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Genotoxic Effects of Cylindrospermopsin

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Genotoxic Effects of Cylindrospermopsin toxins Article Genotoxic Effects of Cylindrospermopsin, Microcystin-LR and Their Binary Mixture in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HepG2) Cell Line Leticia Díez-Quijada 1 , Klara Hercog 2,3, Martina Štampar 2,3, Metka Filipiˇc 2, Ana M. Cameán 1 , Ángeles Jos 1,* and Bojana Žegura 2 1 Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad de Sevilla, Profesor García González No. 2, 41012 Seville, Spain; [email protected] (L.D.-Q.); [email protected] (A.M.C.) 2 Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Veˇcnapot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; [email protected] (K.H.); [email protected] (M.Š.); metka.fi[email protected] (M.F.); [email protected] (B.Ž.) 3 Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-954-556-762 Received: 13 October 2020; Accepted: 5 December 2020; Published: 8 December 2020 Abstract: Simultaneous occurrence of cylindrospermopsin (CYN) and microcystin-LR (MCLR) has been reported in the aquatic environment and thus human exposure to such mixtures is possible. As data on the combined effects of CYN/MCLR are scarce, we aimed to investigate the adverse effects related to genotoxic activities induced by CYN (0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 µg/mL) and MCLR (1 µg/mL) as single compounds and their combinations in HepG2 cells after 24 and 72 h exposure. CYN and CYN/MCLR induced DNA double-strand breaks after 72 h exposure, while cell cycle analysis revealed that CYN and CYN/MCLR arrested HepG2 cells in G0/G1 phase. Moreover, CYN and the combination with MCLR upregulated CYP1A1 and target genes involved in DNA-damage response (CDKN1A, GADD45A). Altogether, the results showed that after 72 h exposure genotoxic activity of CYN/MCLR mixture was comparable to the one of pure CYN. On the contrary, MCLR (1 µg/mL) had no effect on the viability of cells and had no influence on cell division. It did not induce DNA damage and did not deregulate studied genes after prolonged exposure. The outcomes of the study confirm the importance of investigating the combined effects of several toxins as the effects can differ from those induced by single compounds. Keywords: DNA double-strand breaks; cell-cycle; mRNA expression; microcystin-LR; cylindrospermopsin; mixture; HepG2 cells Key Contribution: In HepG2 cells CYN and its combination with MCLR induced DNA double-strand breaks, arrested cells in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle and upregulated the expression of genes involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics (CYP1A1) and genes that respond to DNA damage (GADD45A and CDKN1A) after prolonged exposure. 1. Introduction Cyanobacteria are organisms ubiquitously present in different environments ranging from marine and freshwaters to hydrothermal vents, and from Antarctic lakes to desert rocks [1]. Nowadays blooming of cyanobacteria is increasing all over the world due to anthropogenic activities and climate changes [2]. Cyanobacteria produce biologically active substances including cyanotoxins ranging from hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, neurotoxins, dermatotoxins, and irritant compounds with diverse structural and physicochemical properties [3–5]. Toxins 2020, 12, 778; doi:10.3390/toxins12120778 www.mdpi.com/journal/toxins Toxins 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17 Toxins 2020, 12, 778 2 of 16 One of the most widely known groups of hepatotoxic cyanotoxins are microcystins (MCs) that are produced by different genera of cyanobacteria such as Microcystis, Planktothrix and DolichospermumOne of the most among widely others known [6]. groupsThey are of cyclic hepatotoxic heptapep cyanotoxinstides (Figure are microcystins1a), and to date, (MCs) at thatleast are 279 producedMCs variants by di havefferent been genera recognized of cyanobacteria [7], with micr suchocystin-LR as Microcystis, (MCLR) Planktothrix congenerand as Dolichospermumthe most studied amongdue to others its toxicity [6]. They and areabundance cyclic heptapeptides in comparison (Figure to other1a), andMC-congeners to date, at least [2,8,9]. 279 Mainly MCs variants it targets have the beenliver, recognized due to its [7active], with transport microcystin-LR via hepatic (MCLR) orga congenernic anion as transport the most polypeptides studied due to (OATP) its toxicity [10]. and The abundanceinhibition inof comparisonspecific protein to other serine/threonine MC-congeners phosphatases, [2,8,9]. Mainly types it targets 1 and the2A liver,(PP1 dueand toPP2A) its active is the transportmost largely via hepatic investigated organic mechanism anion transport of action polypeptides of MCLR (OATP) [2,11]. [10Noneth]. Theeless, inhibition the mechanisms of specific proteininvolved serine in /MCLRthreonine toxicity phosphatases, are not completely types 1 and eluc 2Aidated, (PP1 and and PP2A) in addition is the most to PP1/PP2A largely investigated inhibition mechanismalso induction of actionof oxidative of MCLR stress [2 [2,12,13],11]. Nonetheless, and apoptosis the [14] mechanisms have been involveddescribed. in It MCLRhas been toxicity proved arethat not MCLR completely can induce elucidated, genotoxic and effects in addition [4,11], toand PP1 can/PP2A act as inhibition a tumor promoter also induction [15]. Consequently, of oxidative stressthis can [2,12 lead,13] to and cancer apoptosis development [14] have especially been described. after long-term It has been exposure proved to that low MCLR concentrations can induce of genotoxicMCLR [16,17]. effects [Due4,11 ],to and MCLR can act known as a tumor adverse promoter genotoxic [15]. Consequently,and tumor-promoting this can leadpotential, to cancer the developmentInternational especially Agency for after Research long-term on exposure Cancer (IARC) to lowconcentrations classified the toxin of MCLR within [16 ,17the]. group Due to 2B MCLR as “a knownpossible adverse human genotoxic carcinogen” and [18]. tumor-promoting potential, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified the toxin within the group 2B as “a possible human carcinogen” [18]. Figure 1. Chemical structure of MCLR (a) and CYN (b). Cylindrospermopsin (CYN),Figure 1. another Chemical very structure important of MCLR cyanotoxin, (a) and CYN has been(b). recently considered as an emerging toxin. It is produced by many cyanobacterial genera, with Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and ChrysosporumCylindrospermopsin ovalisporum (CYN),being another its main very producers importan [19].t cyanotoxin, It is a tricyclic has alkaloid been recently with a guanidineconsidered groupas an linkedemerging to a hydroxymethyluraciltoxin. It is produced group by many [20], andcyanobacterial its zwitterionic genera, character with makesCylindrospermopsis it a highly solubleraciborskii compound and Chrysosporum in water [21 ovalisporum] (Figure1b). being CYN its mainly main producers targets the [19]. liver, It although is a tricyclic other alkaloid organs with may a beguanidine affected asgroup well linked suggesting to a hydroxymethyluracil its cytotoxic properties group [22 –[20],24]. and Among its zwitterionic the CYN toxic character mechanisms, makes it thea highly irreversible soluble inhibition compound of protein in water [25,26 [21]] and (Figure glutathione 1b). CYN (GSH) mainly synthesis targets have the been liver, described although [26 –other29] andorgans revised may by be Pichardo affected et al.as [well30]. Similarlysuggesting to MCs,its cytotoxic CYN mechanisms properties of[22–24]. action areAmong not fully the elucidated, CYN toxic andmechanisms, many studies the irreversible reported that inhibition it has to of be protein metabolized [25,26] by and cytochrome glutathione P450 (GSH) to show synthesis cytotoxic have andbeen genotoxicdescribed activities, [26–29] and which revised points by out Pichardo that CYN et al. is pro-genotoxic[30]. Similarly [to4,28 MCs,,29,31 CYN–36]. mechanismsMoreover, CYN of action has beenare not reported fully elucidated, to cause DNA and many single studies (SSB) reported and double that (DSB) it has to strand be metabolized breaks and by induces cytochrome genomic P450 instabilityto show cytotoxic [29–32,34 ,and35,37 genotoxic–41]. Nevertheless, activities, which additional points studies out that are neededCYN is topro-genotoxic completely understand [4,28,29,31– its36]. genotoxic Moreover, properties. CYN has been reported to cause DNA single (SSB) and double (DSB) strand breaks andIn induces the environment, genomic instability many cyanobacterial [29–32,34,35,37– species41]. can Nevertheless, co-exist producing additional various studies toxins are at needed the same to timecompletely as it has understand been reported its forgenotoxic MCLR andproperties. CYN [1 ,42 –46], meaning that organisms living in such areas can beIn simultaneously the environment, exposed many to cyanobacterial complex mixtures specie ofs toxins. can co-exist Due to producing distinct mechanisms various toxins of action at the ofsame toxins time present as it inhas such been complex reported mixtures, for MCLR synergistic, and CYN potentiating [1,42–46], meaning or antagonistic that organisms interactions living can in occur.such areas Thus, can it is be essential simultaneously to study theexposed combined to comple adversex mixtures effects of of cyanotoxins, toxins. Due asto thesedistinct can mechanisms vary from thoseof action induced of bytoxins single present compounds. in such In complex order to performmixtures, an synergistic, appropriate potentiating risk assessment or andantagonistic hazard identification,interactions can the occur. European Thus,
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