting of deciduous trees, improved cattle and sheep breeds and agricultural techniques including liming, drainage and enclosure. In particular, agricultural improvements and demesne creation was facilitated by a rent paying tenantry.

Industrial interests also gave settlers the confidence and resources to establish estates and large unfortified residences. The defensive bawns were replaced by walled gardens. Accompanying this was an enthusiasm for lavish houses, with ornate gardens. Once the natural landscape design associated with Capability Brown became dominant, there was a shift in the location of houses in more scenic locations such as the belt of villas along Lough Derg’s shores and the embellishment of the landscape and vistas such as the turret placed on Knockshegown Hill in the nineteenth century. The greatest period of demesne creation was between 1780 and 1840.

Nonetheless, it is important to note that whilst such landscape modification and change was occurring through North Tipperary, as largely settled by more modest settlers, was subject to an accompanying lower level of demesne creation, compared to activities such as the creation of the Swiss Cottage at in South Tipperary. However, examples exist of significant landscape change, such as the modification of tributaries of the Nenagh river, to create water features for a number of estates within this area around Nenagh, such as at Donnybrook, Mount Pleasant and Rathurles.

Further landscape additions in this period, include the glebe house, Protestant churches and police barracks.

The term ‘Big House’ is somewhat ambiguous, however in this report, the term Big House generally belongs to the classic house of middle size, often a three story Georgian block (Nolan, 1985, 302).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 21 Figure 2.5 Typical Photograph

Within this period, in other parts of Ireland, estate towns and planned towns were developed. However, North Tipperary does not support any examples of this with the exception of Littleton, created by planters anxious to distance themselves from the ascending Catholic power base in Thurles. The lack of planned villages may relate to the fact that the County already contained a number of established and strong, urban and administrative centres.

2.3.7 Pre-famine North Tipperary, 1837

Lewis’s Topographical Dictionary (1) gives a snap shot of the landscape of the County pre famine in 1837. The fertile plain of the Ormonds is identified as being of similar character to the golden Vale, ‘like it highly cultivated, and adorned with many rich demesnes’.

The pattern of pastural based economies in the uplands remains whilst potatoes, wheat and oats were produced on the lowlands of Ormond. The most common form of enclosure of fields at this time, were earthbanks, commonly topped with white thorn (hawthorn) or furze. The presence of stone walls is also noted by Lewis. Mining activity noted by Lewis includes the Killaloe Slate quarries, copper and lead mining around Silvermines and the old copper mine at Lackamore.

In 1828, the Angelsey roads were constructed, making the former inaccessible uplands more accessible. These linked Newport to Thurles, and Nenagh to Tipperary. The principal aim of their construction was to open a

(1) Reproduced in 'The Two Tipperarys'. Donal A Murphy, Relay Press, Nenagh, 1994.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 22 communications route into the mountains and allow agricultural improvement via liming into the uplands zones.

Figure 2.6 Typical Photograph

2.3.8 Famine, Agricultural Reform

Population expansion combined with the success of the potato up to 1815, was followed by a relatively abrupt depression, resulting from a variety of factors including the decline of agricultural prices. This resulted in an explosion of shanty cabins on edges of towns and people trying to eke out a living as they were increasingly pushed onto marginal land. All of these factors led to an over reliance on the lumper potato, combined with no contingency resources either socially or economically to address the series of wet summers and subsequent infection by blight and failure of the potato harvests. Between 1821 and 1841, County Tipperary’s population increased by 26% (Duffy, 1997). Whilst extensive tracts of land were under tillage and pasture, the poorer elements in society were increasingly pushed onto marginal and wetter lands.

Even before the onset of the famine, settlements in marginal areas were disintegrating, and improving landlords such as Bloomfield at Newport, were ruthlessly expanding their demesnes and woodland (Nolan, 1985). ‘Today, isolated lone trees, wild garlic and nettle clumps, long defunct wells and blink cul-de- sacs are the only lonely remnants of a remarkable era of settlement expansion.” (ibid,

The policy approach to the famine was informed by an initial desire to rid the Irish agricultural system of its perceived backwardness and obstacles to agricultural modernisation. Hence, in particular, small farmers were targeted and through the ratings clauses, massive numbers of smallholders were evicted. This massive clearing of the land, combined with the introduction of

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 23 ladder fields as a means to rationalise land ownership, removed many of the earlier field systems within the County. Accompanying developments that had a great landscape impact were the overwhelming increase in pasture at the expense of tillage and the consolidation of large scale farmers who tended to rent the limestone rich pastures, whilst the remaining farmers most frequently had to contend with producing on marginal land.

Eight of the twelve baronies within the whole of the County Tipperary lost more then half of their dispersed rural population between 1841 and 1871, one of the highest losses recorded in Ireland at that time. By far the most numerous dwellinghouses in Tipperary in 1850, were houses valued at less than £1, and these formed the principal dwelling of the rural poor. Spatially, these people were concentrated within the wetland, boggy and upland areas. In the tillage areas, dwellings sprung up along the new roads inhabited by landless labourers. The Angelsey roads especially, saw an increase in these low value dwellinghouses (Jones Hughes, 1985). In tandem with rural poverty and decline, urban centres in North Tipperary fared as poorly.

Figure 2.7 Typical Photograph

The thousands of famine victims were buried in the small famine graveyards that were established throughout the County and remain in the landscape as a poignant reminder of the suffering endured.

Post famine

Post famine, Tipperary formed part of the extensive north Munster region which experienced massive and rapid population decline. Between 1851-1911 emigration rates from County Tipperary were over 14% (Duffy, 1997).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 24 In the aftermath of the famine, strong farmers and landlords increased their holdings at the expense of weaker neighbours, and the pastoral sector increased, helped by the development of the railways and expanding English markets.

The Congested Districts Board (CDB) was established, in 1890, to relieve congestion and ameliorate poverty in the west of Ireland. However, despite the above history Tipperary was never identified as a congested district.

A combination of declining numbers of landlords, in large part due to the increasing assertion of agrarian rights and a less sympathetic governmental regime, resulted in many landlords transferring their land to former tenants with a consequent decline in the extent of many estate holdings. The War of Independence, and the Civil War that followed it, also led to many perceived symbols of the landlords’ reign being burned down, such as Castle Otway, and Kilboy in Upper Ormond. In addition, a number of buildings associated with British rule, such as Royal Irish Constabulary barracks, were destroyed during this period.

2.3.9 Twentieth Century Post Independence

Following independence, land reform is thought to have contributed to an increase in the division of land as former tenants sought to define the boundaries of their newly acquired freeholds. Economic stagnation ensured that emigration continued apace, with the County recording a population decrease in population of between 11-20% between 1926 -61 (Duffy, 1997)

The introduction of rural electrification and group water schemes had both social and landscape impacts in North Tipperary, with significant improvements on the quality of life for rural householders, as well as the introduction into the landscape of water treatment facilities, reservoirs and electricity poles and pylons.

The economic emergence of Ireland over the last forty years, particularly following the opening up of Ireland to multi national companies in 1958 and the state’s entry into the EEC in 1973, has had a profound influence upon the social, economic and physical development of the County.

Today, agriculture remains the predominant land use in North Tipperary, with 149,411 ha under agricultural production. Dairying and cattle rearing remain the key agricultural activity. There are currently 2,200 full time farmers in North Tipperary(1). This figure is much higher than the average for other western counties in Ireland. Associated with the changes in the agricultural sector within the County, is an increase in part time farmers and the accompanying decline in farm employment. This loss of labour is often particularly acute with regard to the traditional maintenance and management of key agricultural landscape features such as hedgerows and

(1) David Collins, Teagasc, pers. comm.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 25 ditches. However, recent programmes such as the Rural Environment Protection Scheme and the recent CAP reforms are again stressing the links between agricultural activity and landscape maintenance.

Whilst the County retains a rural landscape, the pace of change over the past thirty years, in landscape and social terms, has been considerable. Although parts of the County are under development pressure in the form of housing requirements, other parts are suffering continuous population decline and associated loss of rural services. Human activities will continue to play the most influential role in landscape retention and change, whether through the continuation of agricultural decline, or the exploitation of natural resources such as slate quarrying or large infrastructure projects.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 26

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 27 3 LANDSCAPE TYPES (PHYSICAL UNITS)

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the Landscape Character Types (LCTs), which were outlined in Chapter One, are discussed in more detail.

In this report, the team has used the term Landscape Character Types: this term is increasingly being accepted internationally as standard nomenclature and corresponds to what the national draft guidelines refer to as Physical Units.

Landscape Character Types are distinct types of landscape that are relatively homogenous in character. They are generic in nature in that they may occur in different localities throughout any defined area. Nonetheless, where they do occur, they commonly share similar combinations of geology, topography, land cover and historical landuse. For example, blanket bog uplands are distinct landscape character types and are recognisable as such whether they occur in North Tipperary or other counties.

3.2 IDENTIFYING LANDSCAPE CHARACTER TYPES

The team took as its starting point LCT boundaries that were identified through GIS analysis. The team was of the opinion that identifying drivers for each LCT would assist GIS analysis and contribute to LCT identification at national level. Drivers are considered to be the principal physical influences that have led to the creation of different LCTs. For example, in some LCTs such as raised bog, hydrology and geology tend to be the principal physical influences whereas LCTs such as those comprising drumlins are likely to have been largely influenced by the glacial processes that occurred within the area.

Despite specific drivers being identifiable for particular LCTs, many common drivers can be identified that apply to all LCTs. Thus, universal landscape drivers have been identified, comprising topography, geology and landcover. This reflects current guidance at national and European level recommending the identification of LCTs principally in terms of landcover and landform (1).

Figure 7 illustrates the Landscape Character Types identified in North Tipperary.

(1) Landscape and Landscape Character Assessment, Consultation Draft of Guidelines for Planning Authorities, 2000. DoEHLG. Making Sense of Place, Landscape Character Assessment Guidance,2002. Countryside Agency.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 28 3.3 PRESENTATION OF LANDSCAPE CHARACTER TYPES

These are presented in tabular format in the following pages. Each LCT is described briefly, accompanied by drivers and forces for change for each unit.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 29

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 30 3.3.1 Table 3.1 Landscape Character Types

Landscape Character Types Key Drivers Description Forces for Change 1. Flood Meadows • Topography comprises low This landscape type has a topography which ranges from flat to gently • Commercial coniferous forestry lying flat riverside terrain rolling and is largely given over to pastoral use. River edges feature particularly in areas which are subject to flooding. marginal growth of reeds and further inland a combined woodland with considered to be of marginal quality for • Geology is Carboniferous scrub understorey in a linear belt of vegetation follows the line of the agricultural purposes. Limestone. (Lower limestone river. The dominant species are birch and gorse and this wooded edge • Possible pressures arising from tourism shales overlain with acts as a visual screen, generally permitting only short-range views of the associated with the Shannon navigation. Walsortian limestone and Calp river. • Changing patterns of agriculture limestone) • Landcover at shoreline Localised wet marshy areas are found in this character type and small comprises marginal reeds and areas of commercial coniferous forestry are dispersed throughout. birch woodland with scrub understorey. Further inland, landuse is given over to pasture.

2. Raised Bogland • Topography is strikingly flat. This landscape type could be more accurately described as a specific • Commercial coniferous forestry and • Elevation is generally 110m habitat rather than a landscape type per se. The undisturbed raised bog is associated clear felling especially in the over peat based and supports a dense growth of birch scrub with gorse and Roscrea environs. • Geology is generally heather as an understorey. Manual turf cutting can have taken place in • Turf cutting on either a manual or Carboniferous Limestone (type some areas and will have left a somewhat untidy exposed peat surface, mechanised scale varies according to specific with scarce vegetation. Commercially harvested peatland areas are • Expansion of built development in location) completely devoid of vegetation and present as an evenly exposed particular that associated with Roscrea. • Landcover is raised bog. surface of peat. Such a man made landscape has a sterile and indeed industrial character. Large tracts of this acid soil type are given over to use for commercial coniferous forestry. The scale of the planting is significant in the raised bog areas south of Roscrea. 3. Urban Fringe • Elevation ranges from 60m to The majority of the centres of population are located in a landscape • Expansion of development into the 100m context that is low lying and within character types 3, 8, 9 and 10. countryside. • Geology is generally In terms of urban fringe, the defining characteristics include the radiating Carboniferous Limestone (type road routes on which development has taken place in a ‘ribbon’-type varies according to specific physical form. Individual house developments are often somewhat location) suburban in landscaping design terms and their more formal and sculptured character does not always sit sympathetically in the overall landscape context.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 31 Landscape Character Types Key Drivers Description Forces for Change 4. Upland Bogland with • Topography is steep sided at The steep sided summits of these mountain areas are topped with blanket • Changing patterns of agriculture and Afforestation the highest elevations bog whilst on the lower slopes, are found the largest tracts of commercial demographic structure. • Elevation ranges from 200m to coniferous afforestation found in the County. Field systems and the • Decrease in use of agricultural holdings 450m enclosures associated with them (hedgerows etc) are generally absent in and settlements evidenced by their • Geology generally comprises this landscape. Dwellings are very few and some comprise smaller, dereliction in these areas. Silurian Greywackes and slates marginal farmsteads which are now lying derelict. • Inappropriately designed and with some Devonian old red landscaped housing. sandstone at lower elevations. • Commercial coniferous forestry. • Landcover is largely blanket • Opportunities for windfarm bog and commercial development and Government afforestation. Renewable Energy policy. 5. Upland Fringe • Topography is irregular or This landscape is located typically downhill from the summit landscape • Changing patterns of agriculture and sharply undulating. associated with character type 4. It is irregular and sharply undulating. In demographic structure. • Elevation ranges from 110 to terms of landcover, this landscape comprises largely gorse and bracken • Decline of dwellings and settlements 150m with isolated pockets of coarse grazing. The gorse/bracken vegetative through dereliction and abandonment. • Geology comprises Silurian cover dominates. Occasionally smaller derelict farms are found which can • Opportunities for windfarm greywackes and slates with present a haphazard and poorly maintained field pattern, with weak development and Government some old red sandstone at enclosures defined by hedgerows in poor overall condition, with Renewable Energy policy. lower elevations. interruptions and gaps. • Landcover is dominated by scrub and some rough pasture 6. Farmed Foothills • Topography comprises regular An incised landscape comprising rolling prominent hills with localised • Commercial coniferous forestry and prominent hills. valleys between. Tracts of commercial forestry are a frequent feature in • Potential for development of windfarms • Elevation ranges from 100 to this hilly terrain, the larger plantations generally being located on and Government Renewable Energy 300m hilltops. In general, the dominant landuse on the hills is pasture. The policy. • Geology comprises Silurian pastoral landscape is in good condition comprising fields at a medium to • Development of visibly obtrusive single greywackes and slates with old large scale bounded by deciduous hedgerows containing some mature dwellings in the countryside. red sandstone at lower trees. Rivers and watercourses are a feature of this landscape albeit not elevations. usually visually prominent. These are typically fringed by deciduous • Landcover and use is vegetation. Pockets of woodland with scrub understorey can be found. dominated by pasture. These are generally at lower elevations and associated with the Rivers Bilboa and Owenboy. Dwellings are relatively sparse and comprise a mixture of traditional farmhouses and more modern dwelling houses.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 32 Landscape Character Types Key Drivers Description Forces for Change 7. Moorland Hills • Topography comprises an This is a relatively open landscape featuring rolling moorland at the • Changing patterns of agriculture and open rolling upland plateau. higher elevations. The dominant landcover is blanket bog. Localised wet demographic structure. • Elevation ranges from 270 to depressions are found between gentle hills and these tend to feature • Commercial coniferous forestry 330m. marshy scrub. The Rivers Clare and Mulkear are located at lower • Abandonment and dereliction of • Geology comprises Silurian elevations and are largely screened from view by the topography. Views dwellings greywackes and slates. can be gained of Mother mountain from many locations in this character • Landcover is predominantly type. In general, settlement is sparse and comprises single traditional blanket bog with some marshy dwellings, some accompanied by older rounded top barns (as part of that areas and rough pasture farmstead). Some of these individual settlements lie derelict. Plantations of coniferous commercial forestry are also a feature of this landscape. 8. Mixed Arable and Pasture • Topography is generally flat This is generally a flat open landscape comprising both pastoral and • Decline in agricultural activity. Lowlands albeit with some undulating tillage uses. Long range views can be gained towards the Arra • Commercial coniferous forestry areas. mountains. Within the flat agricultural landscape, there are isolated plantations. • Elevation is at approximately pockets of marshy poorly drained areas and occasional small lakes are • Inappropriately designed and 60m dispersed throughout. The Rivers Nenagh and Ballyfinboy are located landscaped housing. • Geology is generally within this character type but are not visually conspicuous except at short • Commercial coniferous forestry Carboniferous Limestone (type range. varies according to specific Field patterns tend to be of a large scale and are generally bounded by location). deciduous hedgerows containing mature trees. Road routes tend to be • Landcover comprises pastoral lined with earthen banks and cross roads tend to be defined by small and arable farmland with settlements. Farm buildings are visible throughout the landscape and pockets of deciduous tend to be of variable age. The older style cottages tend to be of stone woodland. construction with boundary treatment comprising dry stone walling. Occasional ecclesiastical ruins are found in this character type. 9. Wetland Farmlands • Topography This comprises a flat open low lying pastoral landscape with relatively • Changing patterns of agriculture and • Elevation is approximately long ranging views towards the farmed ridgelines described in character demographic structure. 60m type 13. The pastoral landscape is characterised by fields of a larger scale • Commercial coniferous forestry • Geology is generally bounded by cut managed hedgerows. Evidence of hedgerow removal is plantations. Carboniferous Limestone (type frequently apparent and the typical replacement boundary comprises a • Loss of hedgerows through farm varies according to specific stock proof fence. Small clumps of deciduous woodland are scattered intensification. location). throughout and the species composition generally includes oak and • Inappropriately designed and beech. Small parcels of coniferous forestry are located in this character landscaped housing. type. • Commercial coniferous forestry

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 33 Landscape Character Types Key Drivers Description Forces for Change 10. Lowland Pasture • Topography A flat open pastoral landscape comprising larger scale fields bounded by • Commercial Coniferous forestry • Elevation is approximately hedgerows. This is a relatively sparsely populated area in terms of plantations. 100m evidence of settlements (dwellings) on the ground. Farm sizes are likely • Inappropriately designed and • Geology is generally to be larger than average. landscaped housing. Carboniferous Limestone (type Field boundaries comprise managed hedgerows featuring hawthorn and varies according to specific ash as principal species. location). Dwellings are of the older more traditional style and occasional castle ruins are located in this landscape. Parts of this landscape type offer distant views to the Devils Bit Mountain. 11. Glacial Valley • Topography is very smooth. This Glacial valley is located in between the Silvermine and Arra • Single or one off housing in remote • Elevation varies from 60 to Mountains. This valley is overall a large scale glacial feature in the locations. 90m context of the entire County and is visually dramatic, emphasised by the • Commercial coniferous forestry • Geology comprises Devonian context of the mountain ranges by which it is framed. It is smooth sided old red sandstone with and has a broad valley floor. The river Kilmastulla follows a course carboniferous lower limestone through the valley floor but is visually scarcely perceptible. Minor roads shales. and a railway line criss cross this valley, which in general is farmed with • Landcover is largely given well defined field systems featuring hedgerows with mature trees. over to pastoral farming. 12. Lough Fringe Farmland • Topography is almost flat Flat relatively open landscape with views out towards Lough Derg. • Pressure of tourism related to the scenic • Elevation ranges from 60 to Principal landuse is given over to pastoral farmland which is in good Lough Derg environs could threaten or 80m. condition and features smaller field sizes arranged in geometric pattern. damage this landscape character type. • Geology comprises Silurian • Inappropriately designed and greywackes and slates north of landscaped housing. Killaloe and carboniferous limestone south of Killaloe. • Landcover comprises pasture with deciduous hedgerows.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 34 Landscape Character Types Key Drivers Description Forces for Change 13. Farmed Ridges • Steep sided prominent low These ridgelines usually comprise a linear sequence or chain of hills • Changing patterns of agriculture and hills. following a glacial direction across the landscape. These hills tend to be demographic structure. • Elevation ranges from 100 to visually prominent as they typically stand in the context of a surrounding • Agricultural uses are a feature here 200m. lowland Character type, usually types 8, 9 and 10. The dominant which could pose a threat in terms of • Geology comprises landcover is good quality pasture with some smaller plantations of hedgerow removal to accommodate carboniferous limestone commercial forestry. Enclosure is defined by deciduous hedgerows. larger field sizes. generally with some examples • Commercial coniferous forestry is comprised of old red evident in large parcels which sandstone (south of Roscrea undermines the scenic quality of this and east of ). area. • Landcover is given over largely to pastoral farming. 14. Drumlin Farmland with • Topography comprises This landscape comprises a series of prominent drumlin hills on which • Commercial coniferous forestry is Loughs. irregularly shaped drumlins arable and pastoral farming is the principal landuse. Small parcels of visually out of place in this landscape. with low lying areas between. coniferous forestry are located on the drained drumlin slopes. At lower • Tourism pressures in respect of the • Elevation is generally in the elevations, poorly drained areas are characterised by the presence of scenic Lough Derg environs could range of 90 to 120m marsh and woodland scrub featuring birch and gorse species. Small lakes adversely affect landscape quality. • Geology comprises are a frequent and consistent feature of this landscape but are largely carboniferous walsortian concealed from view. Fields and settlements are typically enclosed by limestone. either earthen banks or thorn hedgerows with mature trees. Principal • Landcover is pasture and species include ash and beech. Other built characteristics of this arable farmland with localised landscape character type include the presence of ruined stone castles and marshy areas churches. Thatched holiday villages (Puckaun and Coolbaun) offer a scenic attractive setting for visitors and are generally well maintained. 15. Farmed Rolling Hills • Undulating and hilly with Complex landscape incorporating several elements within a rolling • Poorly sited and designed new houses variable topography usually landform. Landcover reflects this complexity with a variety of improved that do not reflect landscape character. ranging from 70 to 90m. pasture, pockets of wetlands and raised bog, small coniferous plantations • Modification of roads to increase • Geology comprises Silurian and occasional deciduous copses. Varied enclosures include hedgerows vehicular and pedestrian safety and greywackes and slates with old with significant amounts of trees and some post and wire fencing. accompanying verge treatment that is red sandstones at lower Settlement is quite frequent though commonly dispersed. Considerable alien in landscape (i.e. hedgerows are elevations. evidence of new building in the vicinity of around Newport. not replanted etc). • Mosaic of landcover of pasture, and forestry. • No drumlins.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 35 Landscape Character Types Key Drivers Description Forces for Change 16. Enclosed Valley • Topography is generally flat to This represents a flat pastoral landscape enclosed on either side by • Commercial coniferous forestry is a gently rolling. farmed foothills (character area 6). potential threat to the scenic quality of • Elevation is generally at 100m. The landscape itself is gently incised with small watercourses which are this landscape. • The solid geology is comprised tributaries of the River Nenagh. Clumps of deciduous woodland are of Silurian Greywackes and found in this landscape at lower elevations with ash and oak as the Slates. principal species. On higher ground, coniferous commercial plantations • Landcover is dominated by are common. pasture with some commercial forestry.

17. Gorge • Elevation ranges from 0 to This represents a relatively steep sided river valley which narrows to • Expansion of towns. 100m form a gorge like setting at the combined towns of Ballina and Killaloe. • Poorly sited and designed new houses • Geology comprises Devonian This waterside setting features many settlements and dwellings that do not reflect landscape character. old red sandstone. contained in a landscape of gently rolling farmland which has a smooth • Tourism development. • Landcover is largely given landform owing to the influences of glaciation. This, indeed partly • Changing transportation needs and over to pasture. created the course of the River Shannon at this location. Much of the facilities. adjacent land is used for pasture in which field boundaries are defined by mature and somewhat overgrown thorn hedgerows. Dwellings are plentiful in this area and are somewhat haphazardly dispersed and visible in this landscape. 18. River Valley • Elevation ranges from 100 to River valley landscape commonly associated with a middle-age to mature • Declining water quality arising from 300m. river system. Streams drain from higher slopes and hills. Generally the uncontrolled discharges to the river • Geology is varied with this area is low lying. Landcover is principally pasture with riparian system from agriculture, domestic North Tipperary LCT vegetation, composed of trees or shrubs found within the river corridor. sewage, and acidification from forestry. composed of Carboniferous Due to the meandering and frequently low lying nature of this LCT, lower limestone, Old Red seasonally flooding may occur though not to the extent found in LCT 1, Sandstone and Silurian Shannon Callows. Within North Tipperary, the is the Greywhackes and Shales. principal LCT and is a good example of the progress of a river system, • Landcover is commonly from its source in the Silvermines, flowing through a steep gorge created pasture with wetlands adjacent from glacial and fluvial erosion to its meandering progress along the to river. gently undulating farmland around Newport. Its strategic importance is • Generally aligned to proper highlighted by location of Newport on the River itself. river system. • Mature part of river is meandering and subject to inundation.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 36 4 LANDSCAPE CHARACTER AREAS IN NORTH TIPPERARY

4.1 LCA 1 SHANNON CALLOWS

Table 4.1 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Flood Meadows SPA -2 49 Raised Bogland SAC* -2 Farmed Ridges NHA -5 * including candidate SACs

Landscape Extent

This northernmost LCA is bounded to the north east by the Brosna River, and to the west by the River Shannon. The southern boundary follows the R489 that traverses from Portumna in County Galway to Birr in County Offaly. Essentially a fluvial plain, this area is composed of the Shannon Callows, raised bogs and occasional limestone ridges.

Figure 4.1 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 37 Key Characteristics

• Strongly rural area much influenced by Rivers Shannon and Brosna.

• Historical importance of River Shannon crossing evidenced by siting of , where one of the Annals of the Four Masters was written and Donal O’Sullivan Beara crossed the Shannon in 1603.

• Extensive raised bogs, river flood plains and nationally recognised ecological value of Shannon Callows.

• Isolated and rural character with settlement constrained by callows and raised bogs.

• Dispersed settlement with limited number of nucleated settlements (the villages of Rathcabbin and Riverstown present within the character area.

• Extensive views afforded southwards across flat plains towards Silvermines from .

• Limestone ridges afford good views over to Counties Offaly and Galway and the meandering rivers Shannon and Brosna.

Geology and Landform

This area is underlain by Carboniferous limestone, mostly Calp limestone but Waulstorian limestone is also present in the northern and southern sweeps of this LCA. The landform is overwhelmingly low lying, particularly around the callows with spot heights of around 34m OD around Redwood Bog. Moving south from the callows, the landform becomes slightly more undulating, and the limestone ridges extending from Grangepark towards Coolrosa, despite being low lying hills, provide landform interest within the surrounding low lying area.

Landcover and Ecology

This area is predominantly composed of pasture, with pockets of arable land. Within the river plains, the landcover is a mixture of raised bog such as Redwood Bog, wetlands subject to seasonal flooding, and scrub frequently composed of wet loving shrub and tree species including birch and ash. The ecological significance of this area is demonstrated through the high number of SAC and SPA designations. The Middle Shannon Callows and Little Brosna Rivers are designated SPAs and represent the largest area of lowland semi- natural grassland and associated aquatic habitats in Ireland. Moreover, the relative lack of human intervention for drainage ensures that seasonal flooding still occurs, contributing to an increased ecological diversity.

Landcover is largely wet grassland and meadows with semi-natural woodland at the fringes, composed of birch and alder in wetter areas, and willow in drier locations. These meadows are of international importance for

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 38 a number of wintering waterfowl including Whooper Swans. The area is also well known for containing the endangered Corncrake (40% of the national population). Specific management regimes have been developed with local farmers regarding the cutting of the callows meadows within the Corncrake breeding season. Recently, draft Species Action Plans (National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2005) have been published for a number of species including the Corncrake and will have further management implications for this area. Redwood Bog is an active raised bog (ie peat formation is currently occurring), though it also includes areas of cutover, and represents an increasingly scare example of a floodplain bog. Part of this complex is a state- owned nature reserve.

Human Influences

Settlement is dispersed throughout this LCA; the physical constraints presented by the flood plains and raised bogs reflected in the limited number of roads allowing access northwards towards the county boundary. The villages of Rathcabbin and Riverstown (on the Offaly border) being the only nucleated settlements present. A network of narrow roads radiates from the R489 and R438, but rarely penetrates the callows area, reflecting the hydro geological constraints presented by these extensive wetlands. Small lanes allow limited access to this callow area, and were likely developed in order to facilitate turbury rights.

Generally, houses are single storey farmsteads, with associated outbuildings. Modern dwellings commonly are of single story design also. In the areas around Rathcabbin and Redwood, considerable dereliction of single storey farmsteads was noted. Fields are generally rectangular with hedgerow enclosure.

There is no visible evidence of prehistoric activity within this LCA, although similar raised bog areas are known to have been of focus of ritual deposition of valuable hoards in prehistoric times.

This LCA lies within the Lower Ormond barony and the settlement around Graigue is identified by Nolan (1985) as being of medieval origin. Elsewhere Rathcabbin is identified as a chapel village, lying to the west of Gurteen House and Demesne. Nolan also identified a ‘Big House’ cluster around the Redwood area, usually associated with landlord development or labour requirements associated with the demands of a ‘Big House’. The presence of Big Houses is not as marked in this LCA reflecting the poorer quality land compared to the surrounding limestone lowlands.

Today, Redwood Castle, (built around 1210 by the Normans), strategically located on a low hill overlooking the Callows, has been restored and is open to the public. This castle has strong associations with a Brehon family, the MacEgans. During their occupation of the castle between 1350 and 1640, the Leabhair Breac was written, one of the Annals of the Four Masters. Redwood

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 39 is also remembered as the point at which Donall O’Sullivan Beara crossed the Shannon on his way to Breifne in 1603.

Whilst not heavily settled, this area nonetheless represented an important location to cross the River Shannon. Until the original timber bridge was built at Portumna in 1796, a ferry was the only means of traversing the Shannon and this is reflected in the name ‘Ferry Inn’. The nearest bridge to the east was at Banaghar in County Offaly, some 17 km away.

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

This Landscape Character Area is generally in good condition. The Rivers Shannon and Brosna environs are rural, quite remote and relatively undisturbed. The landscape that is associated with this floodplain extends inland for an approximate range of 2 to 3 km and represents a relatively undisturbed area of land that has a high habitat value owing to the presence of flood meadows, wetland scrub and woodland vegetation together with discrete and recognisable areas of raised bog. The condition of these is relatively intact and is not threatened by development associated with infrastructure or settlements. Both of the rivers together with the areas of raised bog carry designations of ecological importance. This renders this part of the Shannon callows LCA as a landscape of the highest sensitivity.

Further south, the low lying farmed landscape is a working landscape which is more developed in terms of farming patterns and the presence of settlements and dwellings. The condition of this farmed landscape is generally good apart from the immediate environs of the villages where signs of dereliction reduce the landscape quality. This is a landscape which, while not remarkable in terms of scenic quality, is visually very exposed due to the open flat nature of its topography. The limited presence of vegetation (largely managed hedgerows with occasional copses) acts to serve as a natural screen for development.

While this landscape character area carries Natural Heritage Area designation and a small part, near the edge of the River Shannon is recognised as a Special Area of Conservation.

Forces for Change

• Peat extraction in areas of raised bog which, where conducted, will reduce habitat value and result in a loss of naturalised birch woodland.

• Tourism related pressures associated with the Shannon navigation and possible water quality impacts relating to agriculture.

• Expansion of commercial coniferous forestry which, owing to the visually exposed nature of this landscape, would lead to a deterioration in landscape quality.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 40 • Species Actions Plans for the Corncrake will have land management implications for farmers.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Protect and enhance the vegetated landscape that occupies the 1-2km fringe that defines the River Shannon edge. This includes the wetland habitat and birch woodland scrub. Tourism and boating activities, in particular, to be managed and controlled in the context of the protection of this landscape and the waterway itself.

• Sensitive siting, and design of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of particular importance in this visually exposed landscape. Policy in this area could include measures to encourage the re use and renovation of traditional houses and structures which currently lie derelict.

• Commercial forestry should focus on the use of broadleaves as these are more appropriate to this landscape character area. Where coniferous plantations do occur they could be enhanced visually by introducing a boundary of birch and ash woodland in order to mitigate the visual impact of the coniferous crop.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 41 4.2 LCA2: UPPER LOUGH DERG LCA

Table 4.2 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Lough side fringe SPA -2 131 Drumlin SAC* -4 farmland with loughs Mixed arable and NHA -7 pasture lowlands

* includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Landscape Extent

This LCA extends from the northern bays of Lough Derg, east of Portumna, following the lake southwards to Youghal Bay. Thereafter, it extends inland, with the eastern boundary defined by the lower contours of the drumlin belt.

Figure 4.2 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 42 Key Characteristics

• Highly scenic area with recognised ecological and cultural values.

• A number of well maintained villages including and Terryglass, that support recreation and tourism activities evidenced by a number of jetties and small harbours.

• Settlement quite sparse on shoreline with small lanes accessing houses from the main road. This settlement pattern is interspersed with a number of ‘Big Houses’ and former estates including Drominagh, Belle Isle and Slevoir, reflecting the popularity of siting large dwellings with lake views from the eighteenth century onwards.

• The importance of the lake as an economic resource is evidenced by a number of mills such as the woollen mill at Dromineer and corn mill on Ballinfinboy River close to Ballinderry.

• Lake shores commonly fringed by broadleaved woodland including Oak and Yew. The area is drained by a number of rivers with drumlin belt containing numerous small lakes.

• Long views afforded across the Lake to the Sliabh Bernagh and Sliabh Aughties in Clare and Galway. The lake and lakeside views are highly scenic and reflect management regimes in these adjacent counties.

Geology and Landform

This LCA is underlain by Carboniferous Calp and Waulstorian limestone. However, glacial deposition and the resulting drumlin belt create a distinctive landform from the contiguous low lying areas in the north and east. A number of streams and rivers flow around the hollows in the drumlin areas while a cluster of lakes such as Lough Aran and Scarragh Lough provide surface water features that are uncommon in the rest of the County. The drumlins, with occasional limestone outcrops generally rise gently from the lake shore. Some exceptions exist such as Urra Hill, which rises quite steeply to approximately 90m OD, adding to the scenic quality of this area. Ballinfinboy and Nenagh Rivers drain through this area entering Lough Derg at Drominagh and Dromineer respectively.

Landcover and Ecology

Once again, landcover is dominated by pasture but there is a higher percentage of land under tillage within this LCA compared to the peaty soils within the Callows LCA. Upland or rough grazing can be seen in the elevated parts of the drumlins and there are occasional small coniferous plantations.

Deciduous woodland is notable along the shoreline, with birch, willow, ash and hazel dominating. Lough Derg is designated as an SPA and NHA, containing nationally important numbers of bird populations such as the

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 43 Cormorant. Aquatic species including Sea Lamprey and Pollan are also recorded from Lough Derg. A draft Species Action Plan has also been recently published for the Pollan. Significant habitats within this designation include Cladium fen and swamp vegetation. Of particular interest is the yew and juniper woodland located on limestone pavement/rubble at Cornalack, whilst the former estate of Bellevue contains oak woodland. The pockets of wetlands, with associated reed and wet loving tree species are found around the small lakes that are scattered amongst the drumlins. Cumulatively these lakes and lakeside vegetation are of considerable ecological and biodiversity value and their significance is evidenced by a number of NHA designations at Newchapel Turlough and Clareen Lough.

Human Influences

This area is more densely populated than its northern neighbour as evidenced by the number of villages such as Terryglass, Coolbawn, Dromineer and Ballinderry. Furthermore, there is a higher number of houses in the countryside, commonly single storey farmhouses with outbuildings. New build are generally single storey, often with dormer roofs. A significant number of older Georgian ‘Big Houses’ are located within this LCA, though they are rarely visible from the roadside, being accessed via long avenues and taking advantage of views towards Lough Derg.

The number of streams and rivers draining through this area into Lough Derg are commonly crossed by dressed limestone bridges, a distinctive and attractive landscape element. An exceptional example is Drominagh Bridge, which crosses the Ballinfinboy River and separates the of Gurthalougha and Drominagh. The cutstone bridge contains two covered recesses, thought to be utilised previously for tolls. The bridge dates from 1776 and is close to the entrance of Gorthalougha House. Once again, hedgerows are the predominant enclosure structure although cut stone walls are frequently associated with the boundaries of Big Houses. Around Terryglass there is an increase in limestone walls, reflecting the proximity of bedrock to the soil surface.

This area is within the Lower Ormond barony and in common with the Callows LCA had more recent and strong links to the former Gaelic landownership regime and structure than the rest of the County. A number of castles on strategic positions overlooking the lough have associations with such families as the O’Kennedys including Dromineer Castle, Knigh Castle and Ballycolliton.

Nonetheless, the current landscape shows significant evidence of landlord regimes upto the 1850s. Within this LCA, there are a large number of ‘big Houses’. Many of which were built by descendants of the Cromwellian plantation, of which the Ormond baronies were heavily subjected to. In conjunction with the ‘Big House’, associated demesnes were commonly developed and took advantage of the scenic opportunities offered by a presence close to Lough Derg. Bellevue, Annaghbeg, Drominage Demesnes

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 44 are such examples. These belt of villas developed along the Lough shore in the nineteenth century, beari such names as Bella Villa, Shannon Hall, and Hazel Point (Nolan, 1985).

Other settlements within this LCA included Ballycommon, which developed during the nineteenth century and Puckaune with its Grotto containing stones from three Marion Shrines,

The popular tourist villages of Dromineer and Terryglass provide recreational facilities and contribute to the economic importance of the lake. The latter village won the Tidy Town competiation in 1983 and increased the profile of the town. The town itself was a place of renown in previous centuries, particularly when St. Colum’s monastery was a centre of great learning from approximately 548 to 1225. It was here that the Book of Leinster is thought to have been compiled (Murphy, 1997). The town’s proximity to the River Shannon, though doubtless attractive for the monastic community, also facilitated raids by the Vikings and records show it was attacked, and burnt six times between 805 and 1164. Whilst the village of Lorrha in the adjacent LCA shows a continuity of Early Christian to medieval settlement, the religious settlement at Terryglass was all but demolished and only the outline of the monastic settlement can be noted from aerial photography.

The Ordnance Survey maps of 1840 show the town as a small settlement, west of the bridge. However it has grown since that time. The Hickie Church was commenced in 1850 and built by the patronage of the Hickie family, residents of Slevoir House. It is a gothic style church, and contains an ornate interior not common in rural churches of that period. Another feature of interest is the relic of the True Cross, verified as such by Pope Pius IX in 1863, and placed in a specially designed side chapel. Another important ritual feature, St Augh’s Holy Well, is located close to the Quay, and is believed to improve eye aliments.

Terryglass’s position as an important tourism and recreation centre in the Lough Derg area is evidenced today by the holiday home villages, the facilities at Terryglass Quay including boat hire, lakeside walks and a number of pubs providing food.

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

This landscape is generally in good condition. The Lough Derg environs form an open landscape affording longer range views over the lake as described above. Many of these views are already scheduled as protected and contribute to the high scenic quality of this area. This landscape is remote and relatively unspoilt or affected by development and road infrastructure. Overall, the shoreline part the upper Lough Derg LCA is a valuable natural resource that is highly sensitive to any form of development.

Further inland, the drumlin landscape is clearly a working landscape featuring both tillage and pastoral uses. The current management of these

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 45 landuses is such that the landscape is in good condition. The visual quality of this landscape is enhanced by a range of factors including varying topography, the presence of ruined castles and churches, villages as mentioned above, together with the well maintained protected thatched villages of Puckaun and Coolbaun. Plantations of commercial coniferous forestry occupy the drumlin slopes at various locations and are the principal degrading element in this landscape, in which the naturalised vegetation cover features broadleaf species including beech and ash. Overall this is a more enclosed landscape than the Lough Derg area and would be less sensitive to development.

In terms of designated landscapes, the western side of the drumlin part of this landscape is scheduled as an Amenity Area and sections of the route that follows the lake shoreline are designated in terms of protected views.

Forces for Change

• Pressure from tourism associated with the entire area generally. Siting and design of tourism facilities should be carefully developed and have due regard for the character of the area.

• Commercial Forestry in terms of character and scenic quality.

• Species Actions Plans for the Pollan will have management implications for land users adjacent to the lake.

Principles for Landscape Management

• The continued protection and enhancement of the scenic quality and habitat value of the Lough Derg environs will require specific restrictions on development.

• Farming practices should continue to be managed in a manner that safeguards the water quality associated with the streams and lakes in the drumlin landscape together with Lough Derg.

• Forest cropping practices should be introduced to minimise the visual impact caused by these crops in the drumlin farmland area of this LCA.

• Monitoring and management of the as a walking route will be required to minimise erosion and to protect adjacent habitats and vegetation, whilst continuing to serve as an important recreational resource in the area.

• Future development should be of a sensitive and appropriate design that maximise the screening capacity of the drumlin hills.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 46 4.3 LCA 3 ARRA MOUNTAINS LCA

Table 4.3 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Lough fringe SPA -1 194 farmland Farmed foothills SAC* -1 Upland fringe NHA -1 Upland bogland with afforestation Gorge * includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

This southern part of Lough Derg extends south from Youghal Bay to Newtown and follows the rising contours of the Arra Mountains, extending southwest to include the town of Ballina.

Figure 4.3 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 47 Key Characteristics

• Highly scenic landscape dominated by Arra Mountains and Lough Derg.

• Extensive views afforded from uplands across the lake and over to the Sliabh Bernagh and Sliabh Aughties mountains in Clare and Galway.

• Lough Derg Walking route traverses this area.

• Variety of land uses ranging from Lough shore broadleaf woods to blanket bog.

• Cultural heritage features include the Graves of the Leinstermen and numerous links to the slate quarries around the area, including Castletown graveyard with decorated ‘folk’ slate graves.

• Settlement concentrated close to lake shore and the lowlands beneath Arra mountains include the town of Ballina, representing an important crossing site of Lough Derg and smaller villages including Newtown and Portroe.

• Isolated and remote character in upland areas, contrasting with more settled and active character on lower slopes around Ballina.

Landform and Geology

The upland areas of this LCA are underlain by Old Red Sandstone at the perimeter and older Palaeozoic rocks including Silurian Greywacke and Shale. These harder rocks are more resistant to both glacial and fluvial erosion, and explain the presence of this upland zone that is part of the wider Sliabh Bernagh to Silvermines Sandstone and Silurian range.

Generally this area is more elevated than the Upper Lough Derg LCA, with the highest point at Tountinna rising to 457 m OD. The uplands also rise within a narrow distance of the lake shore. The Youghal and Newtown rivers, rise in the Arra mountains and flow down the northern slopes of the mountains. A number of streams, tributaries of the Kilmastulla River, drain from the southern slopes. In addition, there are a number of small waterfalls on both the southern and eastern slopes of this range.

Landcover and Ecology

As the first proper upland on eastern Lough Derg, the Arras contain blanket bog habitats on the upper western slopes where steep contours have presented constraints to drainage and land use changes. Within the upland zone, there are quite extensive coniferous plantations and areas of scrub, notably rough grazing with rushes and gorse present.

On the lower slopes and foothills, there is improved grassland and pasture while south of the Laghtea hills, long views are afforded eastwards over good hilly pastureland. There is also deciduous lake side fringe with riparian

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 48 vegetation along the some of the stream networks. There is particularly good wet riparian vegetation with a high number of moss species present along the Youghal river corridor.

Aside from the Lough Derg SPA designation, there are currently no other designations but the existing blanket bog and riparian vegetation may be considered collectively to contribute to the ecological value of this LCA.

Human influences

There is no evidence of settlement on the upper summits of the Arra Mountains, while settlement remains occasional on lower slopes around the 300 m contours. Settlement increases over the largely pasture based broad valley, east of Laghtea hill towards Lackamore East. Ballina is principal settlement within this LCA, with its arched bridge providing a key crossing over the River Shannon. Recognised as two separate towns, with Ballina in Tipperary and Killaloe in Clare, the settlements essentially straddle the river and are attractive centres for recreation including boating and fishing. Urban sprawl however, does detract from the setting of the towns when viewed from upland areas.

Once again, single storey houses are most common, with some traditional dormer style houses present on the middle slopes. Many of the older houses are at the roadside. Occasional tree lines of Scots Pine can be seen in the more elevated areas, suggesting shelterbelts around dwellings. Reflecting the pastoral traditions of the area, the associated outbuildings are commonly galvanised roofed sheds and hay barns, painted in red oxide.

The upper slopes are generally enclosed with geometric fields rising in a vertical pattern against the mountain slopes, though coniferous plantations have masked these patterns elsewhere. On these upper slopes, there are occasional stone walls, with some post and wire fencing, particularly around forestry plantations. On the lower slopes, hedgerows are dominant on the northern and western slopes, whilst in the area north of Boher there is an increase in earth banks in addition to hedgerows.

This LCA contains a number of prehistoric features, mostly on the south eastern slopes of the Arra Mountains. This density of ritual features including standing stones, and stone circles, may reflect the use of the uplands for ritual activities, whilst agricultural production occurred within the more accessible and better soils of the lowlands (Raleigh, 1985). The Graves of the Leinstermen, close to the summit of Tountinna, are associated with the slaying of the forces loyal to Maolmara, King of Leinster by Brian Boru’s soldiers at the end of the tenth century.

Historically, the slate quarries in this area, attracted adventurers to the area (Nolan, 1985), and the western slopes and northern slopes of the Arra mountains contains a density of clustered, and frequently transient settlements upto 1850. The extraction of slate has led to the distinctive Killaloe

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 49 slate being used quite extensively in vernacular housing within the area, with the former settlements at the Gap and Englishtown developing into distinctive industrial based clusters which used slate extensively as the principal construction material. The ruins of such houses can be seen around this area. The extant village of Newtown still retains strong associations with the slate quarries, reopened by JB O’Driscoll in the 1920s and employing upto 200 workers a decade later. Close to Newtown, a former cornmill ‘An Muillean Uisce’, is a reminder of other former industrial activities within this LCA.

Again, Big Houses remain a notable landscape feature, most notably the former Parker residences at Landsdown with its slated front, and Castlelough House and Demesne. This LCA lies within the barony of Owney and Arra. Castlelough Woods are now an amenity area with woodland walks.

Garrykennedy, a village on the shores of the lake, provides an illustration of the interactions between the lake as an economic resource and the increased value placed by wealthy landowners on the scenic quality of the lake. was formerly an important port for the export of slate from the surrounding area, and import of products including turf, Guinness and coal. A number of steam boats that travels the lake also used the port at Garrykennedy as a boarding and disembarking point for passengers.

Within the wider Garrykennedy , there were lead and silver mines, worked up to 1857, however these mines are now submerged. The importance of Garrykennedy as a port is reflected in proposals in 1845 for a railway link between the port and Nenagh town (Murphy, 1997). However this did not come to fruition. Whilst commercial trading declined in the village in the 1950s, nowadays, Gerrykennedy serves as a important boating and recreation centre, with the former commercial port extended and now serving the recreational needs of a variety of pleasure crafts including cruisers, yachts and smaller boats. The name of the village comes from one of the dominant Gaelic families in this part of the County, the O’Kennedys, and their tower house from the fifteenth century close to the shore, reflects the strategic importance of this settlement.

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

In general, this is a highly scenic landscape which is in overall good condition. The high scenic quality is derived from both the lake side setting, commanding long range views towards mountain ranges in Counties Clare and Galway and the Arra mountain environs.

In terms of condition and sensitivity, there is a distinction between the Lough Derg environs and the Arra mountain areas of this LCA. In the Lough Derg area, the landuse is pasture which presents as a well managed landscape in good condition. Development in the form of housing, particularly in the hinterland of Ballina is the principal contrasting element in this landscape.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 50 By contrast, the Arra mountain area is more remote. There is little development by way of settlements, intensive agricultural land uses or infrastructure (roads or tracks). The scenic quality of this landscape is enhanced by the mountain topography and the deciduous scrub wooded areas at lower elevations. The presence of substantial tracts of commercial coniferous forestry particularly on the higher summits, for example, Tountinna, detracts from the scenic quality and sense of remoteness in these areas. Other detracting factors relate to the presence of derelict dwellings and or farm buildings particularly on the lower mountain slopes.

In respect of landscape related designations, the Arra mountain complex is classed as an Amenity Area while the Lough Derg environs are designated as a Natural Heritage Area. The views across the lake gained from the R494 route are protected.

Forces for Change

• Tourism pressure associated with visitor demands placed on the scenic Lough Derg area.

• The development of one off rural housing or inappropriately designed housing clusters.

• Changing agricultural practices leading to the removal of hedgerows in this area. This is very noticeable owing to the very distinctive hedgerow pattern associated with the smaller field sizes adjacent to the water edge.

• Commercial coniferous forestry in the Arra mountains area.

• Species Actions Plans for the Pollan will have management implications for land users adjacent to the lake.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Sensitive siting and design of individual buildings and groups of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of particular importance in this landscape. Specific design guidance should be provided to facilitate these outcomes. Tourism uses require monitoring and management in order to minimise erosion and degradation on landscape resources. This specifically applies to the use of the Lough Derg walking route and the four scheduled viewpoints (which include parking and picnic facilities) at the edge of the lake. The impact of similar activities in the adjacent County of Clare in the form of the East Clare Way need to be considered as this route is linked to the Lough Derg Way.

• Agricultural practices should be managed in a manner that safeguards the water quality associated with Lough Derg.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 51 • Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry in upland areas should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape.

• Monitoring and management regime for protection and enhancement of the blanket bog areas should be introduced.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 52 4.4 LCA 4 BORRISOKANE LOWLANDS

Table 4.4 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Mixed arable and SPA – 0 593 pasture lowlands Farmed ridges SAC* - 4 Urban fringe NHA -17 Wetland farmlands * includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

This large, generally low lying area extends southwards from the R489, eastwards to the County boundary with Offaly, westwards to the drumlin belt of LCA 2 Upper Lough Derg and southwards to the R491, north of Nenagh.

Figure 4.4 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 53 Key Characteristics

• Farmed landscape dominated by limestone pasture interspersed with major communication routes to Portumna and Birr in adjoining Counties.

• Occasional farmed ridges and gently undulating areas add landscape diversity to this large area.

• Long settlement history spanning from the Neolithic tombs at Ardcroney, and Dominican priory at Lorrha to the Cromwellian development of and Borrisokane.

• Very high density of ‘Big Houses’ with tree lined avenues and cut stone outbuildings.

• Scattered settlement with principal nucleated settlement of Borrisokane located at junctions of major and regional roads.

• Due to generally low lying landform, long views are afforded from occasional ridges across to Offaly, the western drumlin belt and the Silvermines.

Landform and Geology

In common with much of the northern part of the County, this area is largely underlain by both Carboniferous Calp and Waulstorian limestone. The exceptions to this are the ridged hills at Knockshigowna, underlain by Old Red Sandstone and Silurian Greywacke and Shale, thus sharing geological characteristics with the uplands proper of North Tipperary. Knockshigown is the highest point in this LCA, rising to 212m OD.

The area is predominantly low lying with some undulating landforms rising to the ridged hills that run in an east-west orientation from Knockshigowna southwards to Screggaun, west of Cloughjordan. In contrast to Knockshigowna, these southern ridges are composed of limestone as evidenced by occasional limestone outcrops.

The Ballinfinboy River drains through the southern part of this LCA, whilst the Little Brosna River provides a natural county boundary with Offaly in the northernmost part of this LCA. In addition, a small number of lakes such as Lough Eorna, Lough Duff, Lough Nahinch and Friars Lough are contained within this area.

Landcover and Ecology

Generally good quality pasture dominates this area, though there are also quite extensive pockets of tillage, largely in the southern part of this LCA. Towards the north, the landcover starts to share characteristics with the Shannon Callows LCA. This is most notable through a number of raised bogs and wetlands such as the area between the N52 and R438 including the

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 54 townlands of Walshpark, the Island (a common name attached to domes in bogs) and Clonfinane.

There are limited coniferous plantations, and more commonly, there are copses of deciduous woodland, and standard trees within the treelined avenues associated with the ‘Big Houses’.

There are a number of NHAs within this LCA, largely related to wetlands, fens and bogs. NHA sites include Schooaboy Bog, and Lough Nahinch, east of Borrisokane. SAC designations include Kilcarron and Clonfinane Bogs, considered important examples of active raised bogs.

Human Influences

This LCA has long been subject to human influences, offering as it does an accessible and often good quality agricultural capability. In conjunction with the other northern LCAs in Tipperary, this area was strongly associated with the O’Kennedy family until the plantations, when the Lower and Upper Ormond baronies were reserved for Cromwellian soldiers. The towns of Cloughjordan and Borrisokane were developed by Cromwellian Colonel Harrison and Captain Stopford respectively (Nolan, 1985).

Nowadays, settlement is scattered around the rural landscape, and is commonly a mixture of Big Houses or single storey farmsteads. Frequently, traditional houses are accessed via an avenue or narrow lane. Contemporary houses are often facing the road, a particular feature noted along the regional roads. Within the northern part of the area, the evidence of wetlands and bogs can be seen by the limited road or lane access through these areas. Elsewhere, the N52, linking Nenagh to Birr and the N65 linking Nenagh to Portumna offer key access routes through this LCA. The links between this part of North Tipperary and Offaly, is further evidenced by the short lived railway link that ran from a terminal on the Tipperary bank of the river and Birr, 22 km to the east. This line was not a commercial success and went into receivership in 1871.

Hedgerows again dominate field enclosures which are generally geometric and could reflect land restructuring in the 19th century. However, cut stone walls particularly defining the roadside limits and farmyard enclosures are also a distinctive feature. In the areas where tillage production is evident, there has been more boundary modification and the removal of hedgerows. Whilst on the limestone ridge around Knockshigowna, stonewalls composed of large limestones are also apparent.

There is also evidence of this area having been settled from the Neolithic period. A portal tomb was discovered in Ardcroney in the late 1970s, consisting of a cairn of stones and containing the unburnt remains of two males, accompanied by highly decorated pottery bowls. Close by at Ashleypark, a comparable site was excavated in 1980, with two circular ditches. Another potential site is identified by Raleigh (1985) is also located

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 55 close by at Lisgarriff. These sites are dated to the late Neolithic, hence pre 2000BC, but radiocarbon dating suggests even earlier provenance, 3300 to 3600BC (ibid). Culmulatively, these sites suggest a continuity of prehistoric activity within this area.

The continuity of human settlement within this accessible and relatively good quality land is evidenced elsewhere within this LCA. The village of Lorrha, was established by the Normans under the Bishop of Killaloe (Empey, 1985). This area was considered to be the frontier of the Ormond domains and the Earl of Ormond commonly utilised close kinsmen to man these frontier settlements. However, the Early Christian settlement associated with St. Ruadhan’s monastery is the earliest known settlement in the Lorrha area, and was founded in approximately 550AD (Murphy, 1997). A common Norman practice was to be built on existing or former early Christian settlements and this is the case in Lorrha, with the Norman Mottle located within the monastic enclosure. The Chruch of Ireland Church, built in the early nineteenth century is located on the site of the parish’s pre-Reformation Church and has been dated to the tenth or eleventh century. Again this is located within St. Ruadhan’s monastic enclosure.

Elsewhere in the village, there are the ruins of a Dominican priory dating from 1268. Augustinians, following the Butler bequests, also settled in Lorrha in the twelfth century and their building is partly incorporated into the Church of Ireland church today. (Corrbui, 1991).

A noticeable characteristic of this area is the high number of Big Houses, particularly in Lower Ormond, a trait that was identified in contemporary accounts (see Nolan, 1985). These are generally Georgian two or three storey houses, commonly with associated stone cut outbuildings and often accessed by a treelined avenue. During this time of demesne creation (1780 to 1840), landscape features such as a turret at Knockshegowna Hill were built to enhance the enjoyment of the vista (Nolan, 1985). The folk beliefs surrounding Knockshigowna, namely that it is a fairy hill with associations to the Ely O’Carroll families also led to a number of residences in the vicinity being named Fairy Hill, or Fairy Mount.

A fine example of this type of house was at Portland Park in Lorrha parish, located on the gravel surfaces overlooking Lough Derg and capturing the western views over the Sliabh Bernagh Mountains in . This house was burnt in 1920. However,

“Mansions and farmsteads of this quality formed the centrepieces of holdings with carefully contrived field networks, enclosed by means of neatly clipped quicksets of thorn, and it is possible that the distribution of such quickset hedges, as they have survived, may offer a means of identifying the extenst of those areas which were most radically transformed by their planter owners from the eighteenth century.” (Jones Hughes, 1985, 252)

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 56 Nolan (1985) notes that whilst demense creation was at its height with considerable expenditure on dams and lakes in the wealthier South Tipperary, Lower Ormond settlers such as Falkiner were draining wetlands of 180 acres to create excellent arable and pasture land. This may reflect the differing perceptions and wealth levels between the Ormond settlers and those who were granted land in the more prosperous South Tipperary (Nolan, 1985).

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

This is a flat open landscape which, in particular locations commands long range views to adjacent mountainous areas namely the Arra mountains and Borrisnoe. It does not have a sense of remoteness, being a working landscape given over to both pastoral and tillage uses. It is not a striking landscape in terms of scenic quality. This is largely due to the flat planar topography and the intensity of use as indicated by the larger field sizes (created by hedgerow removal). Characteristics which enhance the scenic quality of this landscape are the presence of ridgelines comprised of chains of small hills (Knockshigowna and Screggaun complexes) on the western side. These present as a distinct and visually attractive landscape feature in the overall flat terrain. Other enhancing features relate to the presence of pockets of mature deciduous woodland and tree lined routes and avenues to dwellings. Traditional settlement (eg the village of Lorrha), larger houses and farmsteads and the presence of ruined castles and churches confer a strong sense of architectural vernacular in localised parts of this landscape. In general, this is not a sensitive landscape albeit that its capacity to accommodate future development is a function of good design as this is a flat and really quite visually exposed landscape. The sensitivity of this landscape increases in locations where the enhancing landscape elements already outlined are present.

Activities that detract from the scenic quality of this landscape relate to the presence of occasional parcels of coniferous forest, especially the juxtaposition with raised bog areas.

There are no amenity related landscape designations or protected views in this area. The Natural Heritage Area relates to the raised bogs.

Forces for Change

• Declining population on the eastern side of the LCA with reductions in agriculture. • Commercial coniferous forestry. • Some abandonment and dereliction of dwellings.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Sensitive siting and design of individual buildings and groups of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of importance in this landscape. Specific design guidance should be provided to facilitate these outcomes. Agricultural and forest cropping

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 57 practices should be such to not impact on the integrity and visual setting of the raised bog areas or indeed the water quality of the Rivers Nenagh and Ballyfinboy.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 58 4.5 LCA 5: RIVER SHANNON - NEWPORT LCA

Table 4.5 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Raised bogland SPA – 0 51 Lough fringe SAC* -2 farmland Farmed ridges NHA -0 Farmed rolling hillside * includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

This LCA extends southwards from the Arra Mountains, eastwards from the River Shannon towards the foothills of the Silvermines and extends towards the Limerick border encompassing the town of Newport and the village of .

Figure 4.5 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 59 Key Characteristics

• Diverse landforms with rolling hills, broad valley, river plain and raised bogs creating a varied landscape.

• Strong westwards orientation towards and the River Shannon.

• Long history of providing access with N7 alignment following ancient Sli Dala route; the access is further reinforced by the alignment of the Dublin to Limerick railway corridor.

• Proximity to Limerick results in quite heavy settlement and noticeable amount of new buildings, however nucleated settlements are limited to Newport town and Birdhill.

• Undulating hills create an intimate landscape with occasional views from elevated points afforded eastwards to the Silvermines and Arra Mountains.

• Lower boggy areas create remote landscape offering contrast with more heavily settled hilly areas.

Landform and Geology

This LCA is underlain by a variety of geological strata and this is reflected in the diverse landforms identified. There is a pocket of Carboniferous Waulstorian Limestone adjacent to the Shannon below Lough Derg and this is surrounded by lower limestone shales. Devonian Old Red Sandstone is found in the foothills of the surrounding Arra and Silvermine uplands.

The landscape contains stretches of flat, rushy and boggy areas, particularly close to the River Shannon and to the west of Newport. Thereafter, the landform becomes more undulating and is composed of a series of small hills north of N7, and more rolling foothills east of Newport, rising towards the uplands proper of the Silvermines range.

Drainage in this area is dominated by the River Shannon with the Kilmastulla River entering the Shannon above Birdhill. The Newport river, a tributary of the Mulkear also flows southwest through this area before entering the Shannon at Annacotty in County Limerick.

Landcover and Ecology

West of Newport and towards the River Shannon, the area is generally poorly drained and is a mixture of raised bog, rushy pasture and some small coniferous plantations. Annaholty Bog, to the west of Newport, contains a mosaic of raised bog, cutover, some rough grazing and small coniferous plantations are present. At the bog edges, birch and gorse are present.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 60 The landcover on the rolling hills is predominantly pasture, some rushy and some improved. There are also small coniferous plantations. There are significantly more trees within the hedgerows of this LCA, creating a greater sense of deciduous tree cover.

The number of nature designations within this area is relatively low, with two SACs, and no NHAs or SPAS. The principal candidate SAC designation is the Lower River Shannon. This is a very large site stretching along the Shannon Valley from Ballina to Loop Head/Kerry Head. In addition to the freshwater reaches of the River Shannon, the site encompasses the Shannon, Feale, Mulkear and Fergus estuaries. Therefore, many of the habitats for which the cSAC is designated will not occur within the Shannon River/Newport LCA. However, the relevant habitats listed within this SAC include alluvial wet woodlands and floating river vegetation. A number of fish listed on Annex II of the same directive are also found in the River Shannon including Brook Lamprey and River Lamprey.

Human Influences

This area has historically been part of a significant communications corridor with the current N7 alignment based on the ancient Sli Dala route from Tara in County Meath. The landform has also facilitated the development of communication routes, offering an accessible corridor between the upland Arra and Silvermine ranges and the strategically important Lough Derg and River Shannon. The number of regional roads and the railway line further reinforces the accessibility and transport element that has greatly influenced human settlement within this area.

Limerick city is only 16km from the most eastern section of this LCA and the economic pull of Limerick is evident today by the high number of new build within this LCA particularly around the Newport area. A network of roads transects this area and much of the dispersed settlement is commonly located on or close to the roadside of the tertriary roads within this LCA. The wet peaty areas are identifiable by the lack of dwellings and the presence of tracks offering access to the bogs for turbary extraction in recent times.

Field enclosures are generally composed of hedgerows, with some earth topped stone walls evident in the hillier areas. The hedgerows particularly in these landforms tend to contain a high number of standard trees and this feature creates the impression of a quite robust hedgerow network. In the lower lying areas, there is an increase in post and wire fencing especially notable around recent coniferous plantations. The boggy areas are frequently bounded by wetloving species such as birch.

House styles vary considerably throughout this LCA, with traditional single storey dwellings with outbuildings present in the rural landscape. There are also two storey farmsteads commonly located on the more hilly areas. Dereliction of the single storey dwellings is a notable feature. The large

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 61 number of new buildings display a variety of finishes and styles, though they are generally single storey or dormer structures.

This LCA lies within the barony of Owney and Arra. Prior to the Cromwellian plantations, this area was closely aligned to the Gaelic Ryan family and the presence of this surname remains strong today within this LCA. Thereafter, much of the land was give to the Waller and Shrimpton families and Newport developed as a bustling market town and an important fair venue for the Munster Region. The Waller family had strong links to Limerick port and this further reinforced the economic association between this area and Limerick (Nolan, 1985). The landscape setting of Newport is highly scenic, as it nestles in the foothills of the Silvermines and the broad Mulkear River bisects the town. The impressive Catholic Church offers a vertical landmark on western approaches to the town.

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

This is largely a flat open landscape at the southern and western end which has, as natural resources, a range of valuable and scenic landscape habitats. These range from the floodplain and associated meadows at the Lough Derg shores to the raised bogs at Newport. The presence of these resources raises the scenic quality of this area. Factors that impact on the landscape condition include buildings that are not appropriately incorporated in to the landscape, fly tipping on the bogs and the removal of acid scrub to facilitate turf harvesting. The northerly part of this LCA comprises an undulating hilly landscape with well maintained pasture in overall good condition. This northerly part is less sensitive owing to the absence of the particular habitats noted in other areas. The scenic quality is good and such a landscape is deserving of good guidance in terms of design for future development.

Forces for Change

• Commercial coniferous forestry • New buildings in the countryside. • Road routes in the hinterland of Newport used as ‘rat run’ access to Limerick. • Fly tipping on Annacolty bog. • Species Actions Plans for the Pollan will have management implications for land users adjacent to the River Shannon • Planned new construction of N7 dual carriageway and associated road networks.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape.

• Sensitive siting and design of individual buildings and groups of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 62 importance in this landscape. Specific design guidance should be provided to facilitate these outcomes.

• In terms of towns, the landscape impacts of the expansion of Newport need careful consideration given the scenic landscape setting of this town as a whole.

• The ecological and amenity value of waterways (Lough Derg and Newport River) needs to be managed in a positive way.

• The ecological and amenity value of the bog areas needs to be preserved. A need to improve on the management of these habitats is evident.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 63 4.6 LCA 6: SILVERMINES – REARCROSS UPLANDS

Table 4.6 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Upland bogland SPA – 0 163 with afforestation Upland fringe SAC* - 5 River valley NHA - 6 Moorland hills * includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

This upland mountainous area includes the Silvermines foothills and the Mulkear River and extends southwards from the R499 over Keeper Hill, to the County boundary along the R503. Another regional road, the R497 marks the eastern boundary.

Figure 4.6 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 64 Key Characteristics

• Highly scenic upland area with extensive views afforded from elevated locations towards the River Shannon and the northern lowlands around Nenagh.

• Continuum of landuses noticeable with increased elevation.

• Cluster of prehistoric graves around Rearcross and Kilcommon.

• Industrial legacy evident around Silvermines village.

• Highest mountain in North Tipperary at Keeper Hill (694 m OD)

• Settlement confined to lower slopes with small nucleated settlements at Silvermines and Rearcross.

Landform and Geology

In common with the other upland ranges in North Tipperary, this area is predominantly underlain by Old Red Sandstone and Silurian Greywackes and Shales. On the very lower western slopes, Carboniferous Lower Limestone Shales occur, supporting good limestone pasture. Thereafter the perimeter of the uplands is dominated by the sandstone and the highest slopes and summits are composed of the greywackes and shales. The sharply rising contours on slopes of Keeper Hill (694m OD) and Silvermine Mountain (479m OD) in particular create a dramatic landform, a legacy of the differential composition of the perimeter sandstone, a softer more easily eroded rock and the harder Palaeozoic greywhackes and shales.

Between these two summits, glacial erosion combined with fluvial processes has created a clearly defined narrow river valley as the Mulkear changes its northwards course after rising at Glenduff and traverses westwards and onto the Shannon. There are a number of corries, a legacy of the glacial scouring in the last ice age and these are located on Moher Mountain at Lough Beg and Lough Duff, and on Keeper Hill. The Clare River also rises at Moher Mountain and as it meanders through the lower areas, provide a natural county boundary for some distance with Limerick. Numerous small streams rise in the uplands, generally draining into the Mulkear, such as Doonane River and Glananglanna Stream.

The landform is quite distinctive with a gradation from undulating farmed foothills and more open moorland hills on the lower elevations towards a more irregular and sharply undulating upland fringe. The summits and steeply sided upper slopes are generally composed of blanket bog and coniferous plantation and are frequently inaccessible.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 65 Landcover and Ecology

A mosaic of habitats are found within this LCA, reflecting the diversity of landuses. The lower slopes, in common with much of the County are dominated by pasture. In some areas, such as the warmer western slopes of Keeper Hill, improved pasture is evident. Elsewhere within these elevations, a mixture of rushy pasture, improved pasture, pockets of bog and smaller scale coniferous plantations are apparent. The high number of streams and rivers that incise the slopes provide narrow strips of riparian, deciduous vegetation.

Due to its remote and sometimes inaccessible areas, this LCA has a significant number of nature designations and is currently under consideration as a Special Protection Area (SPA) due to the presence of Hen Harriers. Derrygareen Heath (SAC), Keeper Hill (cSAC), Bolingbrook Hill(cSAC), and the northern and western slopes of the Silvermines (cSAC) are the principal SAC designations within this area. The principal habitats associated with these designations relate to blanket bog, heath and unimproved grassland.

Human Influences

Settlement is extremely sparse on slopes above 200m in this LCA, due to the physical constraints of the landscape. Consequently, the limited tertriary roads generally traverse around the mountains on lower elevations. Where such settlement does exist, a common vernacular style is apparent, namely single storey farmsteads with associated outbuildings, often forming an L shape and offering some protection within the upland area. Modern dwellings within this upper area commonly remain single storey, frequently with dormer windows. Derelict farmsteads are a noticeable feature in this landscape, a reminder of historically greater population densities in this area.

Field enclosures vary throughout this LCA. Generally the lower slopes are enclosed by bushy hedgerows with some post and wire fencing. An increasing elevation is associated with a combination of earthbanks, soil capped stone walls, and post and wire around coniferous plantations. Field boundaries on the uplands proper run parallel upslope and may be a legacy of ladder townlands. Close to the river valleys, ditches reinforced with stone slabs or very high earthbanks are also apparent and support mosses and lichens. There are also number of fine examples of cut stone bridges and fords crossing the Mulkear and Clare rivers and their tributaries.

This LCA contains one of the most significant cluster of prehistorical features in the County. The earliest evidence for Neolithic settlement in Tipperary comes from the large megalithic tomb at Shanballyedmond (Raleigh, 1985). Elsewhere wedge tombs from the Bronze Age are located at Cooleen, near Silvermines village. A number are also spread across the Rearcross- Kilcommon area on the lower foothills. Stone mauls found within this area also suggest that these settlers were involved in mining the copper deposits within this area. The exploitation of silver and copper deposits in this LCA continued with the Slivermines being ,’redeveloped’ in the seventeenth

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 66 century by New English settlers, using a highly skilled imported workforce (Smyth, 1985).

Following the political and social upheavals associated with the declining fortunes of Gaelic families and the allocation of land to Cromwellian settlers, this area became a refuge for disposed Gaelic families and impoverished farmers. The Angelsey roads which divide the wider uplands into four sections, linking Thurles to Newport and Nenagh with Tipperary were built. Their key objective according to Lewis (1837) “was to open a communication into the mountains through which they extend which had been for many years the asylum of outlaws and of robbers; they also afford the means of agricultural improvement to the whole district, by the introduction of lime from the surrounding quarries.” (quoted in Nolan, 1985). This LCA lies within the barony of .

Big Houses, such a key landscape feature in the Ormond Baronies already discussed, are noticeable by their absence here, reflecting the inaccessibility of this area, its reputation for providing refuge to dispossessed Gaelic families and the generally poor quality land. However, this LCA did support significant populations in pre-famine times. The upheavals of the seventeenth century were accompanied by a massive population increase in the upland and bog areas of the county, and this echoed into the nineteenth century (Smyth, 1985). Although many of the dwellings constructed by the poorer and or landless inhabitants of the county are long distintegrated, there remains a noticeable amount of derelict buildings within the lower slopes of this LCA.

Today, this upland area offers a number of indications of the previous mining heritage with a sweat house located at Doonane and an old mining shaft visible just past Silvermines village. A number of walking routes and drives are signed within this LCA including the , Keeper Hill Cycle and Drive and Ballyhourigan Woods.

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

This generally mountainous landscape is highly scenic and, at higher elevations, commands distant views. The high scenic quality of this LCA as a whole is derived from the variety of landscape features. In brief, these are the mountain moorlands, the steep sided river valleys and the pastoral foothills. Elements which detract from this landscape at higher elevations relate to the plantations of commercial coniferous forestry. These crops occupy large tracts of land and detract principally from the blanket bog covered mountain summits. Indeed, forests are often the dominant feature in the landscape (Keeper Hill and Moher Mountain). In many cases, the bog and the steeply rising topography are screened from view by mature forest crops. A gradation in the presence of forest crops is apparent in the Silvermine range, the easterly side being occupied by large tracts and the westerly side containing less planting thereby affording distant views of the mountain blanket bog habitat. Evidence of mining in this area presents as a series of spoil heaps, causing localised damage to the Silvermine landscape, both physically and visually.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 67 Other degrading elements in this landscape include the presence of derelict farm buildings and dwellings particularly towards the southern end of this LCA.

Below mountain moorland elevation, the landscape changes quite dramatically to high foothills occupied by pasture. This results, virtually, in quite an enclosed landscape visually due to this topography. The landscape is in good condition overall. However, the presence of coniferous forestry plantations detracts from both condition and scenic quality. The forestry plantings in these foothills are generally smaller but tend to occupy hilltops and are thus visually more intrusive.

In terms of landscape designations, scenic views which are protected are gained on the R503 road route in the south western corner of this LCA.

Forces for Change

• Abandonment and dereliction of dwellings and farms. • Commercial coniferous forestry planting. • Declining population causing changing patterns in agricultural practice. • New building in the countryside. • Wind energy potential.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry in upland areas should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape.

• Management and monitoring of blanket bogs to include measures to reduce their being screened from view by forest crops.

• Design policies and guidance are required in respect of residential development particularly in the vicinity of Rear Cross and Newport which are currently expanding in a somewhat sporadic manner.

• Investigate possibilities for rejuvenation of particular areas where dereliction is evident. This applies to the local landscape along the R503 road route.

• Eliminate illegal dumping / fly-tipping as witnessed, for example, along the Killoscully Road.

• Management of the Slieve Felim Way walking route to protect the wider landscape from erosion by foot traffic.

• Agricultural and forest cropping activities should be conducted in a manner that safeguards water quality of the River Mulkear.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 68 4.7 LCA 7: UPPERCHURCH-KILCOMMON HILLS

Table 4.7 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Farmed foothills SPA – 0 254 Enclosed valley SAC* - 2 NHA - 6

* includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

This hilly and undulating pastoral landscape extends westwards along the R497 and the River Bilbao, and includes Templederry to the north and Upperchurch. It is bounded by the R498 on the eastern side as far as Borrisoleigh. The southern part of this LCA is the County boundary shared with South Tipperary.

Figure 4.7 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 69 Key Characteristics

• Highly scenic pastoral landscape with rolling hills and valleys.

• Sparsely populated particularly in central area with remote character.

• Extensive views eastwards from elevated points across to Kilkenny and South Tipperary.

• Cluster of prehistoric graves around Rearcross-Kilcommon creating a distinct archaeological landscape of significant value.

• Principal settlements on perimeter of LCA at Templederry and Borrisoleigh.

Landform and Geology

This area is principally underlain by Silurian Greywhackes and Shales, again with Old Red Sandstone on the perimeter. It may be considered part of the wider Silvermines Uplands but the landform is more gentle and composed of rolling hills and valleys. The hills are of lower elevation than those found in the neighbouring LCA with the highest hill at Knockmaroe rising to 411mOD.

The Bilboa river drains southwards in the LCA, whilst the other principal rivers, the Clodiagh drains south easterly before joining the Cromoge River and eventually joining the Suir in South Tipperary.

Landcover and Ecology

This pastural area is composed predominantly of improved or rushy pasture. However, there is an increase in arable land within this LCA perhaps reflecting the landuse traditions in the LCAs to the east. There is a variety of other habitats identified within this LCA. Given its lower elevation, there is no blanket bog although rushy pasture and wetland pockets are located in the lower areas and adjacent to the numerous streams and rivers draining this area. Smaller plantations of coniferous forestry are apparent on the more marginal lands. A gradation is apparent between improved pasture on lower slopes, with pockets of wetland and riparian vegetation, and as elevation increases, there is more rough grazing, and an increase in coniferous planting on the summits of these hills.

In terms of nature designations, this area supports two SACs, with a NHA designation at the Nenagh River Gorge east of Cooneen Hill. The riparian vegetation associated with the river corridors and streams are likely to be of culmulative ecological value.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 70 Human Influences

The principal nucleated settlements are located at Borrisoleigh, Templederry and Upperchurch. Single storey dwellings are the dominant style, commonly sharing similar design elements to those described for the Silvermines- Rearcross LCA. The number of derelict single storey dwellings is also noticeable.

There is a greater presence of stone walls within this area. These are frequently earth topped and support a variety of vegetation. A fine cut stone wall with mature treelines is present along the R503 east of Milestone. In the more elevated areas, high earthbanks are present, such as around Gortatooda. Fields are usually quite large and geometric. There are several good examples of small cut stone bridges, a distinctive feature in this LCA.

As mentioned previously, the Kilcommon-Rearcross complex supports a significant cluster of prehistoric features. A number of stone circles, associated with the Early Bronze Age are located around Kilcommon, at Reisk, Rardnogy More and Bauraglana. A possible passage grave underneath a stone cairn on Ballincurra Hill near Templederry has been identified by Raleigh (1985). A later Iron Age hillfort exists at Ballincurra Hill, and it is suggested that the builders were attracted to the site due to the presence of the passage grave, conferring a ritual value on the site. Alternatively, the hillfort enclosing the cairn may also suggest a continuity of settlement in this area from Neolithic to Iron Age.

The area was planted in the 17th century by families such as the Pritties around Templederry and the Otways. Castle Otway, burnt in 1922 still retains an unusual two storey lodge with a hexagonal tower. Borrisoleigh, as the name ‘Borris’ suggests was an early Norman settlement, although this name may be modified from the ancient territory of Ui Luighdheach. In Norman times, the borough was a stronghold of the de Burgos. The earliest mention of Borrisoleigh dates from 1358 when the community was fined for failing to attend an inquisition. Later records from 1521 note the granting of a watermill in the borough of ‘Boreishlee’ (Bradley, 1985). The Hearth money records from 1667 have been analysed by Smyth (1985) and Borrisoleigh, with its mixture of active corn mills, tucking (woollen) mills and bawns suggest a strong mixed commercial agricultural economy, an ongoing legacy of the Norman agricultural management regimes within their established boroughs. An inscription on one of the sandstone houses in the town is dated 1643. The de Burgo castle, now in ruins, remains a testament to the Norman influence at Borrisoleigh. The windows and door structures of the main street church were quarried from the still existing limestone quarry at Drombane, approximately 15km away.

This LCA lies largely within the Barony of Kilmanagh Upper.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 71 Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

This is a working landscape featuring pasture as the dominant landuse. It is in very good condition and indeed is highly scenic owing to the varied and interesting topography of rolling hills and valleys with vantage points that afford views. This high scenic quality renders this a significantly sensitive landscape. However, the nature of the varying topography is such that there is a capacity to accommodate development without undue deterioration in the scenic quality. The principal contrary factor in this landscape is the coniferous forestry. Its location on hilltops causes the maximum negative visual impact. In addition, single dwellings of inappropriate design which are poorly sited, reduce the scenic quality of this landscape in localised areas.

Scenic views, which are protected, are gained from the R497 road route in the southwestern part of this LCA.

Forces for Change

• Commercial coniferous forestry • Further development of wind energy to add to the existing 2.55mw site at Curraghgraigue. • Residential development as single houses or groups.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry in upland areas should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape. Criteria for the wind energy development and layout should be provided.

• Sensitive siting and design of individual buildings and groups of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of importance in this landscape. Specific design guidance should be provided to facilitate these outcomes.

• Specific guidance for development in areas in the vicinity of the Rivers Owenbeg and Bilboa should be developed.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 72 4.8 LCA 8: THURLES HINTERLAND

Table 4.8 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites Mixed arable and SPA -0 252 pasture lowlands Urban fringe SAC*-2 Farmed ridges NHA - 1

* includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

A gently undulating area stretching eastwards from the Clodiagh River towards Littleton and extending northwards along the R498 to the west and north above the Drish River valley.

Figure 4.8 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 73 Key Characteristics

• A flat and gently undulating agricultural plain with views dominated by western hills.

• Significant communication routes evidence by national roads and the railway line.

• Thurles is the principal town, but several other settlements reflect the long settlement history in this LCA.

• Holycross Abbey, a well known Cistercian Abbey, located on the Suir River, close to the county boundary.

Landform and Geology

The Thurles hinterland forms a flat open pastoral landscape lying below the rolling hills of Kilcommon and Upperchurch to the west. The landform ranges from flat to gently undulating and is underlain by Carboniferous Calp Limestones and Carboniferous Waulsortian Limestones. The highest points in the landscape rise to between 110m OD and 120m OD.

This landscape character area is well drained, being bounded by the Clodiagh River in the west, which drains southwards to the . The Suir traverses the character area and is fed by numerous other streams and tributaries, including the Drish River in the eastern part of the LCA. The Drish River runs down into a valley from higher ground to the east of Thurles.

Landcover and Ecology

Pastoral farmland is the predominant landcover in the Thurles hinterland, with a relatively large proportion of arable land also. Smaller amounts of scrub, peat bog and coniferous forestry exist. There is one designated SAC in the area, and one NHA.

The SAC is the Lower River Suir, which consists of the freshwater stretches of the River Suir immediately south of Thurles, the tidal stretches of the river as far as its confluence with the Barrow/Nore, and many tributaries of the River Suir (including the Clodiagh River). This SAC has been designated due to the presence of the EU Habitats Directive Annex I priority habitat ‘alluvial wet woodlands’. Parts of the site have been identified as of ornithological importance for a number of Annex I (EU Birds Directive) bird species, which add to the ecological interest of the site.

The NHA in the Thurles hinterland is the Cabragh Wetlands. These are situated close to the River Suir near Thurles, with areas of Common Reed and peaty fen. North of the town are reedbeds fed by springs of lime-rich groundwater. The Cabragh wetlands support good numbers of wildfowl.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 74 Human Influences

This area has a long settlement history due in part to the less accessible uplands to the west, and the extensive eastern bog zone. Furthermore, the strategic importance of the River Suir and the soil capability of the land facilitated both arable and pastoral production. The N8 and N62, as well as a number of regional roads (including the Angelsey Roads) traverse this area. Many radiate from Thurles, the largest town within this LCA.

Outside the nucleated settlements, this LCA remains a heavily settled area with a considerable number of houses sited on the roadside of the tertiary roads or accessed via narrow lanes. With the Suir draining through this area and a number of tributaries, cut stone bridges are a key landscape feature with a particularly fine arched bridge at Holycross.

Field enclosures within this LCA are less robust than elsewhere, reflecting some of the land rationalisation that has occurred and the removal of hedgerows to create larger fields and permit the use of larger machinery for tillage. Nonetheless, hedgerows remain the dominant enclosure system, with hawthorn and ash being the principal species.

Housing styles vary within this LCA. Older dwellings are usually two storey Georgian Big Houses often accessed via an avenue. In addition, there are a number of smaller two storey and single storey farmsteads, commonly with outbuildings close to the residence. There is a significant amount of new build, usually single storey and heavily concentrated on the rural areas surrounding towns such as Thurles and Borrisoleigh.

In addition to Thurles, there are a number of nucleated settlements, some of which contain a number of linear new buildings such as Twomileborris and Holycross. Thurles itself was largely established by the Norman Theobald Walter who was granted huge swathes of territory in 1185. Theobald made provision for a town around his castle and it may be concluded that he intended for Thurles to become a significant settlement with extensive demense lands for use by the manor castle (Empey, 1985). Following the dissolution of Cashel as the diocesan seat in Tipperary during the Reformation, Thurles developed as an alternative diocesan site and further reaffirmed its importance by becoming the residence of the archbishops of Cashel and . Combined with the educational institutions established by the Ursuline Sisters, the Presentation Sisters and the Christian Brothers, Thurles can be regarded as the successful embodiment of increased Roman Catholic confidence and wealth as the nineteenth century progressed (Whelan, 1985).

In contrast to the western uplands, this LCA contains a number of big houses and small estates including Farney Castle and Castlefogerty, located close to the chapel village of Ballycahill and formerly containing a demense of 430 acres. A significant number of these houses are found on the approach to the village of Holycross. The high number of castles (commonly rectangular

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 75 towerhouses) reflects the settlement tradition and strategic importance of this area. This LCA lies within the barony of Eliogarty and was under the influence of the powerful Butler family.

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

This is an open working landscape which is in good condition but is relatively unremarkable in terms of scenic quality. The influence of the foothill landscape type associated with the Upperchurch and Kilcommon area, viewed from the Thurles hinterland is an enhancement to this landscape character. The presence of both regional, national and local road infrastructure together with an abundance of settlements and dwellings render this a landscape that reflects high levels of human intervention. This has led to a landscape in which the natural characteristics are less dominant. This need not be regarded as a sensitive landscape other than the specific environs of the River Suir for habitat value reasons. The presence of commercial forestry further impacts on the nature of this landscape and indeed the removal of hedgerows has also had a significant impact on landscape character.

Forces for Change

• Commercial coniferous forestry • New building in the countryside • Hedgerow removal.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Sensitive siting and design of individual buildings and groups of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of importance in this landscape. Specific design guidance should be provided to facilitate these outcomes.

• Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry in upland areas should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape.

• Habitat and landscape character value of the wetlands of the River Suir are of great importance and the designated status requires that these areas are maintained and enhanced.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 76 4.9 LCA 9: LITTLETON BOGLANDS

Table 4.9 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Raised bog SPA – 0 45 SAC* - 0 NHA - 0

Extent

A distinctive raised bog area, this extends eastwards from the N8 where it meets the county boundary with Kilkenny.

Figure 4.9 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 77 Key Characteristics

• Small LCA dominated by extensive raised and commercially extracted bog.

• Littleton village the only nucleated settlement.

• Important monastic site at bog island in bog island at Derrynaflan.

• Cultural and communication links to Kilkenny.

Landform and Geology

The Littleton Boglands form a distinctive landscape character area in the east of North Tipperary. The raised bog is set within an overall landscape not dissimilar to the undulating lowland of the Thurles hinterland. The area is underlain predominantly by Carboniferous Waulsortian Limestone with some Carboniferous Lower Limestone Shales. The area is drained by a number of small rivers including the Breagagh River, the Black River and the Ballyley River.

Landcover and Ecology

Raised bog is set within pasture land, which is the dominant landcover. There are no sites designated for nature conservation in the Littleton Boglands, however, the best examples of raised bog in Ireland are protected as a habitat of international importance under the EU Habitats Directive. This is due to their increasing rarity. Pockets of arable land, rough grazing, coniferous and scrub also exist in the landscape character area.

The areas of raised bog support a dense growth of birch scrub with gorse and heather as an understorey. Where commercial turf extraction has taken place, areas are devoid of vegetation and present an evenly exposed surface of peat which has an industrial character.

Human Influences

Littleton is the only nucleated settlement within this LCA which is profoundly influenced in recent times by the Bord na Mona workings of Littleton Bog. A small network of roads span away from the N8 although there are a few routes through the raised bog area. Settlement is scattered with a relatively low density of settlement along the roads.

Traditional settlement remains single storey generally and big houses are not apparent within this small LCA, reflecting the lack of comparative commercial interest in the raised bog compared to the good soils to the west and north.

Littleton Bog itself has revealed information on prehistoric settlement with pollen analysis revealing an intensification of agriculture in this area around 1800BC with renewed forestry clearance of elm and hazel. This expansion

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 78 was intensified again in 1400BC when these cleared areas were expanded further (Raleigh, 1985). Evidence of Late Bronze Age activity is also revealed via the discovery of two bronze swords.

St Ruadhan of Lorrha founded a monastery on the raised island of Derrynaflan in Littleton bog and a significant hoard was found in 1980 from this site, containing the Derrynaflan Chalice, paten, stand and strainer. A church and mound are still present at Derrynaflan.

During the nineteenth century, clusters of settlement occurred on this wet and marginal land, reflecting the pushing of poorer and landless farmers onto more remote locations. A number of toghers (bog tracks, often quite ancient in origin) have been identified in Littleton bog (Feehan, 1996). Interestingly, a high proportion of the townlands in this area have Irish names reflecting their remoteness and lack of settler influence (Nolan, 1985).

Littleton itself originated as a small planter settlement, which deliberately disassociated itself from the pre-reformation parish center at Thurles, to a new strategic location at the Dublin-Cork road (Jones Hughes, 1985).

As part of the third development programme by Bord na Mona, a briquette factory was developed for Littleton Bog and this came into production in 1981. The infrastructural development associated with the extraction of peat commercially has created a number of narrow gauge railways and the briquette factory just over the County Boundary. Travelling through this area, one is struck by the ongoing sense of remoteness and the mosaic of habitats created by the cutaway bog and the raised bog that remains intact. This LCA contains one of the few industrial type landscapes within the County. This LCA lies within the barony of Eliogarty.

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

The remote and somewhat wild quality and condition of this landscape continues to be maintained today largely due to the very limited road access and the scarcity of rural based dwellings in parts of this LCA. The condition of the bogland landscape, where subjected to turf cutting activities and the infrastructure associated with this activity has been greatly altered and is now industrial in character. By contrast, the natural character and scenic quality is greater for the tracts of raised bog that remain intact with birch, gorse and heather scrub layer. Commercial coniferous forestry presents itself in very large scale crops which are also have substantial landscape impacts.

Forces for Change

• Commercial coniferous forestry continues to increase as a landuse in this area. • Loss of natural bog habitat as a result of turf cutting activities. • New building in the countryside as well as the expansion into its immediate hinterland of the village of Littleton.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 79 Principles for Landscape Management

• Sensitive siting and design of individual buildings and groups of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of importance in this landscape. Specific design guidance should be provided to facilitate these outcomes.

• Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry in upland areas should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape.

• Clear felling practices regarding commercial forestry should be revised to mitigate against negative visual impact.

• The untouched raised bog habitat is a valuable asset. All land use management principles need to consider the protection and enhancement of same.

• A village design statement for Littleton and its environs would assist in retaining and enhancing the settlement character of the area. • Farming practices should be such as to minimise hedgerow removal.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 80 4.10 LCA10: TEMPLEMORE PLAINS

Table 4.10 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Urban fringe SPA – 0 576 Lowland pasture SAC*-1 Raised bogland NHA - 8 Farmed ridges * includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

The Templemore plains form a large, gently undulating lowland area framed by Devilsbit and Borrisnoe Mountain to the west and extending to Roscrea in the north and the county boundary with Laois to the east.

Figure 4.10 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 81 Key Characteristics

• Undulating pastoral limestone plain framed to the west by the Devilsbit range.

• Long settlement history evidenced by castles and nucleated settlements.

• Roscrea and Templemore are the key towns.

• Communication centre for the eastern part of the county with number of communication routes such as the N7 and the railway corridor.

Landform and Geology

This is a gently undulating landscape, with some low hills along the eastern boundary of the County adjacent to County Laois. These hills rise to 223m OD and 228m OD (Black Hill). The area is underlain predominantly by Carboniferous Lower Limestone Shales, interspersed with Devonian Old Red Sandstone in the north and Carboniferous Waulsortian Limestone in the south.

The drains this area to the east, whilst the River Suir drains southwards towards the Thurles Hinterland LCA. Numerous streams feed into these rivers and include the Finawn River. A small number of lakes occur in the raised bogs east of Roscrea and include Butlers and Forked Loughs.

Landcover and Ecology

Landcover on the Templemore plains is dominated by pasture land. Smaller amounts of arable land exist, with some coniferous forestry, scrub, upland grazing and peat bog. There is also a small proportion of mixed and broadleaf forestry.

Part of the Lower River Suir SAC (described previously in LCA 8, Thurles Hinterland) falls within the Templemore Plains LCA. The Lower River Suir is designated primarily due to the presence of the EU Habitats Directive Annex I priority habitat ‘alluvial wet woodlands’. Numerous other Annex I habitats and species add to the ecological interest of the site. Areas of raised bog and intact marsh exist along the Nore River Valley (designated as an NHA), with areas of woodland along a portion of its northern bank. Part of the Cabragh Wetlands NHA also occur within the Templemore Plains.

Other features of ecological interest in the area include the Sheehills Eskers just outside Roscrea. Most of these ridges are wooded but some support grasslands and contain a number of locally uncommon plant species. The Monainchar/Ballaghmore Bog, 6km east of Roscrea, is designated as an NHA. The site is of considerable conservation significance, comprising as it does, a raised bog, a rare habitat in the E.U. Much of the high bog has vegetation typical of the true Midland Raised Bog type, consisting of Ling Heather, cottongrass and Carnation Sedge. The site supports a good diversity of raised

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 82 bog microhabitats including hummock/hollow complexes, and a large soak system. Roosts of Leisler’s, Natterer’s and brown long-eared bats, all of which are protected in Ireland, exist in buildings in Roscrea and Templemore and add to the ecological interest of the Templemore Plains area.

Human Influences

This central plain supports a long settlement history, providing good agricultural capability due to the limestone pasture and has proved attractive to human settlement since prehistoric times. A number of nucleated towns reflect the popularity of this area, with Roscrea, Templemore and Templetuohy being the principal nucleated settlements. The number of principal communication routes underpin the strategic importance of this area, with the N7 traversing the northern part of this LCA, in addition to the N62, two regional roads and a railway line.

Field enclosures vary throughout this large LCA. To the west of the N62, there are many stone walls, some containing bramble and ivy and commonly enclosing quite small fields. Elsewhere, hedgerows remain the dominant enclosure system, some gappy, whilst others show evidence of management and contain a number of hedgetrees. Earthbanks, though not extensive were also noted within this LCA accompanied by hedgerows elsewhere. To the east of the N62, there is more rough pasture, and the field sizes are generally bigger, again largely contained by hedgerows with limited stone walls present.

Settlement styles vary between single storey traditional buildings in the rural landscape, some ‘Big Houses’ and a number of recently constructed dwellings, particularly around Roscrea. Traditional dwellings are commonly well maintained and frequently are enclosed by cutstone walls on the road frontage. These are generally single storey dormer dwellings.

This LCA lies principally within the Barony of Ikerrin, which had strong links to the Ely O’Carroll family. The northern part of this LCA has strong links with Offaly, lying within the same Barony of Ikerrin. The links between Roscrea and Birr are longstanding and are reflected in the Regional Planning Guidelines (2004). Dunkerrin (just over the Offaly border) was the seat of Norman rule in Ely, whilst prior to Norman rule, the O’Meaghers were the dominant Gaelic family within the barony of Ikerrin (O’Corrbui, 1991).

The town of Roscrea remains an important nucleas within the County, providing a number of key services to the surrounding area. The name comes from Ros Cre, or the Wood of Cre. Cre was the wife of Dala, after whom the Sli Dala was named. The Sli Dala is an ancient route, one of five that emanated from Tara. The current N7 still largely follows this alignment. The town has strong links with St. Cronan who originally founded his monastery at Sean Ros outside the current town of Roscrea. However, it proved difficult to access this site so St. Cronan relocated to a new site along the Sli Dala and this is where the town developed from. The Book of Dimma, a copy of the

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 83 Four Gospels was said to have been written in the monastery in the eight century. The Round Tower, now in Church Street, was built to offer protection from Viking raids and was originally believed to have been 80 feet high. It was later used in the 1798 Rebellion by the insurgents who took advantage of the height of the tower to overlook the barracks. The consequence of this was the reduction of the tower by the barrack soldiers to a quarter of its former height (O’Corrbui, 1991).

The Butler presence remains within this part of the LCA, with a restored Butler castle present within Roscrea. Templemore, a garrison town, largely built with a wide central street in 1824 is now the location for the training college of the Garda Siochana. The Cardens were the chief landlords within the Templemore area and the town park is formerly part of the Carden estate (O’Currbui, 1991). Timoney Park south east of Roscrea, is identified as a Big House by Nolan (1985) and contained an 800 acre demense, a Glebe house, Church of Ireland Church and barracks.

A number of historic features are scatted throughout this LCA, not least the extensive number of rectangular tower houses, commonly associated with the Butler family. Monahincha (the island bog) near Roscrea was also known as Inis na mBeo (island of the living). Monahincha was a renowned place of pilgrimage and Cainneach, the saint of Kilkenny settled there for a time in the sixth century, in addition to St. Cronan. The Augustinian church remains today as a ruin. Originally a lake with two islands, an improving landlord drained the area in 1800, and today the site is a low hill with marshy surrounding land (O’Corrbui, 1991).

Another notable landscape feature, is the Timoney Stones, approximately 250- 300 stones spread over 100 acres. These form no regular pattern (with the exception of 16 stones) and their sockets are loosely set in the ground. There appears to have been extensive land clearance from this area in the mid- nineteenth century and the stones are considered to be of recent origin (Raleigh 1985) 1985). Another togher has been identified traversing Timoney bog and has been dated as between 1280 – 1520AD (Feehan, 1996).

Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

The hinterland of Roscrea is a working farmed landscape of variable condition. Some evidence of run down farmsteads was found in this area and these adversely affect landscape condition. This part of the LCA extending to and including the eastern side of Borrisnoe Mountain has a scenic quality and presents as quite a diverse landscape. The area to the south east of Roscrea owes its scenic quality to the presence of enhancing features including the ridgeline / esker topography and the open views commanded of this higher ground. The large tracts of raised bog (Timoney Bog and Monaincha Bog) confer maximum sensitivity on this immediate landscape outside Roscrea for ecological reasons. In terms of visual quality, this bog hinterland has been substantially impacted on by the extension of the residential areas of Roscrea and indeed the presence of large tracts of commercial coniferous forestry

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 84 which encroach on this area. The hinterland located to the south west of Roscrea is quite a different landscape. Its condition is partly affected by some dereliction and abandonment of farmsteads. However, the scenic quality is positively enhanced by the presence of vernacular architectural features and landscape patterns. These enhancing elements relate to the smaller scale field sizes, the stone wall boundaries, the traditional stone buildings and castle or church ruins and the unobtrusive and small scale road transport system, itself lined with stone walls which further reduce visual impact.

The majority of this LCA which surrounds the town of Templemore is intensively farmed with little deciduous vegetation other than the highly managed hedgerows that define the field boundaries. This confers a very man made and mechanised quality to this landscape and therefore renders it as quite unremarkable in terms of scenic quality. Coniferous forestry is very conspicuous in such a visually open setting and further impacts on the scenic quality.

Forces for Change

• Commercial coniferous forestry in the potentially more scenic parts of this LCA.

• The continuing expansion of urban settlements into their surrounding hinterlands.

• New building in the countryside.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Farm management practices should recognise and protect the built vernacular and traditional field patterns.

• Monitoring and management of ecological and landscape value of raised bog areas will be an ongoing requirement.

• The wider LCA, being intensively farmed, will depend on the retention and proper maintenance of deciduous hedgerow systems in order to preserve some of its original character.

• Sensitive siting and design of individual buildings and groups of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of importance in this landscape. Specific design guidance should be provided to facilitate these outcomes.

• Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry in upland areas should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 85 4.11 LCA 11: DEVILSBIT MOUNTAINS

Table 4.11 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Upland fringe SPA – 0 211 Upland bogland SAC* -1 with afforestation Farmed foothills NHA - 1

* includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

This upland and hilly area encompasses the Devilsbit and Borrisnoe mountains and extends north-eastwards from the R498 to Borrisoleigh, and then northwards along the 200m contour line of the mountain range upto to the County border with Offaly and westwards towards Toomevara.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 86 Figure 4.11 Typical Photograph

Key Characteristics

• Upland zone punctuating the surrounding lowlying landscape. • Extension of Silvermines to Slieve Bloom upland range. • Distinctive ridgeline of Devilsbit with associated folk mythology. • Rural in character with limited settlements on lower slopes.

Geology and Landform

The Devilsbit Mountains rise dramatically between Toomevara to the west and Templemore and Roscrea to the southeast and northeast respectively. The mountains rise up above the surrounding lowlands to peaks of 480m OD (Devilsbit Mountain), 445m OD (Kilduff Mountain) and 442m OD (Borrisnoe Mountain). Below the mountain summits, the upland fringe forms an irregular and sharply undulating landscape. The altitude lowers to foothills towards Toomyvara in the west and Borrisoleigh in the south.

The Devilsbit area is underlain by Silurian Greywackes and Slates. The source of the River Suir is found on the northern plateau of Borrisnoe Mountain at Benduff, and other small streams run down the mountain sides in various directions. The Ollatrim River runs along the county boundary with Offaly to the north.

Landcover and Ecology

The mountain summits are covered with large tracts of coniferous forestry, scrub and some blanket bog. Upper slopes, or the upland fringe, contain coniferous forestry and upland grazing. In lower lying areas and in the

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 87 foothills of the Devilsbit Mountains, pasture is dominant with some arable land.

The summit of Devilsbit Mountain and a ridge on the eastern side running north to Kilduff Mountain is designated as the Devilsbit SAC. The main habitats found in the Devilsbit Mountain area are upland grassland, heath and woodland. Grassland is largely confined to mineral soils on lower slopes. Heath dominates the upper slopes, with woodland on the upland fringe. Small groves of mature beech and oak persist on higher slopes. Protected species present in the area include the rare Small-white Orchid and Peregrine Falcon.

Human Influences

Settlement is sparse in this LCA, with most dwellings concentrated below 200m OD. There are no nucleated settlements within this LCA. The houses in the foothills share similarities with the other upland zones in the County, namely single storey dwellings, sometimes in a L-shape and contained by stone and managed hedges. There are also some two storey farmhouses. These dwellings are commonly accompanied by outbuildings such as low cattle sheds and haybarns.

Field enclosure alters with increasing elevation. In the foothills, hedgerows are present often with a good number of hedgetrees providing screening opportunities. Hedgerows give way to less managed enclosure such post and wire and occasional old stone walls formed from small to medium stones.

This LCA lies largely within the Barony of Ikerrin. Big Houses are not a feature within this LCA, as the thin soils were less attractive to settlers than the higher quality lower plains. There is little evidence of prehistoric settlement within this LCA, although a gold bowl from the late bronze age may suggest ritual use of this upland area. The Norman manor at Inch is one of only two motted castles in Tipperary (the other located at Thurles). The development of this motted castle suggests the need for a defensive settlement close to the upland area, but also indicates that the forested slopes of the Devilsbit was a factor in the economy of the Norman manorial system in this area (Empey, 1985).

It is important to note the cultural significance of the Devilsbit Mountains to the surrounding population and the County at large. There is a large number of folk traditions and rituals associated with the distinctive ridgeline of the mountain, principally the involvement of the Devil in biting a chunk off the mountain, finding it to be particularly hard and spitting it out as he travelled over the southern plains, creating the . The Devilsbit is also known as the Rock of Barnane, and has an annual pattern day, ‘Rock Sunday’ in July. The route involves first climbing to the cleft that gives the mountain its distinctive name and then onto the summit. In former times, games used to be held on the summit on Rock Sudnay between different factions knowns as ‘Blackfeet’, ‘Whitefeet’, ‘Cummins’ and ‘Darrigs’ (O’Corrbui, 1991).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 88 Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

This area is characterised by mountain moorland and upland hills. The mountain area associated with Devil’s Bit has a definite sense of remoteness and wildness which contributes positively to the scenic quality of this area. This quality is added to by the presence of natural habitats, namely upland grassland, heathland and wooded areas together with the scarcity of settlements and infrastructure. This is a sensitive landscape, not solely because of the unique characteristics of Devil’s Bit Mountain but also because of the relatively undeveloped nature of the area thereby preserving scenic quality. The principal intervention that impacts on scenic quality is the presence of large tracts of coniferous forestry particularly on Borrisnoe Mountain.

At lower elevations, the landscape is a working farmed landscape albeit comprised of gently rolling hills of significant height and scale. This landscape carries no sense of remoteness, being well developed in terms of road infrastructure and settlements. The impact of farm intensification has led to enlarged field sizes and hedgerow removal.

A transitional landscape is identified and located between the mountain areas and the rolling hills. Typically characterised by the presence of scrub, rough grazing and poorly maintained hedgerows, this part of the LCA is perhaps in poorest condition.

Forces for Change

• Commercial coniferous forestry. • Development of wind energy. • Changes in agricultural practices owing to decrease in population.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Natural habitats (upland grassland, heathland and wooded areas) that contribute to landscape character and scenic quality should be safeguarded.

• Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape

• Introduction of new planting to rejuvenate hedgerow boundaries of poor condition.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 89 4.12 LCA 12: NENAGH CORRIDOR

Table 4.12 Landscape Data

Landscape Natural Heritage Archaeological Character Types Designations Sites (SMR) Urban fringe SPA – 0 291 Lowland pasture SAC* – 0 Farmed ridges NHA - 0 Glacial valley * includes candidate Special Areas of Conservation

Extent

The Nenagh Corridor runs eastwards from the Devilsbit Mountains, incorporating the town of Nenagh and running to the north of the Silvermines Mountains. It forms a flat to gently undulating lowland enclosed by the Arra Mountains to the north, by the Silvermines Mountains to the south and by the Devilsbit Mountains to the east.

Figure 4.12 Typical Photograph

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 90 Key Characteristics

• Broad glacial valley framed by Arra Mountains to the North and Silvermines range to the south.

• Predominantly pastoral landscape with associated features.

• Key communications corridor facilitating access to the River Shannon and Lough Derg.

• Nenagh, the county town is located within this LCA.

• Number of castles and fortified houses in addition to crannogs at Lough Duff, close to Rathurles fort, are indicators of long settlement history.

Landform and Geology

The Nenagh Corridor is largely underlain by Carboniferous Waulsortian Limestone and lower limestone shales with Old Red Sandstone at the perimeters, reflecting the commencement of the adjoining upland areas of Arra and Silvermines.

This is a broad u-shaped glacial valley, created as the ice sheets flowed southwesterly, scouring the broad valley of softer limestone, whilst it met the resistance of the harder and older upland rocks. Post glacially, the Nenagh, Ballintotty and Kilmastulla rivers, which rise in the surrounding uplands have reinforced this broad valley through fluvial processes as they meander through the valley floor. These rivers drain in a southwesterly orientation (with the exception of the Nenagh River, which flows northwesterly) before entering the Shannon.

Landcover and Ecology

The dominant landcover is good quality pasture on either side of the N7, with some arable land and scrub. There are no areas designated for nature conservation in the Nenagh Corridor.

Human Influences

This LCA in common with the Templemore Plains and Thurles Hinterland represents a key communication corridor of good limestone pasture land enclosed by historically less accessible uplands or wetlands. The ancient Sli Dala route is now aligned by the N7, and a number of regional roads (R494, R500, R495, R445 and R491) radiate from the county town of Nenagh. In addition, the N52 links Nenagh to Birr while one of the Angelsey Roads (R498) connects Nenagh with Thurles. Once again, the railway link supports the importance of this accessible communications corridor within the County.

Settlement is concentrated in and around the nucleated towns of Nenagh and to a lesser degree Toomevara. Elsewhere, settlement remains scattered and

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 91 dispersed around the rural landscape, but it is also quite densely settled nonetheless. Some ‘Big Houses’ are present within this LCA although not as visible as the northern Borrisokane Lowlands LCA. Traditional dwellings are single storey or two storey farmsteads, with adjacent farm buildings of rounded hay barns that fit in well with the receiving landscape.

Hedgerows remain the dominant enclosure system, though some earthbanks were noted with ferns, Norway spruce and dead trees strangled by ivy north of the N7, at the start of the Arra foothills. In the valley proper, the hedgerows are of varying quality and there is evidence of boundary removal in some areas, with subsequent new enclosures composed of post and wire fencing.

This LCA contains Rathurles, a Bronze Age fort from 3,000 years ago and inhabited until 12th century. It is composed of three large earthern rings and stone gate piers. The O’Kennedys took it over in the 15th century and built a stone church in the centre with a small castle (O Corrbui, 1991). Nearby Lough Duff contains a number of crannogs, partly or wholley artificial islands, developed in Ireland during the early historic period (500 – 1170 AD) but sometimes inhabited for a number of centuries.

Nenagh, as it Irish name suggests An tAonach, was the site of the great fair of East Munster. Another Butler town, the Butlers brought the Augustinians to Nenagh in the thirteenth century, where they settled at Tigh Eoin (St John’s House) on what is now the southern edge of the town. Further land was given to the Augustinians at Cloughprior and Carney in Lower Ormond.` The Franciscans were introduced to Nenagh by the O’Kennedys although their arrival date is uncertain. The success of the Franciscans in creating strong bonds with the surrounding community is evidenced by the later siting of the Catholic chapel in the site of the former Franciscan monastery (Whelan, 1985). Nenagh Castle, the first castle built in the County by the Butler family around 1220, was built by Theobald Walter, who also developed Thurles. Under Norman rule, Nenagh was identified as one of the four manors for the region which served as the ‘caput’ or capital manor of the surrounding lands. Hence one can see the emerging urban centre at Nenagh developing from the early thirteenth century.

A number of Big Houses are scattered around the Nenagh area, reflecting in part the attractiveness to settlers of being close to an administrative and urban centre. Bushfield is ident ified by Nolan (1985) as a ‘Big House’ cluster, meaning in this term, an unplanned development associated with a landlord or developed due to the labour requirements of the Big House. Lissenhall, south of Nenagh was built in the mid eighteenth century with a demense of 160 acres. The house is now in ruins. The Olitrim river, a tributary of the Nenagh River, was modified to provide water features throughout the demenses of Donnybrook, River Lawn, Castle Willington, Mount Pleasant and Rathurles in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (Nolan,1985).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 92 Landscape Condition and Sensitivity

The Nenagh Corridor LCA is a lowland landscape given over to pastoral use and is generally in good condition. The western part of this LCA takes the form of a glacial valley located between the Arra and . This broad u-shaped valley commands long range views and the scenic quality is high due to the somewhat dramatic profile of the valley set against an attractive mountain backdrop. This scenic quality together with the high degree of visual exposure renders this a sensitive landscape in terms of development. Commercial coniferous forestry together with new housing development are the main elements that impact on the integrity of the scenic quality of this area.

More generally, the low lying hinterland of Nenagh comprises large scale pastoral farming as the principal landuse and this working landscape is generally in good condition. Commercial coniferous forestry together with new housing development also impact on this area but this part of the LCA is not particularly scenic or visually exposed. This landscape is not particularly sensitive and indeed has the capacity to accommodate development that is correctly sited and sensitively designed.

Forces for Change

• Commercial forestry planting. • New building in the countryside.

Principles for Landscape Management

• Sensitive siting and design of individual buildings and groups of buildings as well as site treatment appropriate to the area will be of importance in this landscape. Specific design guidance should be provided to facilitate these outcomes with particular reference to the scenic quality of the valley.

• Design guidance in respect of commercial forestry should be provided in order to integrate this landuse into the landscape. Any large scale infrastructural developments will be difficult to mitigate against in the valley location specifically. As it is a working landscape (not a remote wilderness landscape), renewable energy in the form of wind turbines need not be prohibited. However the design and siting and particularly the visual mitigation of such infrastructure will need careful consideration.

• The intensity and scale of farming needs to be managed in a manner that prevents further hedgerow removal. Management of existing native species hedgerows and hedge trees therein will enhance this landscape.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 93

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 94 5 FORCES FOR CHANGE

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The landscape, ecological and historical resources of North Tipperary are in a process of continuous and ongoing change in response to the direct and indirect consequences of human activity and of natural processes. Throughout the County’s history, changes in agriculture, industry, society and the environment have had a profound influence on the landscape. In many instances change was rapid, brought on by changes in political or administrative regimes, patterns of land ownership or fluctuations in population. Road improvements have brought changes through the expansion of rural settlement and access to hitherto remote areas, whilst government and EU assisted investment has altered the scale, nature and organisation of agricultural activity.

As part of the ongoing process of change, patterns of employment, agricultural land use, forestry and infrastructure all continue to transform the landscape. However, the implications and significance of change are always difficult to assess. Assessment and appreciation of landscape is often subjective and changes to landscape that are regarded as negative by some, may be disregarded or even perceived as positive by others. Perceptions also change with time and new features may become established as valued elements of the landscape.

Despite these difficulties of evaluation, however, it is vital that change is managed to retain or enhance qualities that are generally valued and that make the North Tipperary landscape unique, and to conserve the great variety of historical, cultural and ecological resources found within the County. It is also important that a common approach is taken to the management of the rural landscape throughout the region as required by the Regional Planning Guidelines adopted by the Mid West Regional Authority.

This section of the report examines in more detail the most influential driving forces behind landscape change in North Tipperary, setting change in a long- term context and analysing trends for the future. It is based upon a desk review of relevant planning and policy documents, general literature and upon consultation with local authorities, agencies and interest groups.

The key forces for change that have been identified as having likely landscape impacts are –

• Agriculture and Forestry • Built development • Infrastructure including renewable energy and telecommunications • Tourism and recreation

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 95 This section includes specific change elements associated with each force for change as well as broad management principles for each of the key forces for change, suggesting how change can be managed so that it has a positive, sustainable influence on landscape character.

The section contains a brief review of the principal policies and strategies that provide the context within which the forces for change are likely to emerge, an outline of these forces and a broad suggested management response. Separate guidance has been produced in relation to wind energy development, telecoms and forestry that will be subject to a separate consultation process by North Tipperary County Council at a later stage.

5.1.1 Strategic Policy

At a strategic level, North Tipperary is part of the Southern and Eastern Region of Ireland, which has an EU ‘Objective One in Transition’ Status. This qualifies the region for higher levels of certain grant assistance which will be phased out by to the end of 2006. Investment is available for local infrastructure, local enterprise development, agriculture, rural development and social inclusion.

The aims of the Operational Programme highlight some of the broad trends and issues facing the environment and heritage of the region. These include arresting the deterioration of river and lake water quality, the protection of the countryside, urban areas, environmentally sensitive areas and the strategic management of land use (1).

The impacts of the change in status of Ireland following the end of 2006 is not clear. It is not likely, however, that investment in a range of activities that have landscape implications will be seriously compromised as the growing national economy will continue to provide resources for investment in public and private development.

5.1.2 Mid West Regional Planning Guidelines

The Regional Planning Guidelines (May 2004) present the opportunity and, indeed, a requirement for landscape management to be considered not only at county level but between counties. In particular the Mid-West guidelines (for Counties North Tipperary, Clare, Limerick and Limerick City) identify a number of areas that cross county and regional boundaries, and are identified as being of ‘landscape importance’. These include Lough Derg and the Slieve Felim range in County Tipperary. These areas require a common approach between counties to ensure that they are managed in a consistent way. A specific need identified for Lough Derg is the management of the environmental, tourism and landscape resource of the area in a co-ordinated way. The co-ordinated management of tourism, agriculture, renewable energy, forestry and landscape is also identified for Slieve Felim.

(1) Operational Programme for the Southern and Eastern Region 2000-2006. Southern and Eastern Regional Assembly 2000.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 96 A common approach to landscape management throughout the region should ensure that the quality and character of landscape areas are identified, that a common designation and description is devised for areas that require protection, and that the nature and scale of development that is permitted within areas of different designations is identified.

Since the Guidelines have only recently been adopted and guidance on their implementation issued even more recently, it is not clear as to the precise processes that will be used to ensure this co-ordinated approach. That matter lies in the hands of the Regional Authority. It is proposed, however, that this present strategy considers the landscape areas of North Tipperary and appropriate responses to those areas from the perspective of North Tipperary for the time being. At a minimum, these considerations will provide a context for North Tipperary to work in conjunction with neighbouring counties and the Regional Authority in meeting the requirements of the Regional Planning Guidelines with regard to landscape protection. In addition, since the development of such co-ordinated approaches is likely to take some time, it is important that North Tipperary has a policy basis for making decisions pending the development of this co-ordinated approach.

5.2 AGRICULTURE

Agriculture and its associated activities has been one of the key components in shaping Ireland’s rural landscape. Indeed, it is probably reasonable to state that there is no part of Ireland’s landscape that has not been shaped to a greater or lesser extent by agricultural activity. Therefore, agriculture is one of the key forces for change in the landscape of North Tipperary.

Agriculture is itself undergoing great change. As the sections below will outline, changes in the structure of agriculture that have been occurring for some time will continue, if anything at an increasing pace and these changes could have significant landscape implications.

5.2.1 Baseline Agricultural Information

There are currently 2,200 full time farmers in North Tipperary(1). This figure is much higher than the average for other western counties in Ireland. There are also an increasing number of part-time farmers in the area, reflecting growth in other sectors. Farming activities include the supply of milk (1,300 farmers), tillage (250 farmers) and cattle and sheep farming with approximately 2,600 and 600 farmers involved respectively. North Tipperary also has a strong equine tradition. There are 13 stud farms located primarily in the Nenagh and Thurles catchment areas. Major agricultural products in North Tipperary include mushrooms, pigs, forestry and horticulture. Sugar was formerly produced in the southern part of the County but with the closure of the

(1) David Collins, Teagasc, pers. comm.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 97 processing plant over ten years ago, beet production has been replaced with small holding dairy farming.

Agriculture is the predominant landuse in North Tipperary with 149,411 ha of land under agriculture. Of this, 12,322 ha are under tillage for crops, fruit and horticulture. A further 130,371 ha are used for hay, silage and pasture. The most important agricultural activity in North Tipperary is dairying and cattle rearing, with over 80% of the agricultural gross output being generated by these industries (County Development Plan 2004-2010).

5.2.2 North Tipperary Policies

While agriculture continues to play an important part in the economic life of North Tipperary, the numbers employed in farming declined by 17% between 1986 and 1996. This decline is in line with national trends and is likely to continue. In addition, the age profile of farming is changing in some areas, with the agricultural population aging and less likelihood of the new generation carrying on a farming tradition in the same way as their forbears.

This issue has been recognised in the County Development Plan which identifies the broadening of the rural economy while conserving the landscape, environment and natural diversity of the countryside as a key challenge.

Key issues for agricultural policy identified in the County Development Plan include:

• Farm diversification and off-farm employment will require significant investment in the development of human resources.

• With increased intensification in some areas and afforestation in others, the landscape and environment will be radically altered. Agriculture as an economic sector will face challenges to be environmentally sustainable.

• The area of greatest landscape change is probably agriculture. The Rural Environmental Protection Scheme (REPS) is a measure that provides some protection. REPS uptake is lowest where change is likely to be greatest.

• Increasing demand for recreation space. There is no national strategy on provision and no hierarchy of needs established. Agricultural land will be required to meet future needs.

It is the policy of the Council to protect the viability of farms and best quality land for agriculture and related uses. The Development Plan also includes a policy requiring that agricultural buildings are designed, located and orientated in a manner that will minimise their environmental impact.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 98 North Tipperary Economic, Social and Cultural Strategy 2001-2012

The Economic, Social and Cultural Strategy identifies a number of ‘principle issues’ for agriculture in North Tipperary:

• The stabilisation of the existing farming population. • Provision of support for engagement in the emerging forms of agriculture. • The linkage of agriculture with the wider action framework of rural community and economic development.

The strategy identifies a number of objectives considered necessary to underpin the future of agriculture and rural areas in North Tipperary. Those relevant to the conservation of landscape and natural resources include:

• Promote sustainable agricultural practices while protecting our natural resources. e.g., promote the development of an Environmental Awards Scheme aimed at supporting environmentally friendly farm practices, carry out a survey of the County to identify areas of greatest return from investment in renewable energy.

• Promote a strong agri-tourism base within North Tipperary. e.g., review approach to marketing and promotion of agri-tourism, develop economic proposals to enhance the sustainability of rural areas.

• Develop the afforestation potential of the county through appropriate planting and sustainable management policies.

• Provide greater access to education and training for those involved in agriculture, forestry and rural development in the county.

5.2.3 National Policy

The National Spatial Strategy 2002-2020

The National Spatial Strategy states that sensitive development and conservation of natural resources and heritage in rural areas, including the landscape, is essential for strengthened rural economies, and indeed the national economy itself. These resources include:

• Agricultural land for high quality food production; • Water resources of high quality (rivers, lakes, groundwater, offshore); • Forestry for the production of economically valuable timber. Forests also make a contribution to the reduction of global warming; and • A world renowned landscape, the attractiveness and integrity of which are central to Ireland’s tourism industry.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 99 5.2.4 The Rural Environment Protection Scheme (REPS)

REPS is a scheme designed to reward farmers for carrying out their farming activities in an environmentally friendly manner and to bring about environmental improvement on existing farms (1).

Participants in REPS must carry out their farming activities for a five year period in accordance with an agri-environmental plan. They must comply with 11 basic measures. Many of these measures have implications for landscape, such as:

• Protect and maintain all watercourses and wells; • Retain wildlife habitats; • Maintain farm and field boundaries; • Protect features of historical and/or archaeological interest; and • Maintain and improve the visual appearance of the farm and farmyard.

REPS 1 ran from 1994 to 1999, with REPS 2 running from 2000 to 2004. REPS 3 began in 2004. The main changes to REPS 3 include the addition of two extra measures, which have considerable implications for the improvement of the quality of North Tipperary’s agricultural landscape. Participants must choose from two category lists. At least one of these should be taken from Category 1. Category 1 Options are:

• Creation of new habitat; • Hedgerow rejuvenation; • New hedgerow establishment; • Additional stonewall maintenance; • Green cover establishment; • Environmental management of set-aside; and • Increased arable margins.

Examples of Category 2 options include the creation of:

• Traditional hay meadows; • Species rich grassland; • Broadleaved tree planting; • Nature corridors; and • Provide landscaping around the farmyard.

(1) http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/index.jsp?file=areasofi/reps.xml

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 100 Supplementary measures, for which farmers may receive extra payment, were refined under REPS 3 and include (among others):

• Management/maintenance of habitats suitable for breeding corncrake; • Creation of traditional Irish orchards; and • LINNET habitat (Land Invested in Nature, Natural Eco Tillage) – the maintenance of small-scale cereal plots with the objective of providing a food source and a mosaic of habitats, in order to benefit bird species.

Payment rates were also increased under REPS 3. With the advent of decoupling of production subsidies under CAP reform, REPS 3 will prove to be an attractive option for farmers who had previously been engaged in intensive farming.

Approximately 24% of land in North Tipperary was managed under REPS 1, but uptake of the scheme has improved significantly under REPS 3 (1). There were 401 participants in REPS 3 in North Tipperary during 2004, accounting for 14,750 ha of land (2).

5.3 RURAL DEVELOPMENT

5.3.1 National Policy

The White Paper on Rural Development, 1999

The Government’s White Paper on Rural Development articulates a vision for the long-term future of Irish rural society. The government aims to achieve a rural Ireland in which:

‘there will be vibrant sustainable communities with the range of age, income and occupational groups, such as to allow them to adapt to on-going economic, social, cultural and environmental change and to enjoy a standard of living and a quality of life which will make them attractive communities in which to live and work’

In relation to the environment, the vision for rural development is based on the maintenance of dispersed, vibrant rural communities. Achievement of this goal is dependent on an approach to rural development which is environmentally sustainable.

The long term well-being of rural communities is particularly dependent on sustainable use of local resources. Taking advantage of environmental assets such as clean air and water, unspoilt landscape, natural resources, high concentration of inland waterways and natural habitats, while at the same time protecting them, requires a co-ordinated approach and the integration of environmental concerns into all rural development policies and programmes.

(1) David Collins, Teagasc, pers. comm. (2) Department of Agriculture and Food, January 2005. Rural Environmental Protection Scheme Facts and Figures for 2004.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 101 The National Development Plan 2000 to 2006 is the main vehicle for the implementation of the White Paper on Rural Development. Economic, social, cultural and environmental commitments contained within paper are reflected in relevant policies.

5.3.2 Rural Development Programmes in North Tipperary

LEADER Programmes

The EU funded LEADER programmes encourage the implementation of innovative strategies in rural communities including a number of rural enterprise projects. Of particular relevance to the County is the number of programmes that have positive landscape benefits, including:

• Golden Mile Programme, a programme that encourages community involvement in the maintenance and enhancement of one mile of tertiary road within North and South Tipperary. The programme aims to encourage environmental awareness and the preservation and maintenance of local environments. To date, 180 miles in both North and South County Tipperary have been entered in the annual competition, and

• the allocation of higher grants for converting existing farm buildings for agri-tourism.

5.4 THE POST 2006 AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT

The face of agriculture and the nature of rural development is likely to change significantly over the next period of time. These changes arise from a number of sources including –

The de-coupling of agricultural support from production.

This is already taking place. It means that in essence in Ireland, farmers will no longer have their support payments linked to production. This may have a number of consequences. It may lead to an increase in part-time farming, it may lead to farm consolidation and increasing farm sizes, it may encourage new forms of agriculture and it may increase demand for new forms of on- farm enterprise.

The declining numbers of those engaging in full-time farming

This may, again have many of the impacts of the previous factor.

The changing non-farm employment context

As alternative forms of employment become more available to the agricultural population, some who might have otherwise engaged in full-time farming will be tempted to opt for part-time farming with a non-rural off-farm job as well.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 102 Current Government policy regarding support for afforestation

Current Government policy provides significant incentives for afforestation. This, combined with some of the changes outlined above could give rise to additional pressures for afforestation.

Changes to the CAP arising from 2007 onwards and its implications for agriculture and forestry

The next CAP Regulation is currently being negotiated. While the principal framework is now relatively clear, the details are not as of yet. The precise details of the implementation regulations and the consequent national rural development plan may have significance in terms of the way that rural land is used and managed. This matter needs to be considered and a flexible approach built in to the landscape management strategy.

Cross-compliance

This requires that various payments made to agriculture must comply with a range of environmental requirements.

The mainstreaming of the LEADER approach in rural development

This approach is essentially small-scale, local and networking based. This may have impacts on the demands for future rural enterprise developments.

Government Renewable Energy and Climate Change Targets

These may have implications for the way in which the rural landscape is used in a variety of ways including the provision of windpower, the growing of energy crops, nutrient management and greenhouse gas emissions much of which comes from agriculture.

The Financial Perspectives for 2007-2013 were published in February 2004 and indicate that future rural development policy after 2006 has three main objectives (1):

• Increasing the competitiveness of the agricultural sector through support for restructuring (e.g. investment aids for young farmers)

• Enhancing the environment and countryside through support for land management, e.g. co-financing of rural development actions related to Natura 2000 nature protection sites

• Enhancing the quality of life in rural areas and promoting diversification of economic activities

(1) http://www.teagasc.ie/publications/2004/20040330/paper01.htm

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 103 While it is not clear as to the exact implications of all of these changes, they do seem likely to have potentially significant consequences for the landscape.

Box 5.1 Summary of Key Issues for Agriculture and Rural Development

• 2005 is the first year of the decoupling regime. Changes in agricultural activities are likely to have landscape impacts in term of the maintenance or abandonment of agricultural features including field enclosures, crop-types, farm-buildings and so on.

• Current trends suggest an increase in part time farmers and farm diversification – the maintenance of agricultural features in this climate is a challenge that may be addressed via increased REPS uptake but that may also require specific landscape protection.

• Rural Development and Agricultural policies and programmes are likely to make the environmental capital of agricultural regimes increasingly explicit and controlled.

• Rural development and tourism programmes and policies will increasingly seek to build on the environmental resources of North Tipperary.

• The management of the landscape impact of modern large scale agricultural developments.

• Building on the landscape resource as an opportunity to create viable alternatives to full time farming activities and retain rural populations.

Box 5.2 Broad Landscape Guidance for Agriculture & Rural Development

• Contrasting land management systems help maintain a diverse landscape character. Recognition and encouragement of agricultural practices will help maintain the distinction between upland and lowland areas. This is particularly relevant for the upland LCAs of Silvermines, Upperchurch- Rearcross and Devilsbit, and the lower more intensively farmed lands around the Templemore Plains, Borrisokane Lowlands and the Thurles Hinterland.

• Siting of new farm sheds and outbuildings should take account of local visual amenity. Sheltered positions, choice of materials and native planting screens will assist in preventing unnecessary visual intrusion where more obtrusive locations are necessary.

• Maintain farm and field boundaries and wildlife habitats. The establishment of riparian zones to protect water bodies will assist both ecological and landscape resources.

• Routing of farm tracks along screened alignments or natural contours will help ameliorate impacts.

• Consider using current rural development programmes as a means to engage local communities in landscape and habitat restoration. For example, the Golden Mile programme in Tipperary encourages the maintenance of hedgerows along tertiary roads. Support should be given to local groups to carry out hedgerow surveys within this programme to provide more information on local planting regimes. This will enhance local landscape character and increase knowledge regarding the biodiversity of hedgerows in the County.

• Other Leader initiatives such as higher grant aid for conversion of existing farm buildings for agri-tourism should be strongly supported in Council Policy and if possible, grant aided.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 104 5.5 BUILT DEVELOPMENT

The most recent census data (2002) reveal an increase in the population of North Tipperary from 58,021 (1996) to 61,050 (2002), representing an overall increase of 5.2 per cent, below the Munster average of 6.5 per cent (1). Whilst there has been an increase in population overall, there are considerable spatial differentiations in the rates of population change within the County, with some areas suffering significant population decline.

The areas of greatest population increase include Ballina (98.2%), the environs of Thurles (Thurles Rural Electoral Division) (70.5%) and Twomileborris (49.3%), followed by the Silvermines area (27.2%) and the environs of Nenagh (Nenagh Rural Electoral Division – 24.3%). Particular attention should be placed on balancing the conflicting demands on the environment and the landscape within the areas of greatest development pressure. Areas of population decline include the environs of Birr (Riverstown Electoral Division, -28.6%), Kilcomenty Electoral Division (-22.2%) and the environs of Templemore (Drom Electoral Division, -14%).

5.5.1 Housing

According to the County Development Plan, 2,474 houses were granted planning permission in the open countryside between 1997 and 2002. A total of 1,398 houses were granted outline permission in the same period, demonstrating the high demand for such development. Many of these houses were not built for local housing need, but were built to fulfil urban-generated demand. Latest statistics from the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government state total house completions at 7,038 between 1999 and September 2004 in North Tipperary (including private and Local Authority housing) (2).

Table 5.1 Total House Completions in North Tipperary, 1999 - September 2004

Year Total Housing Completions (including private & Local Authority housing) 1999 1,032 2000 1,132 2001 1,006 2002 1,263 2003 1,257 2004 1st Quarter 363 2003 2nd Quarter 594 2004 3rd Quarter 391 Total 7,038

County policy is to grant permission only to people whose primary employment is in agriculture, horticulture, forestry or the bloodstock industry. Permission may also be given to people who are employed in North

(1) www.cso.ie (2) www.environ.ie

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 105 Tipperary and who need to live in a rural location owing to the nature of that employment, or members of farm families seeking to live on the family farm.

Permission may also be given for clusters of houses, since these are perceived to form a traditional settlement pattern. There is a better chance of receiving planning permission for a one-off house in depopulated areas.

Rural housing is prohibited in areas of high amenity, particularly around Lough Derg in the north of the County and along the Shannon. Exceptions to this include the children of farmers wishing to build on family land, in-fill spaces between existing farms, the sub-division of existing plots and the refurbishment of a derelict building.

5.5.2 Expansion of Existing Settlements

Housing developments and the expansion of settlements have effects on the County’s landscapes. North Tipperary displays distinct patterns of rural settlement with numerous individual houses and buildings dispersed throughout the countryside. Small towns and villages, particularly those with ancient origins, provide a focus for rural populations, services, recreation and community facilities. In recent years, built development has occurred on the fringes of towns and villages and in a scattered pattern along rural roads throughout North Tipperary. In the future, it seems likely that development will continue to target these areas, meaning that particular care and attention to issues of siting, layout and design will be required.

It is a recent trend that new structures tend to be built to a standard design and tend to be unrelated to local patterns of built form. For example, new housing of the same modern design, layout, materials and detailing may be observed in a number of towns and other locations, often sited along busy roads. Where new development is sited on the edge of towns and villages, or as ribbon development along principal approach roads, it has the effect of isolating the core of the settlement from its landscape context, restricting views to the open countryside and creating a nondescript first impression.

Expansion of existing settlements usually involves the development of greenfield sites and therefore the loss of a proportion of the region’s landscape resource. Such development represents a significant and potentially detrimental force for change in landscapes which are sensitive in visual terms or which are important for their inherent historic or ecological interest. When areas for new housing development are being identified, their landscape potential and the impact of their development on the overall landscape quality of the area should be part of the consideration. In addition, redundant buildings and brownfield sites within the existing urban fabric should be promoted as priority areas for development and their development should be facilitated where possible.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 106 5.5.3 Isolated Buildings in the Countryside

Derelict buildings are particularly prevalent in areas of marginal farmland, on the fringes of the upland moors, where they lend a sense of abandonment. In these locations, derelict farms and cottages, although crumbling and overgrown, represent an important and tangible link to the past and are evocative features in the landscape as well as a historic record of a changing society.

The abandonment of dwellings may be due to a number of factors including the increased cost associated with the renovation of old houses to provide modern facilities. The constant demand for new housing is also driven by the prestige of owning a new home and the need for new houses to enable younger generations to remain close to their parental homes. There is a strong sense of pride in the new, and perhaps a tendency to undervalue the traditional vernacular buildings. Scenic areas and some lakeside areas are also under a great deal of pressure, both for residential development and second homes.

The development of new isolated houses and large modern farm buildings has had a cumulative impact on the quality and character of the countryside. Recent development has tended to introduce a profusion of materials and a variety of different styles. Indeed the use of modern materials has enabled more exposed and prominent locations to be built on whereas in the past sites were carefully chosen to exploit the shelter provided by landform or vegetation. Some new houses front directly onto rural roads and may have prominent entrance gates and ornamental gardens that do not integrate with the local landscape.

These factors mean that new rural housing can be at odds with older forms of rural settlement, which are often built of simple materials and also often associated with groups of mature tress in a sheltered location which appears in harmony with the local topography.

The issue of one-off housing in the countryside is contentious throughout Ireland, including North Tipperary. While many welcome strict controls, others point out that strict controls can be detrimental to the landscape. This is because they may lead to further rural depopulation and abandonment of farm holdings, as well as adverse impacts from uncharacteristic ‘cluster’ housing in the county’s smaller town and villages.

Whatever the decisions regarding the policy of managing the amount of housing in the countryside, the protection of the quality of the landscape should have as an objective the dominance of the natural over the constructed. Such an objective will be facilitated by appropriate siting and materials and, generally by a simple approach to building design. This does not mean that modern buildings cannot be constructed but that the design should be such as to respect the landscape and not unduly detract from the dominance of the natural.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 107 North Tipperary in conjunction with Limerick County Council are in the process of producing housing design guidelines which will address these matters with the objective of providing appropriate future development.

This positive step provides a great opportunity to facilitate the consideration of good design practice and to make good siting and designs principles understood by all.

5.5.4 Commercial/Industrial

Numbers employed in large indigenous industry and multi-national companies increased considerably between 1990 and 2000 (by 32.1 per cent and 48.3 per cent respectively) (1). While the numbers employed in the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) sector increased by approximately 48 per cent in the same period, the number of companies in this sector declined from 13 to 8. The lack of any new major FDI project in the County for almost 20 years indicates that North Tipperary has not shared equally in the recent prosperity of the Mid-West Region. Similarly the actual number of indigenous companies fell from 98 in 1990 to 70 in 2000.

It appears that the reduction in the number of FDI and indigenous industries during the 1990s can in part be attributed to the absence of suitable buildings/development sites for major enterprises, an inadequate infrastructure and the absence of a business and technology focussed third level institution within the county. Proposed industrial parks in Roscrea and Thurles and the establishment of the Tipperary Institute are significant developments and will contribute to the development of this sector in the County.

A summary of the key issues associated with built development is provided in Box 5.3 whilst broad guidance is provided in Box 5.4.

Box 5.3 Summary of Key Issues for Built Development

• Standardised approaches to development on the fringes of existing settlements, which compromises their distinctive landscape character and setting.

• Scattered new housing in the open countryside in the eastern and loughside part of the County without sufficient consideration of design and location, resulting in loss of quality and character of rural landscapes including loss of hedgerows.

• Dereliction and decline in the stock of traditional rural buildings.

• The introduction of a profuse variety of building materials and styles which give no sense of place or distinctiveness for North Tipperary.

• The provision of industrial development on the fringes of settlements and along major communication routes.

(1) North Tipperary Economic, Social & Cultural Strategy 2002-2012

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 108 Box 5.4 Broad Landscape Guidance for Built Development

Materials and Colour

• Limit the range of materials and colours used on any one building and use natural materials, such as timber, stone and slate to link with existing buildings in sensitive areas.

• Select cladding materials and colours for modern industrial and farming buildings to minimise their impact in the countryside. Avoid the use of light colours, which can reflect the light, and intense greens or blues, which often clash with the surrounding natural tones of fields and woods. The traditional colour for painting corrugated roofs in the countryside has been red oxide, the tones of which integrate well with the natural tones of the surrounding area. The treatment of roofs is particularly important when considering the visual impact these have on views to lowland areas from surrounding hills.

• Consider designs so that materials and colours used are in harmony with one another and have regard to existing buildings nearby.

Design

• Consider how new development can be fitted into the landscape without disrupting traditional patterns.

• Use the principles inherent in the scale, spacing, orientation and siting of traditional settlement form/ layout as a guide for modern development.

• Respect existing field boundary patterns and ensure that fencing, hedgerows, walls and lighting along property boundaries are suitably delineated, particularly in rural locations, where they should merge naturally with adjoining fields and woodland.

• Minimise disturbance to the local landform and design earthworks to integrate buildings with local landform.

• Avoid the use of substantial retaining walls or under-building on sloping sites.

• Consider the location and scale of outbuildings, driveways and areas of hardstanding, ensuring they are not dominant in views from the road.

• Retain as many existing trees as possible and plant native trees to screen and accommodate new development.

• Ensure that the conservation value and scenic quality of watercourses is not reduced, particularly in minor streams. New developments should be designed to benefit the visual focus and amenity value which water provides.

• Use buildings, styles, forms and architectural details that are characteristic of the local landscape. Most contribute to simple and distinctive local styles.

• Promote and encourage the use of publications such as the forthcoming Rural Housing Design Guidelines to guide the design process within the ounty.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 109 5.6 INFRASTRUCTURE

5.6.1 Transportation

North Tipperary is very reliant on its road infrastructure for intra and inter County movement and access. Approximately 5.6% of the roads in the County are accounted for by National routes(1). Regional routes and county roads account for the remaining 94.4%. The private car is the most important mode of transport in North Tipperary. Car ownership in the County, at 39 cars per 100 people, is above the national average.

Road improvement and development objectives are identified in the County Development Plan, for example a bypass of Thurles town and a link between the N62 and the R498 (Nenagh/Thurles Road). Unfortunately, road development can and has often had a significant impact on landscape character. It may fragment the countryside, destroy valued landscape and habitat features and generate further development. Much large-scale development is out of character in small-scale rural landscapes.

Minor road improvements are also outlined in the County Development Plan. For example, tertiary roads with an average width of 4m or less need to be widened if more than three houses are built in proximity to one another. The cumulative impacts of minor road improvements can gradually erode the distinctive local identity of rural landscapes. The straightening of sections of road and the introduction of kerbs, road signage and lighting tends to ‘urbanise’ the rural landscape. Care is therefore needed in the design of road improvements, which should also pay particular attention to the conservation of attractive local roadside features such as hedgebanks and stone walls. Stone bridges such as that at Ballina are also considered to be under significant pressure from increased traffic, and due care should be taken to maintain and conserve these distinctive features.

The County Development Plan acknowledges the necessity to co-ordinate transport plans and land-use planning in order to facilitate reduced commuting distances, greater levels of car-sharing and settlement patterns that reduce the need to travel overall. Successful implementation of these policies will have positive implications for a reduced level of road construction within the Tipperary landscape.

Two rail lines traverse North Tipperary, constituting a combined 80km of rail track. The main Dublin-Cork line serves the towns of Templemore and Thurles, and a secondary rail link serves stations at Nenagh, Cloughjordan and Roscrea and joins the main Dublin-Cork line at Ballybrophy. The current low-density population in North Tipperary would not render regional passenger rail a viable competitor to the private car. However, the future viability of rail transport may be used as a planning tool for land-use planning, particularly in relation to settlement patterns.

(1) North Tipperary County Development Plan 2004-2010

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 110 The National Spatial Strategy (NSS) has identified Limerick/Shannon as a Gateway. (1) Nenagh and Thurles have been identified as drivers of development at the county level that will complement overall regional development. The NSS has called for a number of key transport infrastructural changes that will influence North Tipperary. These include:

• Providing improved road and rail access between Dublin and Limerick.

• Regional roads will play a key role in linking the main national transport corridors to wider rural areas and smaller towns and villages within these areas will need to be supported in this role.

• It will be important to ensure that rail continues to offer realistic alternatives to road travel on the key inter-city routes including Dublin- Limerick.

The Regional Planning Guidelines have also identified some key roads infrastructure developments for the County. These include the upgrading of the Thurles-Nenagh, Nenagh-Limerick, and Thurles-Newport roads, as well as the provision of a new bridge in Killaloe and a by-pass of Thurles. All of these have the potential to have significant landscape impacts.

Box 5.5 Summary of Key Infrastructure Issues

• Ongoing, piecemeal road improvements, such as widening and straightening, development of new access and the use of excessive lighting, signage and white lines, together have a cumulative impact on visual amenity and landscape character. It is recognised that improving road safety is essential but design and restoration considerations need to be considered.

• Increased traffic levels, heavy vehicles and farm machinery on narrow rural roads, can lead to the erosion of verges and roadside features.

• Loss of hedgerows and trees due to junction improvements – with opportunities for replanting not availed of.

• Standardising influence of road improvement inspired landscapes on local landscape character.

(1) Gateways are urban centres with a strategic location relative to their surrounding areas, providing national scale social and economic infrastructure and support services.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 111 Box 5.6 Broad Landscape Guidance for Linear Infrastructure Developments

• Align routes to follow contours and respect local patterns of communication. As far as possible, keep routes to lower elevations and follow natural breaks of slope, avoid straight lines and angles that conflict with grain of the land.

• Develop opportunities to enhance the landscape and wildlife quality of disused railway lines such as the Birr-Portumna line, roads and canals.

• Design new planting as an integral part of all infrastructure development, aiming to reinforce local landscape character and create a seamless fit with the surrounding landscape. Information on local planting compositions can contribute to planting designs reflecting local character.

• Give special consideration to the design of local landscape associated with roads at the entrance to settlements, using traditional hedgerows and tree planting to enhance the ‘gateway’ effect.

• Use materials characteristic of the area such as local stone for walls and native species for new planting.

• Develop and issue a road improvement design guideline with regard to the landscape impact of small-scale road improvement

5.7 TOURISM

The Tourism Development Strategy for North Tipperary (2004) provided an assessment of the County’s tourism resource and identified potential tourism opportunities. Despite the fact that North Tipperary has an attractive and varied natural landscape and a rich cultural heritage, the county is not widely perceived to be a tourist destination.

Like most inland counties in Ireland, North Tipperary is overshadowed by neighbouring coastal counties that have well-developed tourism sectors. In 2001, just 39,000 overseas tourists stayed in North Tipperary, less than 4% of the total number that visited and stayed in the Shannon Region. This low market share is influenced by the underdeveloped nature of the tourism infrastructure throughout most of the county, and the lack of sustained promotion of tourism.

Some of the key economic and social characteristics of the County as a whole include:

• Essentially rural in nature • Not viewed as a tourist destination, but rather as an agri-business county • No strong county brand image for tourism • Poor state of tourist infrastructure

A breakdown of overseas visitors to Ireland and North Tipperary between 1993 and 2001 is provided below.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 112 Table 5.2 Numbers of Overseas Visitors ('000's) to ROI and North Tipperary, 1993-2001

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 National 3,274 4,231 5,007 5,943 5,840 North Tipperary 34 42 40 41 39

North Tipperary’s countryside is rich in landscape diversity and contains highly intact and well managed landscapes. The Silvermines and Devil’s Bit mountains provide a contrast to the shores of Lough Derg with its many picturesque villages. This variety in landscape is unusual within a small vicinity and provides the visitor with an abundance of scenery to enjoy and explore.

The Mid-West Regional Planning Guidelines identify a number of key tourism zones, including several attractions of national and international significance. Lough Derg is highlighted as Ireland’s premier tourism lake. Other areas in North Tipperary such as the Slieve Felims, Holycross Abbey and the GAA grounds and museum in Thurles are noted for their tourism potential. The regional goals with regard to tourism identified in the Planning Guidelines include:

• The protection of the environmental quality on which much of the region’s tourism activity is based.

• The improvement of access from the main international access points to those areas that are less well accessed.

• The provision of specific investment for those areas that perform poorly in visitor and tourism terms but that have natural or cultural resources that can be enhanced and developed.

North Tipperary offers a variety of opportunities for outdoor activities including water based activities (on the River Shannon and Lough Derg), golf, equestrian and amenity areas including Clare Glens (nature trails and rock pools), Cabragh Wetlands in Thurles, the Lough Derg Way, Holy Cross Cycle, Clare Glens Cycle, Lough Derg Cycle and Keeper Hill Cycle.

In terms of cultural heritage and historic interest, Roscrea has been designated as one of Ireland’s Heritage Towns and stands on the ancient road from Tara to Cashel. Close by is Monaincha Abbey which was once Munster’s most famous place of pilgrimage. Nenagh is also rich in heritage with Nenagh Castle which was built circa 1200 by the Normans. Holy Cross Abbey is probably the most important tourist attraction within the County. The St. Mary’s Famine Museum is located in the Thurles area.

Areas and sites of interest in North Tipperary are listed in Box 5.7 below.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 113 Box 5.7 Sites of Interest in North Tipperary

Roscrea Clare Glens Thurles Lar Na Pairce Dromineer Nenagh Golf Course Templemore Roscrea Golf Club Terryglass Thurles Golf Course Garrykennedy Templemore Golf Course Lough Derg Devil’s Bit Mountains & Damer House Tipperary Mountain Trekking Centre Holy Cross Abbey Thurles Racecourse Rock of Cashel Tipperary Racecourse Nenagh Castle Coolbawn Quay Spa Marina Club Silvermines Drive Iniscealtra Keeper Hill Drive Rathcabbin Lorrha Newtown Rathurles Ashley Park Killaloe Portumna Castle & Garden Ballingarry Graves of the Leinstermen Castlelough Keeper Hill Cycle Lough Derg Way Portumna Forest Park & Nature Trail Coolbawn Forest Walk Arra Mountains Slieve Felim Ashton’s Callow’s Carney Fen Silvermines Forest Walk

5.7.1 Development of Tourism in North Tipperary

The National Spatial Strategy 2002-2020 identified a number of strategic tourism development opportunities including:

• New Tourism Centres – opportunities to facilitate the emergence of new tourism centres in some of the less developed tourism areas

• Heritage and Natural Landscapes – opportunities to realise the potential contained in the landscape, habitats and culture of some of the least developed tourism areas (for example by facilitating better access and developing appropriate special interest activities)

Key objectives for tourism set out in the North Tipperary Economic, Social and Cultural Strategy include:

• Ensure that areas of high amenity and tourism value are protected and maintained. (E.g review planning and environmental protection policy in areas of high amenity and tourism, designate new protection conservation areas of high amenity through a consultative process).

• Ensure that the towns, villages and countryside in North Tipperary will attract visitors because of their high quality environment and visitor services.

• Ensure that each area of the County will have developed within it a tourism industry of a nature and scale appropriate to its social, economic

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 114 and environmental characteristics (E.g assess each area in terms of carrying capacity and appropriate type of tourist activity).

• Ensure that the wider community of North Tipperary recognises the importance of tourism and the part that it has to play in supporting the tourism industry.

In broad terms the main goal is to achieve sustainable growth in tourism activity and enterprise based on the inherent strengths of the county, and careful stewardship of its resources. North Tipperary’s environmental resources and landscape characteristics are of fundamental importance to the performance and prospects of its tourism industry. The strength of the County’s touristic appeal, the majority of its attractions and the activities offered to tourists all depend on the scenic and physical qualities of its environment.

There is ample evidence to show that there is a growing international demand for nature/environmental tourism, activity tourism and rural tourism. North Tipperary has the assets to attract increasing numbers of visitors in these categories. It is therefore essential that, in developing the product base and the facilities required to support tourism growth, sustainable tourism development practices are followed.

North Tipperary Tourism Development Strategy

A major objective of the Tourism Development Strategy is to achieve a more balanced spread of tourism activity around North Tipperary. Three potential zones of development have been identified:

• Zone A: Lough Derg. The main gateways are Nenagh, Birr and Portumna. These are significant existing locations for visitor services and attractions.

• Zone B: Silvermines and Slieve Felim Mountains. At present, this area is undeveloped in tourism terms.

• Zone C: East Tipperary (comprising the eastern part of the County centred around the spine of the N62 which links Roscrea, Templemore and Thurles). This zone is not strongly tourism-oriented, however, it contains some important heritage assets including Holycross Abbey and Roscrea Castle

Maintaining the environmental qualities of Zones A and B will be fundamental to the future success of the county in tourism. These zones are suited to low intensity, smaller scale development. The product offering should focus on combining outdoor activities and sightseeing with quality accommodation and tourism support facilities of a scale and character in keeping with the environmental qualities of the zones.

Zone C contains three of the principal urban centres in the County. They are suited to higher-intensity and larger scale development, combining heritage attractions and leisure activities with accommodation and shopping. The urban centres are good touring bases, and suitable locations for events and festivals.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 115 North Tipperary Heritage Plan

The draft County Heritage Plan was set out in order to protect the County’s distinctive heritage including flora, fauna, wildlife habitats, landscapes, geology, heritage gardens, parks, inland waterways archaeological monuments, archaeological objects, wrecks, heritage objects (including archives), architectural heritage and also folk lore and folk life. The Heritage Plan is a 5-year vision and takes into account actions set out in the Economic, Social and Cultural Strategy.

There are six agreed objectives for North Tipperary’s Heritage Plan. These are largely based around improving awareness of all aspects of North Tipperary’s heritage, both built and natural, and identifying ways of protecting natural heritage. Actions to achieve these objectives include, among others, the continued establishment of architectural conservation areas, the establishment of wildlife friendly management guidelines for local authority parks and amenity areas and the promotion of the heritage and wildlife importance of Lough Derg. The objectives of the draft Heritage Plan will be incorporated into tourism development strategies for North Tipperary.

The development of tourism in North Tipperary provides an opportunity for the County to demonstrate best practice in sustainable tourism by enhancing and valuing the landscape resource base upon which much tourism activity will be premised. Moreover, by linking the environmental and cultural capital of the County throughout tourism development, North Tipperary can contribute to a diversified rural economy that seeks to balance the benefits of tourism throughout the county and avoid the development of ‘honey pots’ that has arisen in neighbouring counties.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 116 Box 5.8 Summary of Key Issues for Tourism and Recreation

• Low levels of tourism activity in the County provides an opportunity to demonstrate best practice in sustainable tourism and learn from mistakes made in other counties.

• Agri-tourism initiatives supported by Leader offer good opportunities for enhancing local landscape features including hedgerows and vernacular buildings.

• Pressures from water based recreation and shoreline development along Lough Derg.

• Potential erosion of footpaths by increasingly numbers of walkers and mountain bikers particularly in upland areas.

• Insensitive and poorly designed tourism facilities that negatively impact on, rather than enhance landscape character.

• Litter and other associated impacts of activities.

• Tourism and other associated signage.

• Impact of large-scale recreational use such as golf courses.

• Impact on the built heritage.

Box 5.9 Broad Landscape Guidance for Tourism and Recreation Developments

• Development and management of footpaths for short distances (4-5km) walks will open up local areas of the landscape to a large number of people.

• The use of local materials for tourist developments will help to ensure that they are well integrated with their surroundings and reflect a strong sense of local identity.

• Use the baseline information from the Landscape Character Assessment to support local tourism initiatives such as promoting local produce, Tidy Towns etc.

• The provision of short stretches of raised walkway over peaty/bog land area may be necessary to prevent both soil erosion and loss of flora along upland footpaths.

5.8 CONCLUSION

At this junction in the project, initial Forces for change have been identified and broad landscape guidance for each topic developed. Following the public consultation period, further Forces for Change may be identified, and this chapter will be revised, and appropriate guidance developed accordingly.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT NORTH TIPPERARY COUNTY COUNCIL 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Mid West Region: Regional Strategy and Regional Planning Guidelines (Mid West Regional Authority, May 2004)

2. North Tipperary Development Plan 2005 - 2011, North Tipp Co. Co.

3. Draft Wind Energy Development Guidelines, DoEHLG, 2004 (http://www.environ.ie/DOEI/DOEIPol.nsf/wvNavView/Planning?OpenD ocument&Lang=#I17 ‘Guidelines for Planning Authorities’)

4. Draft Guidelines for Planning Authorities on Landscape and Landscape Assessment (DoEHLG, June 2000).

5. Consultation Draft of Guidelines on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). (DoEHLG)

6. Consultation Draft of Guidelines on Sustainable Rural Housing (DoEHLG)

7. North Tipperary Economic, Social and Cultural Strategy 2001-2012. (North Tipperary County Council).

8. National Spatial Strategy 2002 -2020. (DoEHLG)

9. White Paper on Rural Development, 1999 (Department of Agriculture)

10. 1:100,000 Bedrock Geology Map Series number 18. (Geological Survey of Ireland).

11. Tipperary: History and Society; Edited by William Nolan and Thomas G Mc Grath. Geography Publications. 1985

12. Atlas of the Irish Rural Landscape; edited by FHA Allen and Kevin Whelan and Mathew Stout. Cork University Press. 1997

13. Lewis’s Topographical Survey – reproduced in ‘The Two Tipperarys’ by Donal A Murphy, Relay Press, Nenagh, 1994

14. Atlas of Irish history – Sean Duffy. Gill and Macmillan, 2000 15. More of Nenagh’s Yesterdays – compiled by N Murphy and F O’Brien. Relay Books, 1997 16. Tipperary – Martin O Corrbui, 1991. Brandon Book Publishers

CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE REPORT 1 1.2 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT 3

2 THE EVOLUTION OF THE NORTH TIPPERARY LANDSCAPE 4

2.1 INTRODUCTION 4 2.2 PHYSICAL INFLUENCES 4 2.2.1 Solid Geology () 4 2.2.2 Effects of Glaciation – Drift Geology and Surface Geology () 6 2.2.3 Topography and Drainage 7 2.2.4 Soils and Agricultural Capability 9 2.2.5 Ecological Resources 10 2.3 HUMAN INFLUENCES 15 2.3.1 Overview 15 2.3.2 Prehistoric Tipperary 16 2.3.3 Early Historic (c. 500–1170s) 17 2.3.4 Medieval North Tipperary (c. 1200–1540) 18 2.3.5 Post-Medieval period (1540-1700) 20 2.3.6 Cromwellian Plantations 21 2.3.7 Pre-famine North Tipperary, 1837 22 2.3.8 Famine, Agricultural Reform 23 2.3.9 Twentieth Century Post Independence 25

3 LANDSCAPE TYPES (PHYSICAL UNITS) 28

3.1 INTRODUCTION 28 3.2 IDENTIFYING LANDSCAPE CHARACTER TYPES 28 3.3 PRESENTATION OF LANDSCAPE CHARACTER TYPES 29 3.3.1 Table 3.1 Landscape Character Types 31

4 LANDSCAPE CHARACTER AREAS IN NORTH TIPPERARY 37

4.1 LCA 1 SHANNON CALLOWS 37 4.2 LCA2: UPPER LOUGH DERG LCA 42 4.3 LCA 3 ARRA MOUNTAINS LCA 47 4.4 LCA 4 BORRISOKANE LOWLANDS 53 4.5 LCA 5: RIVER SHANNON - NEWPORT LCA 59 4.6 LCA 6: SILVERMINES – REARCROSS UPLANDS 64 4.7 LCA 7: UPPERCHURCH-KILCOMMON HILLS 69 4.8 LCA 8: THURLES HINTERLAND 73 4.9 LCA 9: LITTLETON BOGLANDS 77 4.10 LCA10: TEMPLEMORE PLAINS 81 4.11 LCA 11: DEVILSBIT MOUNTAINS 86 4.12 LCA 12: NENAGH CORRIDOR 90

5 FORCES FOR CHANGE 95

5.1 INTRODUCTION 95 5.1.1 Strategic Policy 96 5.1.2 Mid West Regional Planning Guidelines 96 5.2 AGRICULTURE 97 5.2.1 Baseline Agricultural Information 97 5.2.2 North Tipperary Policies 98 5.2.3 National Policy 99 5.2.4 The Rural Environment Protection Scheme (REPS) 100 5.3 RURAL DEVELOPMENT 101 5.3.1 National Policy 101 5.3.2 Rural Development Programmes in North Tipperary 102 5.4 THE POST 2006 AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT 102 5.5 BUILT DEVELOPMENT 105 5.5.1 Housing 105 5.5.2 Expansion of Existing Settlements 106 5.5.3 Isolated Buildings in the Countryside 107 5.5.4 Commercial/Industrial 108 Box 5.3 Summary of Key Issues for Built Development 108 Box 5.4 Broad Landscape Guidance for Built Development 109 5.6 INFRASTRUCTURE 110 5.6.1 Transportation 110 5.7 TOURISM 112 5.7.1 Development of Tourism in North Tipperary 114 5.8 CONCLUSION 117

BIBLIOGRAPHY 118