Chapter 1.1 Tectonic History of Antarctica Over the Past 200 Million Years

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Chapter 1.1

Tectonic history of Antarctica over the past 200 million years

Bryan C. Storey1* and Roi Granot2 1Gateway Antarctica, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand 2Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel RG, 0000-0001-5366-188X *Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The tectonic evolution of Antarctica in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was marked by igneous activity that formed as a result of simultaneous continental rifting and subduction processes acting during the final stages of the southward drift of Gondwana towards the South Pole. For the most part, continental rifting resulted in the progressive disintegration of the Gondwana supercontinent from Middle Jurassic times to the final isolation of Antarctica at the South Pole following the Cenozoic opening of the surrounding ocean basins, and the separation of Antarctica from South America and Australia. The initial rifting into East and West Gondwana was proceeded by emplacement of large igneous provinces preserved in present-day South America, Africa and Antarctica. Continued rifting within Antarctica did not lead to continental separation but to the development of the West Antarctic Rift System, dividing the continent into the East and West Antarctic plates, and uplift of the Transantarctic Mountains. Motion between East and West Antarctica has been accommodated by a series of discrete rifting pulses with a westward shift and concentration of the motion throughout the Cenozoic leading to crustal thinning, subsidence, elevated heat flow conditions and rift-related magmatic activity. Contemporaneous with the disintegration of Gondwana and the isolation of Antarctica, subduction processes were active along the palaeo-Pacific margin of Antarctica recorded by magmatic arcs, accretionary complexes, and forearc and back-arc basin sequences. A low in magmatic activity between 156 and 142 Ma suggests that subduction may have ceased during this time. Today, following the gradual cessation of the Antarctic rifting and surrounding subduction, the Antarctic continent is situated close to the centre of a large Antarctic Plate which, with the exception of an active margin on the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, is surrounded by active spreading ridges.

At the start of the Mesozoic Era, Antarctica was the centre prior to or during the Gondwana break-up (Randall and Mac piece or keystone to the Gondwana supercontinent which Niocaill 2004). Haag Nunataks is a small fragment of had remained stable for almost 350 myr. During that time, Gondwana drifted southwards from a more equatorial position (Torsvik et al. 2012). The slow southward drift was temporally disrupted at c. 250 Ma as Gondwana voyaged north but headed south again at c. 200 Ma (Torsvik and Cox 2013). In middle Jurassic times, the progressive disintegration of the supercontinent changed the global continental configuration, leading to the opening of major ocean gateways and the isolation of Antarctica at the South Pole. Today, the tectonic Ant- arctic Plate is bordered by six different tectonic plates and is almost entirely surrounded by spreading ridges with Cenozoic isolation upon the South Pole. The Antarctic continent can be divided into two physio- graphical provinces, East and West Antarctica, separated by a spectacular mountain range, the Transantarctic Mountains (TAM), that stretch from north Victoria Land bordering the western Ross Sea to the Weddell Sea (Fig. 1). Cratonic East Antarctica comprises Archean and Proterozoic–Cambrian terranes amalgamated during Precambrian and Cambrian times (Fitzsimons 2000). In contrast, West Antarctica comprises a collage of five tectonic blocks separated by rifts and topographical depressions (Fig. 1): the Antarctic Peninsula, Thur- ston Island, the Ellsworth Whitmore Mountains (EWM), Haag Nunataks and Marie Byrd Land (Dalziel and Elliot 1982). The Antarctic Peninsula has generally been considered as a near- complete Mesozoic–Cenozoic continental arc system formed above an eastward-dipping palaeo-Pacific subduction zone (Suarez 1976; Burton-Johnson and Riley 2015). However, Vaughan and Storey (2000) suggested that the Antarctic Pen- Fig. 1. Tectonic map of Antarctica superimposed on a satellite-derived insula may have consisted of three fault-bounded terranes that free-air gravity field (offshore: Sandwell et al. 2014) and sub-ice amalgamated in Late Cretaceous time (Albian). The Ellsworth topography (Fretwell et al. 2013) showing the Transantarctic Mountains Whitmore Mountains block is a displaced fragment of the (TAMts), the crustal blocks of West Antarctica and the West Antarctic Rift Permo-Triassic Gondwanide Fold Belt that was originally System (WARS). AP, Antarctic Peninsula; EWM, Ellsworth Whitmore located in the Natal Embayment off South Africa in Gond- Mountains; HN, Haag Nunataks; MBL, Marie Byrd Land; TI, Thurston wana before undergoing 90° counter-clockwise rotation Island.

From: Smellie, J. L., Panter, K. S. and Geyer, A. (eds) Volcanism in Antarctica: 200 Million Years of Subduction, Rifting and Continental Break-up. Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 55, https://doi.org/10.1144/M55-2018-38 © 2021 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved. For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ at Dawn Angel on March 2, 2021

B. C. Storey and R. Granot

Neoproterozoic craton similar to parts of East Antarctica provided little support for major motion and rotation of crustal (Millar and Pankhurst 1987). In contrast, the Thurston Island blocks during Jurassic extension in the Weddell Sea region (Pankhurst et al. 1993; Riley et al. 2016) and Marie Byrd Land (Jordan et al. 2017). Jordan et al. (2017) proposed an alterna- blocks (Mukasa and Dalziel 2000) contain Mesozoic tive model that predicts c. 500 km of movement of the Haag subduction-related magmatic rocks. In parallel to these pro- and the Ellsworth microplates with 30° of block rotation dur- cesses, a long rift, the West Antarctic Rift System, has ing crustal extension in a Weddell Sea rift zone. In this model, evolved, leading to the dismembering of the plate into the the Weddell Sea rift zone would have formed in response to East and West Antarctic plates. distributed crustal extension within a broad plate boundary This paper reviews the tectonic history of Antarctica during region between East and West Antarctica. To reconcile the the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras which provides the backdrop geological and palaeomagnetic data from the crustal blocks, for the volcanic and magmatic evolution of the continent. The they suggest that 60° of rotation that is unaccounted for by magmatic evolution in itself provides valuable insights into the geophysically imaged Jurassic extension may have the lithospheric and tectonic processes that shaped the Antarc- occurred earlier during the Gondwanian orogenesis. This is tic continent. Three interacting tectonic processes affected possible within the transpressional tectonic regime suggested Antarctica during the last 200 myr: continental break-up, rift- by Curtis (1997) for Gondwanian events. ing and subduction. The final break-up and separation of East and West of Gond- wana was initiated (at c. 167 Ma) along a rift zone which com- prised the Somali and Mozambique basins, the southern Africa–East Antarctica (Dronning Maud Land) conjugate mar- Continental break-up gins, and the Weddell Sea embayment, with seafloor spreading commencing about 160–165 myr before propagating clock- The initial fragmentation of the Gondwana supercontinent was wise around Antarctica (Ghidella et al. 2002; Konig and preceded by several major tectonic and igneous events prior to Jokat 2006; see the review by Torsvik et al. 2008). Early earliest seafloor spreading in the Jurassic (Dalziel et al. 2013): Africa–Antarctic spreading offshore Dronning Maud Land (1) Latest Paleozoic–early Mesozoic Gondwanide orogene- has been dated as magnetic anomaly M24 (c. 150 Ma: Roeser et al. 1996; Jokat et al. 2003; Malinverno et al. 2012), with the sis and formation of the Gondwanian Fold Belt that fl extended from the Sierra de la Ventana of Argentina, earliest sea oor in the Weddell Sea dated at 147 Ma (Konig and Jokat 2006). A model for the early Indian–Antarctic through the Cape Fold Belt in southern Africa to the Pen- fl sacola Mountains along the Transantarctic margin of spreading system places the onset of sea oor spreading in East Antarctica (Du Toit 1937). The enigmatic Gondwa- the Enderby Basin at anomaly M9 (130 Ma: Gaina et al. nide folding may have developed in response to either 2007), consistent with the opening history between India and flat-slab subduction (Lock 1980), perhaps due to the Australia (Williams et al. 2013). Although volcanism preceded impingement of a buoyant mantle plume beneath the the initial break-up of Gondwana in Middle Jurassic times, the subducting slab (Dalziel et al. 2000), or in response to separation of India from Antarctica c. 130 Ma was followed by subduction-related dextral compression along the con- volcanic activity, with the earliest magmatic activity in the Ker- vergent SW margin of Gondwana (Curtis 1997). guelen area dated to c. 118 Ma (Frey et al. 2000; Nicolaysen – et al. 2001). Early Australia–Antarctic spreading has been (2) Early Jurassic (c. 183 Ma) emplacement of the Karoo fi Ferrar Large Igneous Province (LIP) that stretched identi ed by a Late Cretaceous ridge system slightly older from southern Africa through the TAM to Tasmania than anomaly 34, at c. 90 Ma (Tikku and Cande 1999). In the South Tasman Sea, between eastern Australia and the Lord and New Zealand (Cox 1992). This basaltic province, fl which is generally linked to a mantle plume (Bouvet hot- Howe Rise and New Zealand, sea oor spreading began in spot), was in part synchronous with Middle Jurassic the Late Cretaceous (c. 83 Ma) (Gaina et al. 1998). The extrusion of voluminous silicic volcanic rocks in Patago- TAM were exhumed at this time with Early and Late Creta- nia (Chon Aike province) and the Antarctic Peninsula ceous and Cenozoic stages of uplift and exhumation (Fitzger- ald and Gleadow 1988; Busetti et al. 1999; Fitzgerald 2002; (Pankhurst and Rapela 1995; Pankhurst et al. 1998a, – fi 2000) attributed to melting of continental crust proximal Lisker and Laufer 2013). In the middle late Eocene the nal detachment of Australia from Antarctica led to the opening to the mantle-plume thermal anomaly (Bryan et al. fi 2002). of the rst circum-Antarctic oceanic gateway south of Tasma- nia causing radical changes in oceanic circulation patterns (3) Rotation and translation of microplates that originally fl formed part of the Gondwanian Fold Belt; these included (Brown et al. 2006). Sea oor spreading in the Drake Passage the 90° counter-clockwise rotation of the Ellsworth and Scotia Sea region is generally considered to have com- Whitmore Mountains block from its original location menced before 26 Ma (Barker 2001)orc. 30 Ma (Eagles and Livermore 2002), resulting in the development of the circum- between southernmost Africa and East Antarctica in fi Gondwana (Schopf 1969; Grunow et al. 1987; Randall polar current and the nal isolation of Antarctica (Barker and and Mac Niocaill 2004), and the 180° clockwise rotation Thomas 2004)(Fig. 2). However, Eagles and Jokat (2014) and translation of the Lafonian microplate (Falkland/ have suggested that the Drake Passage developed as an Malvinas Islands) from its original location in the intermediate-depth ocean gateway through a sequence of extensional basins (50–30 Ma) that were succeeded by seafloor Natal embayment off southern Africa (Adie 1952; Tay- fl lor and Shaw 1989). spreading with deep ocean ow forming from 30 to 6 Ma. Storey and Kyle (1997) have linked the formation of the Gondwana LIP that formed the Karoo–Ferrar–Chon Aike provinces and the rotation and translation of the microplates West Antarctic Rift System to a large thermal anomaly centred in the Weddell Sea region that ultimately resulted in, or at least contributed to, the A broad region of extended continental crust between the break-up of Gondwana. However, the timing and exact geody- TAM and the Pacific margin (Fig. 1) is known as the West namic processes that occurred during initial rifting remain Antarctic Rift System (LeMasurier 1990; Behrendt et al. unclear and no adequate dynamic model exists to explain 1991; Busetti et al. 1999; Wilson and Luyendyk 2009; Chaput these events. In addition, geophysical interpretations have et al. 2014) (WARS in Fig. 1). The incipient motion between Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ at Dawn Angel on March 2, 2021

Tectonic history of Antarctica

Fig. 2. Plate reconstructions from 200 to 50 Ma in 50 myr time intervals. The base map shows the age of oceanic lithosphere at the time of formation. Triangles denote subduction zones; black lines denote divergent margins and transform faults. The reconstructions and plate boundaries are based on the Age of oceanic lithosphere (Ma) compilation by Müller et al. 2019.

East and West Antarctica and the formation of the WARS approximately 20–30 km thick, deep rift basins, and an anom- started in the late Mesozoic. During the Cenozoic the relative alous mantle within the Ross Sea region and including Marie motion between East and West Antarctica has progressively Byrd Land (Behrendt et al. 1991; Chaput et al. 2014; O’Don- shifted and concentrated along the western Ross Sea sector. nell et al. 2017; Ramirez et al. 2017; Shen et al. 2018). The It is broadly associated with a belt of Cenozoic alkaline mag- WARS is similar in size to the East African Rift System, matic rocks (48 Ma to presently active) described separately in and to the Basin and Range province of the western USA (Tes- this Memoir. West Antarctica may have been an orogenic sensohn and Wörner 1991), and is geometrically asymmetri- highland in the Early Cretaceous that subsided over late Cre- cal. Marie Byrd Land was long considered to be the eastern taceous and Cenozoic time with up to 200 km of extension flank of the rift system (Studinger et al. 2006) but it is now between 68 and 46 Ma (Wilson and Luyendyk 2009). In the known that the crust of Marie Byrd Land is extended through- Eocene and Oligocene (43–26 Ma: Cande et al. 2000)a out (Spiegel et al. 2016). Thermochronological data (Spiegel pulse of motion resulted in the formation of seafloor spreading et al. 2016) suggested that rifting in this sector occurred in in the northwestern end of the Ross Sea, along the Adare two episodes: the earliest event between c. 100 and 60 Ma Trough and Northern Basin (Davey et al. 2016). Motion led to widespread tectonic denudation and basin-and-range between East and West Antarctica has progressively slowed style block faulting with about 3 km of uplift in the central in the Neogene and lasted until c. 11 myr ago (Granot and part (LeMasurier and Rex 1989); the later episode started dur- Dyment 2018). Interestingly, the rotation poles that describe ing the Early Oligocene and was confined to the eastern part of these motions (Granot et al. 2013; Granot and Dyment Marie Byrd Land. Uplift of the Marie Byrd Land dome may 2018) were located close to the centre of the rift system, sug- have started at c. 20 Ma (Spiegel et al. 2016). The opposite gesting that while the Ross Sea sector has undergone exten- flank of the rift system in northern Victoria Land consists of sional motion, the central part went through minimal dextral the TAM, the uplifted roots of the early Paleozoic Ross orogen transcurrent motion and the motions in the eastern parts (Stump 1995). Although the TAM block is the world’s longest were predominantly oblique convergence. rift shoulder, the source of its high elevation is still not fully The WARS is marked by a topographical trough 750– resolved. Four competing models have been suggested by 1000 km wide and 3000 km long, running from near the Wannamaker et al. (2017) and Shen et al. (2018). Firstly, a Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains to the Ross Embayment– crustal root below the mountains, suggested to be residual northern Victoria Land (LeMasurier and Thomson 1990; Beh- from regional extensional collapse of a high elevation plateau rendt et al. 1991, 1992). The rift is characterized by thin crust with thicker than normal crust centred on West Antarctica, Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ at Dawn Angel on March 2, 2021

B. C. Storey and R. Granot could contribute to uplift of the mountain range (Bialas et al. Panter et al. (2000) proposed a variant on the fossil plume 2007; Block et al. 2009; Wilson and Luyendyk 2009). Sec- model; one that calls upon a Cretaceous plume composed ondly, uplift processes have been compared with those of solely of the HIMU component overlain by a much more the margins of the extensional US Great Basin, where litho- extensive pre-existing metasomatized layer within the Gond- spheric replacement by hot asthenosphere of lower density wana lithosphere. The plume-driven metasomatism may occurred (Smith and Drewry 1984; Rocholl et al. 1995) and have been related to the Jurassic Bouvet plume having incorporated thermal buoyancy as an essential uplift load in enriched the Gondwana lithosphere in highly incompatible addition to erosion, ice load and flexural rigidity. Stern et al. trace elements. The plume-modified lithosphere was then (2005) attributed as much as 50% of peak height to the effects underplated by a smaller HIMU plume in mid-Cretaceous of glacial erosion. Thirdly, Stern and ten Brink (1989) pro- times. A Cretaceous plume head with a diameter of 600– posed an elegant model based on a cantilevered flexural 800 km would encompass these HIMU localities prior to con- upwarp involving a regional boundary fault. Recent results tinental break-up. Extension and rifting of New Zealand and of a 550 km long-transect of magnetotelluric geophysical Australia from Antarctica would have led to adiabatic decom- soundings spanning the central part of the mountain range pression melting of the fossil plume and overlying plume- revealed a lithosphere of high electrical resistivity to at least modified lithosphere within widely dispersed fragments of 150 km depth, implying a cold stable state well into the the former Gondwanaland supercontinent. upper mantle (Wannamaker et al. 2017). They concluded Finn et al. (2005) reviewed the different tectonic models that at least the central part of the TAM is most likely to and concluded that the diffuse alkaline magmatic province have been elevated by a non-thermal, flexural cantilever mech- in the SW Pacific, of which the Antarctic Cenozoic alkaline anism. A flexural uplift model is also supported by P-wave province is a part, was formed by sudden detachment and sink- speed variations for the Antarctic mantle by Hansen et al. ing of subducted slabs in the late Cretaceous that induced (2014). In contrast, new P- and S-wave tomographic images instabilities along the former Gondwana margin which in have been interpreted by Brenn et al. (2017) to suggest thermal turn triggered lateral and vertical flow of warm Pacific mantle. buoyancy and flexural uplift are the principle components that According to Finn et al. (2005), the combination of metasom- lead to uplift of the northern TAM. Lastly, a recent seismic atized lithosphere underlain by mantle at slightly elevated tem- tomography study (Shen et al. 2018) showed that the wide peratures was key to generating Cenozoic magmatism. The southern TAM is undergoing lithospheric foundering, hypothesis is borne out by the discovery of local regions of whereby the lower lithosphere is sinking into the mantle. low-viscosity mantle (Barletta et al. 2018). They attributed this mechanism to the convergence motion A geochemical study (LeMasurier et al. 2016) of basalts that prevailed in this region since the Eocene (Granot et al. from three Marie Byrd Land volcanoes with Ba and Nd anom- 2013; Granot and Dyment 2018). Lithospheric foundering alies compared with volcanic rocks from the WARS with has been considered responsible for volcanism in the southern ocean island basalt (OIB)-like chemistry indicated a subduc- TAM (Licht et al. 2018; Panter et al. 2021), now referred to as tion influence. LeMasurier et al. (2016) suggested that the the Upper Scott Glacier Volcanic Field (Panter et al. 2021). source of the geochemical anomalies resided in a fossil diapir Geochemical studies of basalts from the Marie Byrd Land that arose from the Cretaceous subducting slab. An additional and Ross Sea sectors of the WARS support plume-related geochemical study by Panter et al. (2018) also indicated also sources for volcanism (Hart et al. 1995, 1997; Rocholl et al. the influence of subduction materials in the source for volca- 1995). Plume models have also been used to explain tectonic nism in the northwestern Ross Sea. They attributed the lighter doming and the spatial pattern of volcanic centres within the oxygen isotope values in olivine crystals as reflecting hydro- Marie Byrd Land province (LeMasurier and Rex 1989; Hole thermally altered oceanic lithosphere (at high temperature) and LeMasurier 1994; LeMasurier and Landis 1996). Some that was introduced into the upper mantle by subduction models appeal to a single young ‘active’ plume concurrent along the proto-Pacific margin of Gondwana or longer-term with the onset of volcanism 28–35 myr ago (Kyle et al. recycling from ancient oceanic lithosphere. 1994; LeMasurier and Landis 1996), while others favour a Alternative interpretations to both plume-driven and pas- passive model involving a ‘fossilized’ plume head fixed at sive rifting have been proposed by Rocchi et al. (2002, the base of the lithosphere (Rocholl et al. 1995; Hart et al. 2003, 2005), which suggest that magma genesis and emplace- 1997). In the fossil plume model, the arrival of a plume ment in north Victoria Land and Ross Embayment is due to the head prior to the mid-Cretaceous break-up of New Zealand reactivation of pre-existing NW–SE trans-lithospheric faults from Antarctica may explain the extremely broad distribution (Salvini et al. 1997), which promoted local decompression (over 5000 km) and significant age span (100 myr) of HIMU melting of an enriched mantle previously veined during a (high 238U/204Pb = μ)-type alkaline volcanism found through- Late Cretaceous amagmatic extensional rift phase. out the continental borderlands of the SW Pacific(Lanyon et al. 1993; Hart et al. 1997; Panter et al. 1997). Magmatism associated with either Jurassic (184 Ma: Encarnación et al. 1996) or Cretaceous (100 Ma: Weaver et al. 1994) rifting Subduction processes events may signal early plume–lithosphere interaction. Seis- mic tomography (Spasojevic et al. 2010) and subsidence For much, if not all, of the Mesozoic and part of the Cenozoic, data (Sutherland et al. 2010) support evidence for a very long- subduction of the proto-Pacific ocean floor took place on the lived deep mantle thermal anomaly off West Antarctica, prob- Panthalassic margin of Gondwana (Barker et al. 1991). Evi- ably triggered by cessation of subduction along the Gondwana dence for subduction is provided by the magmatic record as margin. An analysis of P-wave velocities indicate a deep- documented by igneous rocks, and volcanoclastic-derived seated low-velocity zone beneath Marie Byrd Land, which sedimentary successions, together with structurally deformed has been interpreted by Hansen et al. (2014) as a deep mantle sequences interpreted as accretionary complexes formed in plume ponded below the 660 km discontinuity that would forearc regions on the Antarctic Peninsula (Storey and Garrett thermally perturb the overlying mantle. The presence of low- 1985), and magmatic rocks on Thurston Island (Leat et al. viscosity mantle beneath a portion of coastal West Antarctica 1993) and on Marie Byrd Land (Mukasa and Dalziel 2000). is consistent with the presence of lithospheric mantle that is of For much of the Mesozoic, the subduction record is in part pre- elevated temperature or altered composition (Lloyd et al. served in Zealandia (Mortimer et al. 2018), which was located 2015; Barletta et al. 2018). outboard of Marie Byrd Land up to the Mid Cretaceous. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ at Dawn Angel on March 2, 2021

Tectonic history of Antarctica

Antarctic Peninsula suites with Triassic and Middle Jurassic magmatism (Riley et al. 2016). Volcanism in the Jones Mountains became pre- The Mesozoic geology of the Antarctic Peninsula has tradi- dominantly silicic between 100 and 90 Ma prior to the cessa- tionally been interpreted as a complete Andean-type arc– tion of subduction along this part of the margin. trench system (Suarez 1976; Smellie 1981; Storey and Garrett 1985). Subduction is interpreted to have been active before, during and after partial separation of the Antarctic Peninsula Marie Byrd Land from Gondwana by seafloor spreading in the Weddell Sea. The main tectonic elements are accretion–subduction com- Similar to Thurston Island, Marie Byrd Land preserves a scat- plexes on the western Pacific margin of the peninsula, a mag- tered record of subduction-related magmatic activity during matic arc active from about 240 to 10 Ma, represented by the the Paleozic and Mesozoic, with peaks of activity during the Antarctic Peninsula Batholith (Leat et al. 1995), and thick Carboniferous, Permian (Pankhurst et al. 1998b) and Creta- back-arc and retro-arc basin sequences (Macdonald and But- ceous; related forearc basin and accretionary complexes terworth 1990) on the eastern Weddell Sea side. The polarity occur in present-day New Zealand which was outboard of of the system is consistent with east-directed subduction of Marie Byrd Land prior to mid-Cretaceous rifting. In Marie proto-Pacific ocean floor. However, based on the identification Byrd Land a widespread group of Cretaceous (124–95 Ma) of a major ductile shear zone, the eastern Palmer Land Shear calc-alkaline I-type granodiorite plutons intruded into base- Zone, Vaughan and Storey (2000) presented a testable hypoth- ment rocks. In the western sector the plutons are of Early Cre- esis that at least three terranes of parautochthonous or allochth- taceous age (124–108 Ma), whereas they extend to slightly onous origin may have formed the Antarctic Peninsula. The younger ages in eastern Marie Byrd Land (Weaver et al. terrane model has been tested recently by Burton-Johnson 1994). The Cretaceous magmatic rocks record an important and Riley (2015) in light of recent data; the authors have change in the tectonic regime from a subducting to an exten- returned to the earlier interpretation for the peninsula as having sional margin prior to separation of Zealandia from Marie evolved as an in situ Andean-type continental arc (see Burton- Byrd Land. Subduction ceased at about 105 Ma either just Johnson and Riley 2015 for a full review) from Paleozoic to prior to (Luyendyk 1995) or immediately following collision Cenozoic times based on stratigraphic correlations, new geo- of the spreading ridge with the trench (Bradshaw 1989). The chronological dating of Paleozoic basement and the similarity age pattern suggests that subduction ceased first along the of Nd isotopic signatures across different domains. They con- western sector at c. 108 Ma and persisted until about 95 Ma clude that; in the east. Prior to seafloor spreading a voluminous suite of fi • continental margin magmatism was active along the Antarc- ma c dykes and sills (dated 107 ± 5 Ma: Storey et al. 1999) – and anorogenic silicic rocks, including syenites and peralka- tic Peninsula during the Carboniferous Jurassic period – prior to and during the initial stages of Gondwana break-up; line granitoids (95 102 Ma), were emplaced in Marie Byrd • subduction may have ceased between 156 and 142 Ma (Leat Land during a rifting event (Weaver et al. 1994). A migmatite- et al. 1995), as indicated by a low in magmatic activity; cored gneiss dome in the Fosdick Mountains was exhumed • renewed subduction resulted in extensive arc, forearc and from mid- to lower-middle crustal depths during this rifting back-arc sequences in an extensional setting; event which was the incipient stage of the WARS mentioned • magmatism peaked between c. 120 and 90 Ma, coinciding above. Prior to and during exhumation, major crustal melting with the Palmer Land transpressional event and formation and deformation included transfer and emplacement of volu- of the East Palmer Land Shear Zone, the origin of which minous granitic material and mantle-derived diorite dykes remains unclear; (McFadden et al. 2015) during a transition from wrench to • magmatic activity began to wane following the Palmer oblique extension (Saito et al. 2013). Land deformational event, although there were local peaks in magmatic activity in the latest Cretaceous–Eocene. Concluding remarks Subduction ceased following a series of sequential ridge crest– trench collisions (Barker 1982; Larter and Barker 1991) where In contrast to the Paleozoic evolution of Antarctica within segments of the Pacific Phoenix spreading ridge jammed the Gondwana, the Mesozoic and Cenozoic evolution was domi- subduction zone on the western margin of the peninsula. Fol- nated by igneous activity related to continental rifting and sub- lowing the collisions, magmatism waned until the production duction processes. Although these two processes operated of scattered intra-plate alkaline volcanism from 6.5 to 0.1 Ma simultaneously for much of this time period, it is not clear (Hole and Larter 1993). Subduction continues on one remain- whether these processes were causally related or whether ing segment on the western margin of the Antarctic Peninsula they operated independently of each other. Ultimately, these where the Drake Plate is subducting beneath the South Shet- processes led to the disintegration of Gondwana and the current land Plate with the opening of the Bransfield Strait in a back- isolation of Antarctica at the South Pole and in the centre of an arc setting (Barker et al. 1991; Lawver et al. 1996; Christeson Antarctic plate surrounded by spreading ridges. With the et al. 2003). exception of magmatic activity related to the opening of the fi Thurston Island Brans eld Strait on the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula and the final relaxation stages of magmatism within the WARS, The Thurston Island block, which includes Thurston Island the continent is amagmatic and surrounded by passive margins. and the adjacent Eights Coast and the Jones mountains, This is in marked contrast to the Mesozoic and much of the records only Pacific-margin magmatism dated from Carbonif- Cenozoic where thermal anomalies within the mantle coupled erous to Late Cretaceous times (Pankhurst et al. 1993), with no with active subduction and rifting resulted in the wide range of associated exposed sedimentary successions. The igneous igneous activity, particularly within West Antarctica. rocks form a uniformly calc-alkaline, high-alumina dominantly metaluminous suite typical of subduction settings (Leat et al. 1993; Riley et al. 2016). The magmatic record Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the referees and vol- on Thurston Island itself was dominated by Late Jurassic ume editors for their constructive comments and for drawing attention (152–142 Ma) and Early Cretaceous (125–110 Ma) bimodal to some key references that had been omitted. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ at Dawn Angel on March 2, 2021

B. C. Storey and R. Granot

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