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Hotspot Concept: the French Polynesia Complexity

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Hotspot Concept: the French Polynesia Complexity 6 Hotspot Concept: The French Polynesia Complexity Claudia Adam CGE/Univ. Evora Portugal 1. Introduction At the surface of the Earth, volcanism is found in several tectonic contexts. It is largely concentrated at the plate margins: at divergent plate boundaries, mid-oceanic ridges, where new tectonic plates are created, and at convergent margins, subduction zones, where the lithospheric plates dive into the mantle. In the interior of the oceanic plates, we find however linear volcanic chains, composed of several volcanoes aligned along the direction of the plate motion. Their origin has been attributed to the drifting of the lithospheric plates over a fixed, hot mantle upwelling, deeply rooted in the mantle. Since several years, this concept is debated and the existence of the plumes themselves is questioned. Here we focus on French Polynesia, a region characterized by a great concentration of volcanism and situated on the South Pacific Superswell, a wide area associated with numerous geophysical anomalies, including anomalously shallow seafloor considering its age, a dip in the geoid, and a mantle characterized by slow seismic velocities. 14% of the active volcanism is concentrated in an area covering less than 5% of the globe. A wide range of volcanic features should be noted: en echelon ridges, isolated seamounts and chains of midplate volcanoes. The characteristics of these chains often depart from the classical definition of hotspots. In particular, the broad depth anomalies surrounding the chains, called swells, display peculiar morphologies. These characteristics are however well recovered by a numerical model based on highly resolved seismic tomography model, describing the first 240 km of the upper mantle. This demonstrates that a direct link exists between the surface observations and mantle flows. However, even if the dynamics of the shallowest part of the mantle is sufficient to explain the surface observations, the existence of the secondary plumes at the origin of the hotspot chains, cannot be accounted for without involving a deeper component: the South Pacific superplume. This latter displays a complex signature in tomography models where it appears as broad low velocity anomalies throughout the lower mantle up to 1000 km, depth at which they split into narrower and more localized anomalies, a few hundred kilometers in diameter. Two of these narrow upwelling are associated with hotspots - the Society and Macdonald ones -, whereas the upwellings at the origin of the other chains seem to be restricted to the upper mantle. The pattern pointed out by the tomography is well retried by analogical experiments where two layers of miscible fluids are superimposed in a tank heated from below and cooled from above. In some conditions, long-lived thermochemical domes that oscillates vertically are produced. Experimentally, secondary plumes are observed at the top of the rising domes. www.intechopen.com 126 Updates in Volcanology – A Comprehensive Approach to Volcanological Problems 2. Hotspot concept Hotspot chains are chains of midplate volcanoes, surrounded by wide shallow regions, called swells. The chains are composed of several volcanoes, aligned along the direction of the tectonic plate motion. The age of volcanism increases linearly along the chain, and active volcanism is often found at one extremity of the chain. One of the most classical example of such chains is Hawaii. This pattern, partially observed hundreds of years ago, has fascinated people and several explanations for its origin have been proposed. 2.1 First hypothesis on the origin of linear volcanic chains: ancient legends The notion of volcanism migration is even older than the plate tectonics theory. According to Hawaiian legends, the fuming Pele goddess get angry with her sister after a terrible quarrel and went south-east, building in her way Diamond head on the Oahu island, Haleakala on the Maui island and the Kilauea on Hawaii, where she is living now - the actual active extremity of the chain. Another explanation, points out to the Namazu giant carp, leaving beneath Japan, which would be responsible for the Mount Fuji eruption when it shifts position. An extrapolation of this Japanese legend, (Holden and Vogt, 1977), makes Namazu swimming in the mantle, leaving behind it a buoyant trail of tholeiitic bubbles, rising ponderously, and creating chains of midplate volcanoes (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Alternative to mantle plume theory (based on ancient Japanese legend), from Holden and Vogt (1977). 2.2 The hotpot concept: Mantle plumes and plate tectonics More recently, the hotspot concept emerged at the same time that the plate tectonics theory (Wilson, 1963). As hotspot chains (Fig. 2) are linear volcanic alignments, parallel to the www.intechopen.com Hotspot Concept: The French Polynesia Complexity 127 direction of the plate motion, and displaying regular volcanism age progression, with active volcanism emplaced at one extremity of the chain, Morgan (1971, 1972) proposes that the origin of these tracks may be due to deep mantle plumes. He imagines the plumes as vertical conduits through which hot mantle flows upward. The hotspot tracks are then due to the drifting of a plate over a stationary mantle source. The plate displacement pushes the old volcanoes away from the source as young volcanoes are formed above the source (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. The hotspot concept: the hotspot tracks are due to the drifting of a plate over a stationary mantle source. The plate displacement pushes the old volcanoes away from the source as young volcanoes are formed above the source- from Clouard (2001) The plume itself would be characterized by a mushroom-shaped head and a thin, long stem. When the head of the plume reaches the lithosphere, it produces a massive volcanic event, and creates traps (or oceanic plateaus) at the surface. This episode is followed by the interaction of the stem with the lithosphere, which produces the linear volcanic chain. 2.3 The plume debate The simple model of the interaction of a hot mantle upwelling, deeply rooted in the mantle, and the overriding lithosphere has since then been challenged, and the existence of plume is now questioned. The characteristics which fuels the more energetically the 'plume debate' is the depth at which they initiate (Clouard & Bonneville, 2001; Sleep, 1990; Anderson, 2000). From the fluid dynamics point of view, a plume can only initiate from instabilities out of a thermal boundary layer. Morgan (1971, 1972) proposes first that plumes initiate in the lower mantle, but later has an idea of a second type of hotspot (Morgan et al. 1978). Other authors invokes superficial sources which use the weakness zones of the lithosphere to express themselves at the surface (Turcotte & Oxburgh, 1973; Anderson, 1975; Foulger et al., 2005; Foulger, 2010; Anderson, 2010). This last hypothesis, also called theory of Plate Tectonics Processes (PTP), points to a passive mantle. The volcanism emplacement would then be controlled by the stress field in the plate, and the magnitude of volcanism by the fertility of the underlying shallow mantle (Foulger et al., 2005; Foulger, 2010; Anderson, 2010). Higher mantle temperatures are not required in this case, and only the shallow part of the mantle is involved in the volcanism emplacement. Geochemist have tried to answer this open question. Rocks from hotspot volcanoes (OIB: Ocean Island Basalts) appear indeed enriched in noble gazes when compared to Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalts (MORB). As mid-oceanic ridges sample a shallow part of the mantle, plumes must tap deep reservoirs, enriched in noble gazes, which remained isolated from www.intechopen.com 128 Updates in Volcanology – A Comprehensive Approach to Volcanological Problems intermixing. However, recent studies indicate that there is no need to invoke deep isolated reservoirs to account for the geochemical signatures of OIB (Anderson, 1998; Allègre, 2002). In then appears that "geochemistry will not deliver the silver bullet for proving or disproving plumes" (Hofmann & Hart, 2007), neither discriminate the depth at which mantle upwellings initiate. If the plumes at the origin of hotspots are hot mantle upwellings, they mantle beneath midplate chains should be characterized by anomalously low shear velocities (Vs). However, most of the available tomography models lack resolution at the scale of the plume, and therefore stems are not easily identifiable. Moreover, a low velocity anomaly does not unswervingly imply a hotter region, but could also be interpreted in terms of a chemical anomaly (Karato, 2008). The morphology of the volcanic chain itself bring information about the plume dynamics. According to the classical definition, first proposed by Morgan (1971, 1972), there must be a flood basalt near the oldest extremity of the chain, and the linear chain should display a long and monotonous age progression. The swell surrounding the chain is a direct consequence of the buoyant plume upwelling, and therefore, is also commonly used as the parameter to quantify the hotspot strength (Sleep, 1990; Courtillot et al., 2003; Vidal & Bonneville, 2004, Adam et al., 2005). By analyzing the previously described criteria, Courtillot et al. (2003) show that three kind of plumes may coexist, each of them corresponding to a boundary between the CMB and the seafloor: those which initiate at the CMB (primary plumes or Wilson-Morgan), the secondary plumes initiating at the transition zone (also called secondary hot spots) and the "Andersonian" plumes that may be due to a passive response to forms of lithospheric breakup (Anderson, 2010; Foulger et al., 2005). According to their analysis, the primary (or Wilson-Morgan) hotspots in the Pacific may be Hawaii, Louisville and Eastern, and the secondary ones Caroline, Macdonald, Pitcairn, Samoa and Tahiti (see Fig. 3.) Let us now see in a more practical way which are the characteristics of hotspot chains, by considering what is happening in French Polynesia. 3. French polynesia region 3.1 Description of the french polynesia volcanism This study focuses on the French Polynesia (Fig.
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