Nutrients Cycling, Climate, Energy Flow, Etc

Home , Bandipur National Park, Betla National Park, Dachigam National Park, Dudhwa National Park, Galathea National Park, Gorumara National Park

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S28-EnvironmentEcologyPart-1 S29-EnvironmentEcologyPart-2 S30-EnvironmentEcologyPart-3 S31-EnvironmentEcologyPart-4 S32-EnvironmentEcologyPart-5 S33-EnvironmentEcologyPart-6

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Part - 1 Environment & Ecology

I. Ecology II. Ecosystem III. Functions of Ecosystems A. Energy Flow B. Nutrient Cycles C. Ecological Succession D. Homeostasis

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➢ The environment may be defined as the surroundings or conditions in which an organism lives or operates. ➢ Every living organism is constantly interacting with its environment comprised of air, light, water, land or substratum and the various kinds of living organisms. ➢ The environment broadly includes living and non-living components. ➢ All organisms depend on their environment for survival.

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I. Ecology

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➢ Ecology is defined "as a scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with each other and with their environment." ➢ The term ecology was first coined in 1869 by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel. ➢ It has been derived from two Greek words, ‘oikos’, meaning home or estate and ‘logos’ meaning study. ➢ The emphasis is on relationships between organisms and the components of the environment namely non-living and living.

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➢ Study of the form, physiology, behavior, distribution, and adaptation of organism in relation to the environment. ➢ Study of interaction between populations and intraspecific relationships. ➢ Study of structure and composition of the community and interspecific interactions between members of the community. ➢ Study of the community in relation to the structure of its ecosystem-nutrients cycling, climate, energy flow, etc. studied.

➢ Hence, Ecology not only deals with the study of the relationship of individual organisms with their environment, but also with the study of populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and biosphere as a whole. ➢ Individual (organism) is a living being that has the ability to act or function independently. ➢ A population is a group of individuals usually of the same species, occupying a defined area during a specific timeframe. ➢ Communities are usually named after the dominant species. A community is not fixed or rigid, as it changes with time.

A group of organisms consisting of a number of different populations but Population same species that live in defined area and interact with each other. A group of organisms consisting of a Community number of different species that live in an area and interact with each other.

A communities of organisms and Ecosystem their physical environment, interacting as an ecological unit.

A large community unit, characterized by a Biome major vegetation type and associated fauna, found in a specific climatic region is a biome. Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF

Biosphere

Biome (Terrestrial Part)

Ecosystem (Ecotone)

Community

Population

Organism

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Hydrosphere (Water)

BIOSPHERE

Atmosphere Lithosphere (Air) (Land)

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➢ It is the ‘Terrestrial part’ of the biosphere which can be divided into enormous regions called biomes. ➢ Biomes are characterized by climate, vegetation, animal life, and general soil type. ➢ For example, Tundra, Taiga, Desert, etc. ➢ No two biomes are alike, i.e, all biomes are unique in nature. ➢ The most important climatic factors determining biomes are the following two: 1. Temperature 2. Precipitation

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➢ A species is defined as; “a group of similar populations of organisms whose members are capable of interbreeding, and to produce fertile offspring (children)”. ➢ For example, human, tiger, lion, lotus, rose, dog, etc. ➢ Every species has a scientific name, understood by people of all over the world. ➢ For example, humans belong to the species of Homo sapiens. ➢ Every species has its own set of genetic characteristics that makes the species unique and different from other species.

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➢ However, variations are produced as a result of chance mutation among the species. ➢ And competition and natural selection determine as to which variation will succeed and survive. ➢ Those variations that enable a species to survive in the struggle for existence are encouraged and promoted. ➢ Therefore, those offspring which are suited to their immediate environment have a better chance of surviving, reaching reproductive age and passing on the suitable adaptations to their progeny. ➢ Hence, adaptation and diversity of the species is the result of evolution.

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➢ Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives. ➢ Each organism has particular requirements for its survival and lives where the environment provides for those needs. ➢ The human gut is the habitat of a tapeworm and the rotting log a habitat of a fungus. ➢ A habitat may support many different species having similar requirements. ➢ For example, a single ocean habitat may support a whale, a sea-horse, seal, phytoplankton, and many other kinds of organisms.

VestibulumFood congue

SpaceVestibulum congue HABITAT VestibulumWater congue

Shelter/ Vestibulum congue Cover

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➢ The term niche means the sum of all the activities and relationships of a species by which it uses the resources in its habitat for its survival and reproduction. ➢ In nature, many species occupy the same habitat but they perform different functions. ➢ The functional characteristics of a species in its habitat are referred to as “niche” in that common habitat. ➢ Habitat of a species is like its ‘address’ (i.e. where it lives) whereas niche can be thought of as its “profession” (i.e. activities and responses specific to the species).

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➢ A niche is unique for a species while many species share the habitat. ➢ No two species in a habitat can have the same niche. ➢ This is because if two species occupy the same niche they will compete with one another until one is displaced. ➢ For example, a large number of different species of insects may be pests of the same plant but they can co-exist as they feed on different parts of the same plant. ➢ The most important resources in the niches of animals are food and shelter while in the case of plants, they are moisture and nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen).

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1. Habitat niche - where the organism lives. 2. Food niche - what it eats or decompose and which species compete with the organism. 3. Reproductive niche -how and when it reproduces. 4. Physical and chemical niche - land shape, land slope, temperature, humidity, and other requirements.

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➢ Every organism is suited to live in its particular habitat, hence, it is adapted to its particular environment. ➢ An adaptation is thus, “the appearance or behaviour or structure or mode of life of an organism that allows it to survive in a particular environment”. ➢ For example, the presence of gills and fins in fishes to aquatic habitat. ➢ Similarly, in aquatic flowering plants absence of wood formation and highly reduced root system are adaptations to aquatic an environment.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Adaptations have a genetic basis and have been produced and perfected through evolution. ➢ This means that the adaptations have developed over many generations to help a species survive successfully in its environment. ➢ Following are some examples of basic adaptations that help animals and plants to survive in their respective environments. ○ Shape of bird’s beak. ○ The thickness or thinness of fur. ○ Presence of feathers and wings in birds. ○ Evergreen and deciduous nature of trees. ○ Presence and absence of thorns on leaves and stems.

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➢ Extinction is generally a natural occurrence. ➢ It means the dying out of a variety of or a species. ➢ Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to cope with the changes taking place in their environment. ➢ The primary reason for these extinctions is environmental change or biological competition. ➢ Many species have gone extinct during the geological history of the earth.

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➢ Extinction may take place due to catastrophic natural phenomena such as tsunami, volcanoes, etc. ➢ In recent time, human activities such as deforestation, over-exploitation, environmental pollution, and environmental change are other factors responsible for the extinction.

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➢ In ecology, the term community, or more appropriately ‘biotic community, refer to the populations of different kinds of organisms living together and sharing the same habitat. ➢ An important attribute of a community is its species diversity. ➢ Species diversity influences the stability of the community. ➢ A stable community is one which is able to return to its original condition after being disturbed in some way. ➢ Communities with high species diversity have been found to be comparatively more stable.

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➢ These interactions occur between the organisms and is fundamental for its survival and functioning of the ecosystem as a whole. ➢ The interaction that occurs among different individuals of the same species is called intraspecific interaction while the interaction among individuals of different species in a community is termed as interspecific interaction. ➢ Interspecific relationship may be direct and close as between a lion and deer or indirect and remote as between an elephant and a beetle.

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Competition - - Positive Commensalism + 0 ( both species are benefited) Mutualism + + Neutral Neutralism 0 0 ( neither benefited nor harmed)

1. Amensalism: ➢ This is a negative association between two species in which one species harms or restricts the other species without itself being adversely affected or harmed by the presence of the other species. ➢ Organisms that secrete antibiotics and the species that get inhibited by the antibiotics are examples of amensalism. ➢ Another example, a large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the small plant. ➢ However, small plant has no effect on the large tree.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2. Predation ➢ In this type of interaction predator captures, kills and eats an animal of another species called the prey. ➢ The predator naturally benefits from this relationship while the prey is harmed. ➢ Predators like leopards, tigers, and cheetahs use speed, teeth and claws to hunt and kill their prey. 3. Parasitism: ➢ In this type of interaction, one species is harmed and the other benefits.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Parasitism involves parasite usually a small size organism living in or on another living species called the host from which the parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter. ➢ The parasite is benefited and the host is harmed. ➢ Many organisms like animal, bacteria, and viruses are parasites of plants and animals. ➢ Plants like dodder plant (Cuscuta) and mistletoe (Loranthus) are parasites that live on flowering plants. ➢ Tapeworm, roundworm, malarial parasite, many bacteria, fungi, and viruses are common parasites of humans.

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Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Epiphytes live on the surface of other plants like ferns, mosses, and orchids and use the surface of trees for support and for obtaining sunlight and moisture. ➢ The tree gets no benefit from this relationship nor are they harmed. ➢ Similarly, cow dung provides food and shelter to dung beetles but beetles have no effect on the cows. 6. Mutualism: ➢ This is a close association between two species in which both the species benefit.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ For example, in pollination mutualisms, the pollinator gets food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its pollen transferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization (reproduction). ➢ However, some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting species can no longer live without each other as they depend totally on each other to survive. ➢ Such close associations are called symbiosis. ➢ An example of such close mutualistic association is that of termite and their intestinal flagellates. ➢ Termites can eat wood but have no enzymes to digest it.

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➢ However, their intestine contains certain flagellate protists (protozoans) that have the necessary enzymes to digest the cellulose of the wood eaten by termites and convert it into sugar. 7. Neutralism: ➢ In this type of interaction, there is no net benefit or harm to either of the species. ➢ Perhaps in some interspecific interactions, the costs and benefits experienced by each partner are exactly the same, so that they sum up to zero. ➢ True neutralism is extremely unlikely and impossible to prove.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ An example of neutralism is an interaction between a rainbow trout and dandelion living in the valley of a mountain or cacti and tarantulas living in the desert area. ➢ Since true neutralism is rare or non-existent, its usage is often extended to situations where interaction is merely insignificant or negligible.

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II. Ecosystem

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➢ The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935. ➢ Ecosystem is defined as “a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of a community of living beings and the physical environment both interacting and exchanging materials between them”. ➢ It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil, and people. ➢ For example- a pond is a good example of an ecosystem. ➢ The components of both ecosystem and environment are same.

Components of Ecosystem

Abiotic (Non-living) Biotic (Living)

Inorganic Organic Consumers Decomposers Substances Substances (Animals) (Microorganisms)

Physical Producers Factors (Green Plants)

Physical Inorganic Organic Factors Substance Substances

● Sunlight, ● Carbon dioxide, ● Carbohydrates, ● Nitrogen, ● Temperature, ● Oxygen, ● Proteins, ● Rainfall, ● Phosphorus, ● Lipids and ● Sulphur, ● Humidity and ● Water, Rock, ● Humic ● Pressure. ● Soil and other substances minerals.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Abiotic factors determine where and how well an organism exists in its environment. ➢ Even though these factors interact with each other, one single factor can limit the range of an organism. ➢ Organic compounds are the building blocks of living systems and therefore, make a link between the biotic and abiotic components. ➢ Organic compound is formed from the inorganic compound after decomposition.

➢ Distribution of organisms in the environment is determined by solar energy.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the freshwater on the Earth. ➢ It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems. ➢ Temperature is a factor which critically influences the survival of organisms since the organisms can tolerate only a certain range of temperature and humidity. ➢ The land is covered by soil and numerous variety of microbes, protozoa, fungi and even small animals (invertebrate) thrive in it.

1. Producers: Primary Producers - Autotrophs (self-nourishing) ➢ The producers are basically green plants and certain types of bacteria and algae. ➢ The green plants manufacture food for the entire ecosystem through the process of photosynthesis. ➢ Green plants are called autotrophs, as they absorb water and nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and capture solar energy for this process.

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➢ In other words, they synthesise carbohydrate from simple inorganic raw materials like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis on their own and supply indirectly to other non-producers. ➢ In the terrestrial ecosystem, producers basically are herbaceous and woody plants. ➢ Whereas in the aquatic ecosystem, producers are various species of microscopic algae.

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2. Consumers: Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs (other nourishing): ➢ Consumers are the species which are incapable of producing their own food (through photosynthesis). ➢ So, they depend on organic food derived from plants, animals or both. ➢ Hence, they are called heterotrophs and they consume food synthesized by the autotrophs. ➢ Based on food preferences they can be grouped into two broad categories.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF A. Macro-consumers ➢ They feed on plants or animals or both and are categorised on the basis of their source of food. 1) Herbivores are primary consumers who feed mainly on plants. For example horse, cow, rabbit. 2) Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers. For example, fox. 3) Carnivores are tertiary consumers who feed on secondary consumers. For example, lions can eat fox and wolves. 4) Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals. For example, human, pig, sparrow, etc.

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➢ It is a zone of a junction between two or more different ecosystems. ➢ The mangrove forests are an example of the ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. ➢ Some more examples of ecotone are grassland, estuary, and river bank. ➢ An ecotone may be narrow or quite wide. There exist the conditions that are intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. ➢ Hence, it is a zone of tension. ➢ It is where two communities meet and integrate.

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Ecosystem 1

ECOTONE Ecosystem 2 (Unique Organisms)

Ecosystem 3

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Ecotone shows an increase in species composition of one incoming community and a simultaneous decrease in species of the other outgoing adjoining community. ➢ A well-developed ecotone has some organisms which are entirely different (or unique to itself) from that of the adjoining communities. ➢ Sometimes the species richness and the population density of some of the species is much greater in this zone than either community. ➢ This is called the Edge effect. ➢ For example, floodplain; a shift from terrestrial to the aquatic ecosystem, has more species than adjoining ecosystems.

➢ Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform certain following functions such as A. Energy flow through food chain B. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) C. Ecological succession or ecosystem development D. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms

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A. Energy Flow

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➢ The basic force responsible for all metabolic activities is Energy. ➢ The unidirectional flow of energy from producer to top consumers is called Energy flow. ➢ Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent trophic levels. ➢ There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable heat at each trophic level. ➢ For example, energy used by organisms for respiration.

Sunlight

Autotrophs Herbivoros Primary Secondary Carnivoros Decomposers Carnivoros

10,000 Kcal 1000 Kcal 100 Kcal 10 Kcal

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ At every step in a food chain or web, the energy received by the organism is used to sustain itself and the leftover is passed on to the next trophic level. ➢ The interaction at trophic involves three important concepts namely 1) Food Chain 2) Food Web 3) Ecological Pyramids

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➢ It represents a series of interaction between various species that starts with producers and ends with top carnivores. ➢ Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is called a food chain. Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk/Eagle ➢ Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. ➢ In the above example, grasses are 1st, and the eagle represents the 5th trophic level.

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➢ During this process of transfer of energy some energy is lost into the system as heat energy and is not available to the next trophic level. ➢ Therefore, the numbers of steps are limited in a chain to 4 or 5. Gross Primary Production ○ The total rate at which the radiant energy is stored by the process of photosynthesis in the green plants is called Gross Primary Production (GPP). ○ This is also known as total photosynthesis or total assimilation.

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➢ There are two types of food chains: 1. Grazing food chains: It starts from the green plants that make food for herbivores and herbivores in turn for the carnivores.

Producers → Herbivores → Carnivores

In the terrestrial ecosystem, Grass → Caterpillar → lizard → Snake In an aquatic ecosystem, Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Fishes → Pelicans

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2. Detritus food chains: It starts from the dead organic matter to the detritivore organisms which in turn make food for protozoan to carnivores etc.

Producers → Detritus Feeders → Carnivores

Litter → Earthworm → Chicken → Hawk ➢ The distinction between these two food chains is the source of energy for the first level consumers. ➢ In an ecosystem, the two chains are interconnected and make a y-shaped food chain.

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➢ Trophic levels in an ecosystem are not linear rather they are interconnected and make a food web. ➢ Thus food web is a network interconnected food chains existing in an ecosystem. ➢ One animal may be a member of several different food chains. ➢ Food webs are more realistic models of energy flow through an ecosystem. ➢ It represents all possible transfers of energy and nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem whereas a food chain traces only one pathway of the food and energy transfer.

Eagle

Lion Frog Snake

Cow Grass Rat

➢ Ecological pyramids are the graphic representations of trophic levels in an ecosystem. ➢ The producer of the food forms the base of the pyramid and the top carnivore forms the tip, in between, there exist other consumer trophic levels. ➢ The pyramid consists of numerous levels of horizontal bars depicting specific trophic levels which are arranged sequentially from primary producer level through herbivore, carnivore, and omnivores.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The total number of individuals at each trophic level in an ecosystem is represented by the length of each bar. ➢ There are the following three categories of ecological pyramids:- 1. Pyramid of Numbers, 2. Pyramid of Biomass, and 3. Pyramid of Energy or productivity.

➢ It deals with the relationship between the numbers of primary producers and consumers which are on different levels. ➢ Structure of an ecosystem is not completely defined by a pyramid of numbers. ➢ Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of numbers can be the following two types I. Upright II. Inverted

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF I. Pyramid of numbers - Upright ➢ This pyramid indicates that the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher trophic level. ➢ For example, in grassland the number of grasses is more than the number of herbivores that feed on them and the number of herbivores is more than the number of carnivores. II. Pyramid of numbers - Inverted ➢ In this pyramid, the number of individuals increases from lower trophic level to higher trophic level. ➢ A forest would have a small number of large producers e.g. few numbers of big trees that feed many caterpillars and insects.

➢ This represents the total standing crop biomass at each trophic level. ➢ Standing crop biomass is the amount of the living matter at any given time. ➢ It is expressed as gm/unit area or kilocal/unit area. ➢ In most of the terrestrial ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass is upright. ➢ However, in case of aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may be inverted.

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➢ For example, in a pond, the standing crop of phytoplankton which is the major producers at any given point will be lower than the mass of the heterotrophs such as fish and insects. ➢ This is explained as the phytoplankton reproduce very quickly but have a much shorter individual lifespan (i.e. they are rapidly replaced by new plants). ➢ Therefore, their total biomass at any given time is less than the biomass of herbivores supported by them.

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Secondary Carnivores Birds Large fish Primary Carnivores Snakes Small fish Herbivores Rabbits, rats, mice, Zooplankton etc.

Grasses Producers Phytoplankton

UPRIGHT INVERTED

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➢ In order to compare the functional roles of organisms in different trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable. ➢ This pyramid represents the total amount of energy at each trophic level. ➢ Energy is expressed in terms of rate such as kcal/unit area /unit time or cal/unit area/unit time.

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➢ An energy pyramid reflects the laws of thermodynamics such as ○ the conversion of solar energy to chemical energy and heat energy at each trophic level and ○ the loss of energy being depicted at each transfer level to another trophic level. ➢ Hence, the pyramid of energy is always upward with a large energy base at the bottom.

➢ The elements or mineral nutrients are always in a cyclic manner i.e, elements circulate moving from nonliving to living and then back to the non-living components of the ecosystem in almost like a circular fashion. ➢ This recycling of the nutrients is called biogeochemical or nutrient cycle (Bio = living, geo = rock chemical = element). ➢ It is essential for life and it is the vital function of the ecology of any region. ➢ In any particular environment, to maintain its organism in a sustained manner, the nutrient cycle must be kept balanced and stable.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The entire earth or biosphere is a closed system i.e. nutrients are neither imported nor exported from the biosphere. ➢ The nutrients locked in the dead remains of organisms and released back into the soil by detritivores and decomposers. ➢ There are two important components of a biogeochemical cycle 1. Reservoir pool - it is atmosphere or rock which stores large amounts of nutrients. 2. Cycling pool or compartments of the cycle -They are relatively short storages of carbon in the form of plants and animals.

Based on the replacement period ➢ A nutrient cycle is referred to as 1. Perfect Cycle 2. Imperfect cycle ➢ A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are replaced as soon as they are utilised. ➢ Most of the gaseous cycles (like Nitrogen cycle) are generally considered as perfect cycles.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ In contrast, sedimentary cycles are considered relatively imperfect cycles. ➢ Because some nutrients are lost from the cycle and get locked into sediments and therefore are unavailable for immediate cycling. Based on the nature of the reservoir ➢ there are the following two types of cycles namely 1) Gaseous Cycle where the reservoir is either atmosphere or the hydrosphere. The biogenetic materials involved in circulation pass through a gaseous phase before completing the cycle.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2) Sedimentary Cycle where the earth's crust acts as the reservoir. In sedimentary cycles, the main reservoir pool of the element is lithosphere and the biogenetic materials which are involved in circulation are non-gaseous. These are usually very slow as the elements may get locked up in the form of rocks and go out of circulation for longer periods. For example, Phosphorus, Calcium, and Magnesium circulate by means of the sedimentary cycle.

Biogeochemical cycles

Gaseous Cycle Sedimentary cycle

Nitrogen cycle Carbon cycle Sulphur cycle Phosphorus cycle

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1) Gaseous Cycles

➢ The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system and is driven by solar energy. ➢ Resulting from direct evaporation and through evapotranspiration, the continuous movement of water in the biosphere is called the water cycle (hydrological cycle). ➢ Water is not evenly distributed throughout the surface of the earth. ➢ Almost 95 % of the total water on the earth is chemically bound to rocks and does not cycle.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Out of the remaining 5%, nearly 97.3% is in the oceans and 2.1% exists as polar ice caps. ➢ Thus only 0.6% is present as fresh water in the form of atmospheric water vapours, ground and soil water. ➢ The driving forces for water cycle are solar radiation and gravity. ➢ Water moves from one reservoir to another by the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, and groundwater flow. ➢ However, evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in the water cycle. ➢ These two processes alternate with each other.

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➢ The source of all carbon is carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. ➢ Life cannot exist without carbon dioxide, as it is vital for the production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants. ➢ This element anchors all organic substances from coal and oil to DNA. ➢ It is highly soluble in water, therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide. ➢ Carbon cycle involves a continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms.

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➢ The global carbon cycle consists of the following steps- Photosynthesis ➢ Green plants in the presence of sunlight utilize CO2 in the process of photosynthesis and convert the inorganic carbon into organic matter (food) and release oxygen. ➢ A part of the food made through photosynthesis is used by plants for their own metabolism and the rest is stored as their biomass which is available to various herbivores, heterotrophs, including human beings and microorganisms as food.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Respiration ➢ Respiration is carried out by all living organisms, animals, and plants as well. ➢ It is a metabolic process where food is oxidized to liberate energy, CO2, and water. ➢ The energy released from respiration is used for carrying out life processes by a living organism. ➢ Thus CO2 is released into of the atmosphere through this process.

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Decomposition ➢ All the food assimilated by animals or synthesized by the plant is not metabolized by them completely. ➢ A major part is retained by them as their own biomass which becomes available to decomposers on their death. ➢ The dead organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms and CO2 is released into the atmosphere by decomposers. Combustion ➢ Burning of biomass releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

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➢ It is an essential constituent of protein and is a basic building block of all living tissues. ➢ Our atmosphere contains nearly 79% of nitrogen but it can not be used directly by the majority of living organisms. ➢ Nitrogen cycles from the gaseous phase to solid phase then back to gaseous phase through the activity of a wide variety of organisms. ➢ Cycling of nitrogen is vitally important for all living organisms. ➢ There are five main processes which essential for nitrogen cycle are elaborated below.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Nitrogen fixation: ➢ This process involves the conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by plants. ➢ Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by the following three methods 1. Atmospheric fixation: By the lightening, combustion, and volcanic activity. The periodic thunderstorms convert the gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates which later reaches the earth's surface through precipitation and then into the soil and are utilized by the plants.

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2. Industrial fixation: At high temperature and high pressure, molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic nitrogen which then combines with hydrogen to form ammonia. 3. Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria- Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants. Free-living or symbiotic e.g. Nostoc, Azotobacter, and Cyanobacteria.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Nitrification: ➢ It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites ➢ It is done by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria respectively. ➢ Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can convert nitrate into nitrite. Assimilation: ➢ In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA, etc. ➢ These molecules make the plant and animal tissue.

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Ammonification: ➢ Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric acid. ➢ These waste products, as well as dead remains of organisms, are converted back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria. ➢ Ammonifying bacteria help in this process. ➢ The bacteria that accomplish it are Bacillus, Clostridium, Proteus, Pseudomonas, and Streptomyces.

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Denitrification: ➢ Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification. ➢ Denitrifying bacteria live deep in the soil near the water table as they like to live in an oxygen free medium. ➢ Denitrification is the reverse of nitrogen fixation. ➢ In the soil (even oceans) there are few special denitrifying bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas) which can convert the nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen. ➢ This nitrogen which is in the gaseous form escapes into the atmosphere, thus completing the cycle.

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2) Sedimentary Cycles

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Phosphorus Cycle

➢ Phosphorus plays an important role in aquatic ecosystems and water quality. ➢ Phosphorus occurs in large amounts as a mineral in phosphate rocks and enters the cycle due to erosion and mining activities. ➢ This nutrient is considered to be the main cause of excessive growth of rooted and free-floating microscopic plants in lakes. ➢ Phosphorus is mainly stored in the earth's crust. ➢ It is usually found in the form of phosphates on land.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Through the processes like weathering and erosion, phosphates enter rivers and streams and are eventually transported to the ocean. ➢ In the ocean, the phosphorus accumulates on continental shelves in the form of insoluble deposits. ➢ Only after millions of years, the crustal plates rise from the seafloor and expose the phosphates on land. ➢ Eventually, weathering will release them from rock and the cycle's geochemical phase begins again.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2. Sulphur Cycle

➢ Soil is the natural reservoir for sulphur. ➢ Its sediments are locked in organic (coal, oil, and peat) and inorganic deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) in the form of sulphates, sulphides, and organic sulphur. ➢ It is primarily released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution. ➢ The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its compounds hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) which adds a gaseous component to its normal sedimentary cycle.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back to the earth after being dissolved in rainwater which forms weak sulphuric acid. ➢ Sulphur in the form of sulphates is utilized by the plants. ➢ Sulphates are incorporated through a series of metabolic processes into sulphur-bearing amino acid which eventually is incorporated in the proteins of autotroph tissues and then it passes through the grazing food chain. ➢ Sulphur bound in living organisms is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes, and to seas through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.

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C. Ecological Succession

➢ The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are replaced or changed into another over a period of time is known as ecological succession. ➢ Both the biotic and abiotic components are involved in this change. ➢ This change is brought about both by the activities of the communities as well as by the physical environment in that particular area. ➢ The physical environment often influences the nature, direction, rate, and optimal limit of changes.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ During succession both the plant and animal communities undergo change. ➢ There are the following two types of successions 1. Primary succession 2. Secondary succession ➢ The first organism (usually plant) which colonise an area is called the pioneer community. ➢ The final stage of succession is called the climax community. ➢ The stage which leads to the climax community is called successional stage or sere.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Ecological succession is characterised by the following: ○ increased productivity, ○ the shift of nutrients from the reservoirs, ○ increased diversity of organisms with increased development of niche, and ○ a consequent increase in the complexity of food webs. ➢ Succession occurs faster in area existing in the middle part of a large continent. ➢ This is because, here all communities and seeds of plants belonging to the different seres would reach much faster, establish, and ultimately result in the climax community.

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➢ Primary succession takes place where no community has existed previously. ➢ For example, over a bare or unoccupied area such as rocks outcrop, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands, and lava flows as well as glacial moraines. ➢ The plants that invade first bare land, where the soil is initially absent are called pioneer species. ➢ The assemblage of pioneer plants is collectively called pioneer community

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The pioneer community after some time gets replaced by another community with different species combination. ➢ This second community gets replaced by a third community. This process continues sequence-wise in which a community replaced previously by another community. ➢ Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed and replaced during succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community. ➢ The terminal (final) stage of succession forms the community which is called a climax community. ➢ The entire sequence of communities in a given area, succeeding each other, during the course of succession is termed sere.

Pioneer Species/Community Pioneers High growth rate but short life span Stages Bare Rocks, Lichens, Small annual plants, Perennial herbs, Grasses

Intermediate Seral Community; Temporary Community Stages Grasses, Shrubs, Shade intolerant trees

Climax Terminal/Final Community Stable, mature, more complex and Community long lasting. Shade tolerant trees

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➢ Secondary succession occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has been removed. ➢ It is typified by smaller-scale disturbances (partial destruction of the existing community) that do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the environment. ➢ Most of the times, hardy species of grasses would be the first to invade the abandoned land, as it can survive in bare, sun-baked soil. ➢ Tall grasses and herbaceous plants soon join these hardy grasses. These together dominate the ecosystem for some years along with rabbits, mice, insects and seed-eating birds.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind, birds or animals. And over the years, a forest community develops. ➢ Thus, the abandoned farmland over a period becomes dominated by trees and can be transformed into a forest. ➢ Primary succession takes a very long time as compared to secondary succession as the soil is to be formed during primary succession while secondary succession starts in an area where the soil is already present. ➢ Secondary succession is relatively fast as the soil has the necessary nutrients as well as a large pool of seeds and other dormant stages of organisms.

Autogenic and Allogenic ➢ When succession is caused by living inhabitants of that community itself, the process is called autogenic succession, while change brought about by external forces is known as allogenic succession. Xerarch and Hydrarch ➢ Succession that occurs on land where moisture content is low for e.g. on bare rock is known as Xerarch. ➢ Succession that takes place in a water body, like ponds or lake is called Hydrarch.

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Autotrophic and Heterotrophic

➢ Succession in which, the green plants (initially) are much greater in quantity is known as autotrophic succession and the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession.

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D. Homeostasis

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state of equilibrium. ➢ They can regulate their own species structure and functional processes. ➢ This capacity of the ecosystem of self-regulation is known as homeostasis. ➢ In other words, homeostasis can be described as the tendency for a biological system to resist changes. ➢ In a homeostatic system, the negative feedback mechanism is responsible for maintaining stability in an ecosystem.

A large number of phytoplankton ↓ Increase the population of zooplankton due to excess food available ↓ Reduction in phytoplankton ↓ The population of zooplanktons decreases due to starvation ↓ The population of phytoplankton starts increasing due to less consumption

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Thank you!

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Part - 2 Environment & Ecology

By Dr. Roman Saini

I. Terrestrial Ecosystem A. Tundra Biome B. Forest Biome C. Grassland Biome D. Desert Biome II. Aquatic A. Lake Ecosystem B. Wetland Ecosystem C. Estuarine Ecosystem

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Classification of Ecosystems

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Natural Man-made

Totally dependent Dependent on Solar Dependent on Dependent on on Solar Radiation; Radiation and Solar energy; Fossil fuel; Forests, Energy Subsidies; Agricultural fields Urban and Grasslands, Oceans, Tropical rain forests, and Aquaculture Industrial Lakes, Rivers and Tidal estuaries and ponds ecosystems. Deserts. Coral reefs.

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➢ A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a unit and is capable of maintaining its identity ➢ For example, forest, grassland, estuary, etc. ➢ There are the following two main categories of ecosystems A. Terrestrial ecosystem: Ecosystems found on the land e.g. forest, grasslands, deserts, tundra, etc.

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B. Aquatic ecosystem: Plants and animal community found in water bodies. These can be further classified into two sub groups. 1. Freshwater ecosystems: Rivers, Lakes, Ponds, etc. 2. Marine ecosystems: Oceans, Estuary, etc.

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A. Terrestrial Ecosystem

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The interrelations between organisms and environment on the land constitute "Terrestrial Ecology". ➢ The most important determining factors of the terrestrial ecosystems are the following: 1. Moisture 2. Temperature ➢ Terrestrial ecosystems can be classified into different biomes as 1. Tundra Biome 2. Forests Biome 3. Grasslands Biome 4. Deserts Biome

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➢ Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes. ➢ The word tundra means a “barren land” (treeless plain) since they are found in those regions of the world where environmental conditions are very severe. ➢ It is known for its frost-molded landscapes, extremely low temperatures, little precipitation, poor nutrients, and short growing seasons. ➢ There are two types of tundra- Arctic and Alpine.

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Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Flora and Fauna: ➢ Typical vegetation of Arctic tundra consists of cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath, willows, birches, and lichens. ➢ Insects have short life cycles which are completed during favourable period of the year. ➢ Animals of tundra are the arctic hare, caribous, lemmings, reindeer, musk ox, and squirrel. ➢ They are protected from the extreme cold by the presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair. The body is covered with fur for insulation. ➢ Mammals of the tundra region have large body size and small tail and ear, mainly to avoid the loss of heat from the surface.

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➢ Forest includes a complex assembly of different kinds of biotic communities. ➢ Optimum conditions such as temperature and ground moisture are responsible for the establishment of forest communities. ➢ Forests may be either evergreen or deciduous. ➢ They are distinguished on the basis of the leaf into broad-leafed or needle-leaved coniferous forests in the case of temperate areas.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Forests are classified into three major categories: 1. Coniferous forest, 2. Temperate forest and 3. Tropical forest. 1. Coniferous forest (Boreal forest): ➢ Coniferous forests are also known as ‘Taiga’. ➢ They extend as a continuous belt across the North America and northern Eurasia below the arctic tundra. ➢ There is no counterpart of these forests in the southern hemisphere as there is no land at this latitude.

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➢ Climate is cold with high rainfall, strong seasonal climates with long winters and short summers. ➢ Soils of Boreal forest are acidic and mineral deficient. ➢ They are characterized by thin podzols and are poor. ➢ Coniferous forests are characterized by evergreen, drought resistant, and woody. ➢ Conifers (gymnosperms) e.g. spruce, fir and pine trees which bear naked seeds in cones is dominant vegetation. ➢ The animals found in this area are the red fox, porcupine, lynx, wolf, bear, squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.

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➢ Common trees are oak, beach, chestnut, birch, pine, etc. ➢ These forests also show stratification and have an understorey of saplings shrubs and tall herbs. ➢ Prominent grazers include deer, bison and rodents. ➢ Rodents play a very important role in these forests. They feed on seeds, fruits, and tree leaves. ➢ Black bear, raccoons, wild cat, wolves, fox, and skunks are the omnivores found in these forests. ➢ Hibernation or winter sleep during winter is a common feature of animals found in these forests.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 3. Tropical rain forests: ➢ These are found in the high rainfall areas on either side of the equator. ➢ Such forests are found in the western coast of India, scattered in southeast Asia, some parts of Africa and South America. ➢ They are considered as the most diverse and rich communities on the earth. ➢ Both temperature and humidity remain high and more or less uniform throughout the year. ➢ The annual rainfall in this region exceeds 200 cm and is generally distributed throughout the year.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The flora in this region is highly diversified. ➢ The extremely dense vegetation of the tropical rain forests remains vertically stratified with tall trees often covered with epiphytic orchids, vines, creepers, lianas, and bromeliads. ➢ The lowest layer is an understory of trees, shrubs, herbs, like ferns and palms. ➢ These forests are rich in tree-dwelling animals such as monkeys, flying squirrels, snails, centipedes, millipedes, etc. and many insect species are common on the forest floor. ➢ The soil of tropical rainforests are red latosols and they are very thick.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Subtropical rainforests: ➢ It consists of broad-leaved evergreen trees. ➢ Subtropical rainforests are found in regions of fairly high rainfall but less temperature differences between winter and summer ➢ Epiphytes are common here. ➢ Wildlife of subtropical forest is very similar to that of tropical rainforests.

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➢ It is found in the regions where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year that is not enough to support a forest. ➢ Grasslands occur in both in tropical and temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to support the growth of trees. ➢ Grasslands are found in areas having well defined hot and dry, warm and rainy seasons. ➢ Short trees and tall grass are the vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates. ➢ Grasses are the dominating plants with scattered drought resistant thorny trees in the tropical grasslands.

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➢ Tropical grasslands are commonly called Savannas. ➢ They occur in eastern Africa, South America, Australia and India. ➢ In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. ➢ The rest of India's grasslands are mainly composed of steppes and savannas. ➢ Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline soil found in western Rajasthan where the climate is semi-arid.

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Temperate Grassland (Steppes, Prairies, etc.): ➢ This region is characterized by low temperature conditions with rather low rainfall. Grasses dominate the vegetation. ➢ The fauna here is very diversified and includes animals like bison, antelope, cattle, rodents, prairie dog, wolves, and a rich and diverse array of ground-nesting birds. ➢ The major difference between steppes and savannas is that all the forage in the steppe is provided only during the brief wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely from grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also from the smaller amount of regrowth witnessed in the dry season.

➢ Grasslands are known by various names in different parts of the world.

Grasslands Region

Prairies North America

Steppes Eurasia (Europe and Asia)

Savanna Africa

Pampas South America

Grassland, Savanna India

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➢ Deserts are hot and low rain areas suffering from water shortage and high wind velocity. ➢ They show extremes of temperature. ➢ Globally deserts occupy about 1/7th of the earth’s surface. ➢ Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall or sometimes in hot regions where there is more rainfall but unevenly distributed in the annual cycle. ➢ Deserts in temperate regions often lie in "rain shadows" that is where high mountains block off moisture from the seas.

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➢ The climate of these biomes is modified by altitude and latitude. ➢ At higher latitude, the deserts are cold and deserts are hot near equator and tropics. ➢ Cacti, Acacia, Euphorbia and prickly pears are some of the common desert plants. ➢ Desert animals include shrew, fox, woodrats, rabbits, camels and goat are common mammals in the desert. ➢ Other prominent desert animals are reptiles and burrowing rodents insects.

➢ The desert plants conserve water by the following methods: ○ They are mostly shrubs. ○ Leaves are absent or reduced in size. ○ Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing. ○ In some plants, even the stem contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis. ○ Root system is well developed and spread over a large area. ○ The annuals wherever present germinates, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season and not in summer and winter.

➢ The animals are behaviorally and physiologically adapted to desert conditions such as ○ They are fast runners. ○ They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun heat during day time. ○ They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine. ○ In order to keep the body away from the hot ground, animals and birds usually have long legs.

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○ Lizards, in desert the region, can live without drinking water for several days and are mostly insectivorous. ○ Camel is known as the ship of the desert as it can travel long distances without drinking water for several days. ○ Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from the seeds which they eat. ○ Mammals are poorly adapted to deserts.

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B. Aquatic Ecosystem

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➢ Aquatic systems are not called biomes. ➢ The major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to the following factors ○ Salinity, ○ Levels of dissolved nutrients, ○ Water temperature, ○ Depth of sunlight penetration.

➢ Aquatic ecosystems are classified on the basis of salinity into the following two types: 1. Freshwater Ecosystem: ➢ The salt content of fresh bodies is very low, always less than 5 ppt (parts per thousand). ➢ Freshwater bodies can be Static or still water (Lentic) and Running water (Lotic). ➢ For example, pond, lake, bogs, and swamps are lentic while springs, mountain brooks, streams and rivers are the lotic aquatic systems.

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3. Marine Ecosystem: ➢ These water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of sea water (i.e. 35 ppt or above). ➢ For example, shallow seas and open ocean.

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➢ The aquatic organisms are classified on the basis of their life form or location into five groups: 1. Neuston 2. Periphyton 3. Plankton 4. Nekton 5. Benthos

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1. Neuston: ➢ These are unattached organisms which live at the air-water interface such as floating plants, etc. ➢ Some organisms spend most of their lives on top of the air-water interface such as water striders. ➢ While others spend most of their time just beneath the air-water interface and obtain most of their food within the water. ➢ For example, beetles and back-swimmers.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2. Periphyton: ➢ These are organisms which remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud. ➢ For example, sessile algae and their associated group of animals. 3. Plankton: ➢ This group includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton) found in all aquatic ecosystems, except certain swift-moving waters animals. ➢ The planktons have limited locomotory power so that their distribution is controlled, largely by currents in the aquatic ecosystems Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 4. Nekton: ➢ This group contains animals which are swimmers. ➢ The nektons are relatively large and powerful as they have to overcome the water currents. 5. Benthos: ➢ The benthic organisms are those found living in the bottom of the water mass. ➢ Practically every aquatic ecosystem contains well-developed benthos.

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➢ Coral is actually a living animal. ➢ It has a symbiotic relationship (each gives something to the other and gets something back in return) with 'zooxanthellae' microscopic algae which live on coral. ➢ Instead of living on the seafloor, the algae lives up on the coral which is closer to the ocean surface and so that the algae gets lots of light. ➢ The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colors of the coral reef but are instead clear (white).

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The corals receive their coloration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues. ➢ There are two types of corals: 1. Hard corals and 2. soft corals (such as sea fans and gorgonians). ➢ Only hard corals build reefs. ➢ The builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called polyps. ➢ As these polyps thrive, grew, then die, they leave their limestone (calcium carbonate) skeletons behind. ➢ The limestone is colonized by new polyps.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ They are found in tropical and sub-tropical waters. However, there are also deep water corals in colder regions ➢ They usually occur in shallow tropical areas where the sea water is clean, clear and warm. ➢ They are one of the most productive and complex coastal ecosystems with high biological diversity. ➢ They are classified depending on their locations into the following four types: 1. Fringing, 2. Patch, 3. Barrier and 4. Atoll.

➢ Lightweight animals and plants float in water and move with the water currents. ➢ Animals and plants in the ocean are tolerant to a high concentration of salts (osmoregulation). Osmoregulation is the process by which a constant osmotic pressure is maintained in the blood. ➢ Swimming animals have a streamlined body. Their body is laterally compressed. ➢ Deep sea forms show bioluminescence (they emit light). ➢ They are dependent on their food on the upper sea zones.

1. Sunlight: ➢ Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes down the column of water. ➢ And the depth to which light penetrates a water body determines the extent of plant distribution. ➢ Based on the penetration of light and distribution of plants they are classified as I. Photic Zone II. Aphotic Zone

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF I. Photic zone: ➢ It is the upper layer of the aquatic ecosystems, up to which light penetrates and within it, photosynthetic activity is confined. ➢ The depth of this zone depends on the transparency of water. ➢ Photic (or "euphotic") zone is the lighted and usually well-mixed portion that extends from the surface down to where the light level is 1% of that at the surface.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF II. Aphotic zone: ➢ The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems form the aphotic zone where light penetration and plant growth are restricted. ➢ Only respiration activity takes place here but in Photic zone both respiration and photosynthesis take place. ➢ Aphotic zone is positioned below the littoral and photic zones to bottom of the water body where light levels are too low for photosynthesis. ➢ This deep, unlit region is also known as the profundal zone.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2. Dissolved oxygen: ➢ Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air-water interface and by the process of photosynthesis. ➢ Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through respiration of organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplanktons, etc.) and air-water interface. ➢ The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by the temperature of the waterbody.

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4. Temperature: ➢ The water temperature changes less rapidly than the temperature of air because the specific heat of water is higher than that of air. ➢ Since temperatures of water bodies have less variations, the aquatic organisms have narrow temperature tolerance limit.

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B1. Lake Ecosystem

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➢ A waterbody of standing water, generally large enough in area and depth, irrespective of its hydrology, ecology and other characteristics is known as a lake. ➢ Three main zones can be differentiated in a lake such as 1. Peripheral zone (littoral zone) with shallow water. 2. Open water beyond the littoral zone where water is quite deep. 3. Benthic zone (bottom) or the floor of the lake.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Lakes are also classified on the basis of their water chemistry. ➢ Based on the levels of salinity, they are classified as 1. Freshwater 2. Brackish 3. Saline lakes ➢ On the basis of their nutrient state, they are categorized as 1. Oligotrophic (very low nutrients) 2. Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) 3. Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich)

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➢ Increased nutrient inflow into the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic plants, and various fauna. ➢ This process is known as Natural eutrophication. ➢ Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes that happens at an accelerated rate mainly because of human activities and the consequent ageing phenomenon is known as 'Cultural eutrophication'.

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➢ It is a syndrome of an ecosystem. ➢ It occurs in response to the addition of artificial or natural substances such as nitrates and phosphates through fertilizer, sewage, etc. that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem. ➢ The growth of green algae which we see in the lake surface layer is the physical identification of a Eutrophication. ➢ Some algae and blue-green bacteria thrive on the excess ions then a population explosion covers almost entire surface layer that is known as an algal bloom.

➢ Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that can be found naturally in coastal waters. ➢ They are major producers of oxygen and food for many of the animals that are living in these waters. ➢ Algal blooms can be of any color but red and brown are the most common ones. ➢ Some algal blooms produce toxins and do affect fish, birds, marine mammals and humans.

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B2. Wetland Ecosystem

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➢ Wetlands are areas that periodically get inundated with water and support a flourishing community of aquatic organisms including frog and other amphibians. ➢ Swamps, marshes and mangroves are examples of wetlands. ➢ Wetlands are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes.

1. Inland Wetland A. Natural- Lakes / Ponds, Ox-bow Lakes, Waterlogged, Swamp/marsh B. Man made- Reservoirs Tank, Ash pond 2. Coastal Wetland A. Natural- Coral reef, Tidal flat, Mangroves, Salt marsh, Estuary, Lagoon, Creek, Backwater, Bay. B. Man Made - Salt pans, Aquaculture ponds etc.

1. Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, birds 2. Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water, 3. Nutrients recycling, 4. Water purification 5. Floods mitigation, 6. Groundwater recharging, 7. Buffer shorelines against erosion, 8. Genetic reservoir for various species of plants( eg. Rice)

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B3. Estuarine Ecosystem

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➢ An estuary is a place where a river or a stream opens into the sea. ➢ Hence, it is formed in the areas where the river meets the sea. ➢ It is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of the river where its fresh water carrying fertile silt and runoff from the land mixes with the salty sea water. ➢ Hence, it represents an ecotone between the freshwater and marine ecosystem and shows a variation of salinity due to mixing the of seawater with freshwater. ➢ The complete salinity range from 0.5 - 35 ppt is seen from the head (river end) to the mouth (sea end) of an Estuary.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Estuaries are very dynamic and productive ecosystems since the river flow, tidal range, and sediment distribution is continuously changing in them. ➢ They are the most productive water bodies in the world and they act as a natural water filter. ➢ Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes, lagoons, and deltas. ➢ Coastal lakes which have their connection with the sea through small openings are known as lagoons or backwaters. ➢ Deltas are triangular areas bordering the river valley towards the mouth.

➢ It can be grouped into four geomorphic categories based on the physical processes responsible for their formation: 1. Rising sea level, 2. Movement of sand and sandbars, 3. Glacial processes and 4. Tectonic processes.

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➢ These are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines. ➢ Here trees and bushes growing below the high water level of spring tides which exhibits a remarkable capacity for saltwater tolerance. ➢ They are basically evergreen plants which grow on sheltered shores typically on tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks, and the barrier islands. ➢ Since mangroves are located between the land and sea they represent the best example of the ecotone.

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➢ They require high solar radiation and they have the ability to absorb fresh water from saline/ brackish water. ➢ It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the respiratory problem in the anaerobic soil conditions. ➢ Leaves of mangrove trees are thick and contain salt-secreting glands. ➢ They exhibit viviparity mode of reproduction that means seeds germinate in the tree itself (before falling to the ground). ➢ This is an adaptive method to overcome the problem of germination in Saline water. ➢ They protect the shoreline from the effect of cyclones and tsunamis.

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➢ Indian mangroves are distributed along the east and the west coasts and Andaman and Nicobar islands. ➢ Mangroves along the east coast are more luxuriant and considerably diverse due to the presence of nutrient-rich deltas formed by the rivers Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.

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Thank you!

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Part - 3 Environment & Ecology

By Dr. Roman Saini

I. Environmental Pollution A. Air Pollution B. Water Pollution C. Soil Pollution D. Noise Pollution E. Radioactive Pollution

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II. Pollutants in Environment A. Movements of Pollutants B. Pollutants & Trophic Level C. E-Waste D. Fly Ash E. Pet Coke

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III. Government Initiative for Environmental Protection A. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 B. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 C. Environmental Protection Act 1986

IV. Environmental Impact Assessment

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I. Environmental Pollution

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➢ Pollution refers to the contamination of the environment by the introduction of contaminants that can cause damage to environment and harm or discomfort to humans and other living species. ➢ It is the addition of another form of energy or form of any substance to the environment at a rate faster than the environment can accommodate it by dispersion, breakdown, recycling or storage in some harmless form. ➢ It began since the industrial revolution and is increasing day by day and causing irreparable damage to Mother Earth.

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➢ Hence, pollution may be defined as the addition of undesirable material into the environment as a result of human activities. ➢ The agents which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants. ➢ A pollutant may be defined as a physical, chemical or biological substance unintentionally released into the environment which is directly or indirectly harmful to humans and other living organisms. ➢ Environmental pollution has its own set of causes, effects, and solutions.

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➢ Broadly, environmental pollution consists of the following six basic types of pollution, 1. Air, 2. Water, 3. Soil, 4. Noise, 5. Land and 6. Light.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF A. Air pollution ➢ Air pollution may be defined as ○ the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance including noise and radioactive radiation in the atmosphere ○ in such concentration that may be directly and indirectly injurious to humans or other living organisms, plants, property or interferes with the normal environmental processes. ➢ Air pollutants are of the following two types 1. Particulate pollutants, and 2. Gaseous pollutants.

➢ Particulate matter suspended in air is dust and soot released from the industrial chimneys. ➢ Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500 µm in diameter. ➢ Particles less than 10µm float and move freely with the air current. ➢ Particles which are more than 10µm in diameter settle down. ➢ Particles less than 0.02 µm form persistent aerosols. ➢ The major source of SPM (suspended particulate matter) are vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil refinery, railway yard, market place, industries, etc.

➢ Gaseous pollutants along with particulate matter in the form of smoke are released by power plants, industries, different types of vehicles which use petrol, diesel as fuel. 1. Carbon compound (CO and CO2 ) 2. Sulphur compound (SO2 and H2S) 3. Nitrogen Compound (NO and N2O) 4. Hydrocarbons (benzene, ethylene) 5. SPM (Any solid and liquid particles suspended in the air such as flush, dust, lead) 6. Fibres (Cotton, wool, jute)

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➢ Sometimes, such substances may come from natural sources like dust and smoke arising from forest fires or volcanic eruptions. ➢ Pollutants are also added to the atmosphere by a certain set of human activities. ➢ The sources of air pollutants are factories, automobile exhausts, power plants, and burning of firewood and dung cakes. ➢ Vehicles produce high levels of pollutants like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and smoke.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Carbon monoxide is produced from the incomplete burning of fuels such as diesel and petrol. ○ It is a poisonous gas as it reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. ➢ Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen which combine with other air pollutants and fog to form smog. ○ Smog is a thick fog-like layer formed in the atmosphere, especially during winters. ➢ The smog causes breathing difficulties such as cough, asthma and wheezing in children and even adults. ○ Smog = smoke + fog.

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➢ Petroleum refineries are a major source of gaseous pollutants like nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide. ○ It can cause several respiratory problems, including permanent lung damage. ➢ Other kinds of pollutants are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used in air conditioners, refrigerators, and aerosol sprays. ○ CFCs damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere.

➢ Industrial pollution can be greatly reduced by the following measures: ○ Use of cleaner fuels such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) in power plants, fertilizer plants, etc. ○ Employing environment-friendly industrial processes. ○ Installing devices which reduce the release of pollutants such as filters, electrostatic precipitators, inertial collectors, scrubbers, gravel bed filters or dry scrubbers, etc. ○ Increasing the height of chimneys. ○ Closing industries which pollute the environment.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ○ Shifting of polluting industries away from cities and heavily populated areas. ○ Development and maintenance of the green belt of adequate width. ➢ Vehicular pollution can be controlled by the following measures ○ The emission standards for automobiles (Bharat Stage VI) need to be followed strictly. ○ In cities like Delhi, motor vehicles need to obtain Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificate at regular intervals. ○ Hybrid vehicles need to be introduced and promoted at a large scale.

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○ To reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide, sulphur content in diesel has been reduced to 0.05%. ○ Addition of lead in petrol has been banned to prevent the emission of lead particles with the vehicular emission. ○ Alternate fuels like CNG is being encouraged for use in public transport vehicles. ○ Public transport and share ridings need to be encouraged rather than one person riding on the personal vehicle.

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➢ ‘Indoor air’ is air within a building such as the home, office, classroom, shopping center, hospital or gym, etc. ➢ We say ‘Indoor Air Pollution’ if the indoor air is contaminated by smoke, smells, chemicals or particles. ➢ Unlike outdoor air pollution, the effect of indoor air pollution is mainly health-related and less of an environmental issue. ➢ Paints, carpets, furniture, etc. in rooms may give out volatile organic compounds (VOCs). ➢ Use of disinfectants, fumigants, etc. may release hazardous gases.

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➢ In hospitals, pathogens present in waste remain in the air in the form of spores. ➢ In colder regions, building and heating methods make use of airtight spaces, less ventilation and energy efficient heating. ➢ Therefore, making the residents more prone to the effects of indoor air pollution.

➢ Use of wood and dung cakes should be replaced by cleaner fuels such as biogas, kerosene or electricity. ➢ Use of biogas and LPG need to be encouraged. ➢ Improved stoves for cooking like smokeless chulhas have high thermal efficiency and reduced emission of pollutants including smoke. ➢ The house designs should incorporate a well-ventilated kitchen. ➢ Further, segregation of waste, pretreatment at source, sterilization of rooms will also help in checking indoor air pollution.

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➢ Addition or presence of undesirable substances in water is called water pollution. ➢ Whenever harmful substances such as toxic chemicals, sewage, silt, etc. get mixed with water, the water becomes polluted. ➢ The substances that pollute water are called water pollutants. ➢ Sediments brought by runoff water from agricultural fields and discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage and industrial effluents, disposal of fly ash or solid waste into or close to a water body cause severe problems of water pollution.

Point Source: ➢ When pollutants are discharged from a specific location such as a drain pipe carrying industrial effluents discharged directly into a water body it represents point source pollution. Non-point Source: ➢ The non-point sources include discharge of pollutants from diffuse sources or from a larger area such as runoff from agricultural fields, grazing lands, construction sites, abandoned mines and pits, roads, streets, etc.

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➢ Natural sources of pollution of water are soil erosion, leaching of minerals from rocks and decaying of organic matter. ➢ Water pollution is majorly caused by a variety of human activities such as industrial, agricultural and domestic. ➢ Agricultural run off laden with excess fertilizers and pesticides, industrial effluents with toxic substances and sewage water with human and animal wastes pollute the water thoroughly. ➢ Oil refineries, textile and dyes, paper factories, and sugar mills and chemical factories cause chemical contamination of water.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The chemicals released include lead, arsenic, and fluorides which lead to toxicity in plants and animals. ➢ Sedimentation increase turbidity of water because of sediments reduces the penetration of light in the water that reduces photosynthesis by aquatic plants. ➢ The soil is also affected by impure water causing changes in the growth of worms, acidity, etc ➢ Water pollution is a major source of waterborne diseases and other health problems. ➢ Water contaminated with sewage may contain bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites which cause diseases like typhoid, cholera and jaundice.

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➢ Power plants, chemical, and other industries use a lot of water for cooling purposes and the used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams or oceans. ➢ The waste heat from the boilers and heating processes increases the temperature of the cooling water. ➢ Discharge of hot water increases the temperature of the receiving water by 10 to 15 °C above the ambient water temperature. ➢ This is called thermal pollution.

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➢ Increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in the water which adversely affects aquatic life. ➢ Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, the temperature of water bodies remain steady and does not change very much. ➢ Accordingly, aquatic organisms are adapted to a uniform steady temperature of the environment and any fluctuation in water temperature severely affects aquatic plants and animals.

➢ Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, also called biological oxygen demand) is the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) needed (or demanded) by aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time period. ➢ BOD is an important parameter that indicates water quality because it provides an index to assess the effect discharged wastewater will have on the receiving environment. ➢ The higher the BOD value, the greater the amount of organic matter or “food” available for oxygen-consuming bacteria.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ If the rate of DO consumption by bacteria exceeds the supply of DO from aquatic plants, algae photosynthesis or diffusing from air, unfavourable conditions occur. ➢ Depletion of DO causes stress on aquatic organisms, making the environment unsuitable for life. ➢ Further, dramatic depletion can lead to hypoxia or anoxic environments. ➢ BOD is also used extensively for wastewater treatment, as decomposition of organic waste by microorganisms is commonly used for treatment.

➢ The following measures can be adapted to control water pollution: ○ The water requirement should be minimized by altering the techniques involved. ○ Water should be reused with (water recycling) or without treatment. ○ Recycling of water after treatment should be practiced to the maximum extent possible. ○ The quantity of wastewater discharge should be minimized.

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➢ Addition of substances which adversely affect the quality of soil or its fertility is known as soil pollution. ➢ Solid waste is a mixture of plastics, cloth, glass, metal and organic matter, sewage, sewage sludge, building debris, generated from households, commercial and industries establishments add to soil pollution. ➢ Generally, polluted water also pollutes the soil. ➢ Fly ash, iron and steel slag, medical and industrial wastes disposed on land are important sources of soil pollution.

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➢ All soils, whether polluted or unpolluted, contains a variety of compounds (contaminants) which are naturally present. ➢ Such contaminants include inorganic ions, metals and salts (e.g. carbonates, phosphates, sulphates, nitrates) and many organic compounds (such as proteins, lipids, DNA, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, PAHs, alcohols, etc.). ➢ These compounds are mainly formed through soil microbial activity and decomposition of organisms (e.g., animals and plants).

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Apart from this, various compounds get into the soil from the atmosphere, for instance with precipitation of water as well as by wind activity or other types of soil disturbances, and from surface water bodies and shallow groundwater flowing through the soil. ➢ When the quantity of soil contaminants exceed natural levels (what is naturally present in various soils), the soil is said to be polluted. ➢ Soil pollution effects ecosystem, vegetation, water sources and harmful when exposed to humans over a long period.

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➢ Reduce Deforestation and focus on Reforestation ➢ Avoid Intensive Farming Practices such as over-cropping and overgrazing as it leads to flood and soil erosion and further deteriorates the soil layer. ➢ Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste should be avoided. ➢ The organic matter from domestic, agricultural and other waste should be segregated and subjected to vermicomposting which generates useful manure as a by-product.

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➢ The industrial wastes prior to disposal should be properly treated for removing hazardous materials. ➢ Biomedical waste should be separately collected and incinerated in proper incinerators. ➢ Moreover, to control soil pollution, it is essential to stop the use of plastic bags and instead use bags of degradable materials like paper, jute, and cloth.

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➢ Bioremediation is a biotechnical process which is used to clean up the environmental contamination. ➢ It is a type of waste management technique that involves the use of organisms to remove or utilize the pollutants from a polluted area. ➢ There are other types of waste management technique which include solid waste management, nuclear waste management, etc. ➢ Bioremediation is different from other methods as it uses no toxic chemicals.

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➢ Bioremediation relies on stimulating the growth of certain microbes that use contaminants as a source of food and energy. ➢ It needs a combination of the right temperature, nutrients, and food; otherwise, it may take much longer for the cleanup of contaminants. ➢ Bioremediation can either be done in situ, at the site of the contamination itself or ex-situ, at a location away from the site.

➢ Bioremediation is of the following three types: 1. Bio-stimulation ➢ The bacteria is stimulated to initiate the process. ➢ The contaminated soil is initially mixed with special nutrients substances including other vital components either in the form of liquid or a gas. ➢ It stimulates the microbial growth, thus resulting in quick and efficient removal of contaminants by microbes and other bacterias.

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2. Bio-augmentation ➢ At times, there are certain sites where microorganisms are required to extract the contaminants. ➢ For example, municipal wastewater. ➢ In these special cases, the process of bioaugmentation is used. ➢ There’s a major drawback in this process. ➢ It becomes almost impossible to control the growth of microorganisms in the process of removing the particular contaminant.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 3. Intrinsic Bioremediation ➢ The process of intrinsic bioremediation is most effective in the soil and water because of these two biomes which always have a high probability of being full of contaminants and toxins. ➢ The process of intrinsic bioremediation is mostly used in underground places like underground petroleum tanks. ➢ In such a place, it is difficult to detect leakage, and contaminants and toxins can find their way to enter through these leaks and contaminate the petrol. ➢ Thus, only microorganisms can remove the toxins and clean the tanks.

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➢ Noise by definition is “sound without value” or “any noise that is unwanted by the recipient”. ➢ Noise pollution is generally defined as regular exposure to increased sound levels that may lead to adverse effects on human health or other living organisms. ➢ Noise level is measured in terms of decibels (dB). ➢ According to WHO, optimum noise level as 45 dB by day and 35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.

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➢ Noise in industries such as stone cutting and crushing, steel forgings, loudspeakers, shouting by hawkers selling their wares, movement of heavy transport vehicles, railways and airports are harmful to human health. ➢ It leads to the following deficiencies ○ Irritation and increased blood pressure, ○ Loss of temper and Hypertension, ○ Decrease in work efficiency, ○ Loss of hearing which may be first temporary but can become permanent in the noise stress continues.

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○ Severely affecting Child development (a child is more sensitive towards noise pollution). ○ Psychological dysfunctions and noise annoyance. ○ Whales are among the most affected mammals as their hearing helps them orient themselves, feed and communicate. ○ Other than marine life, land animals are also affected by noise pollution in the form of traffic, firecrackers, etc., and birds are especially affected by the increased air traffic.

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➢ Following steps can be taken to control or minimize noise pollution- ○ Road traffic noise can be reduced by better designing and proper maintenance of vehicles. ○ Noise abatement measures include creating noise mounds, noise attenuation walls, and well-maintained roads and smooth surfacing of roads. ○ Retrofitting of locomotives, continuously welded rail track, use of electric locomotives or deployment of quieter rolling stock will reduce noises emanating from trains.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ○ Air traffic noise can be reduced by appropriate insulation and introduction of noise regulations for taking off and landing of aircraft at the airport. ○ Industrial noises can be reduced by soundproofing equipment like generators, and areas producing a lot of noise. ○ Power tools, very loud music and land movers, public functions using loudspeakers, etc should not be permitted at night. ○ Use of horns, alarms, refrigeration units, etc. is to be restricted. ○ Use of firecrackers which are noisy and cause air pollution should be restricted. ○ A green belt of trees is an efficient noise absorber.

➢ Radioactive Pollution is defined as the increase in the natural radiation levels caused by human activities. ➢ There are many sources of radioactive pollution such as nuclear wastes from nuclear power plants, mining, and processing of nuclear material, etc. ➢ It is estimated that about 20% of the radiation that we are exposed to is due to human activities. ➢ The human activities that can release radiation involve activities with radioactive materials such as mining, processing and handling of radioactive materials, handling and storage of radioactive waste.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Also, the use of radioactive reactions to generate energy (nuclear power plants) along with the use of radiation in medicine (e.g. X-rays) and research. ➢ The effects of radioactive pollution can vary significantly between individuals. ➢ While the exposure to high amounts of radiation generates almost immediately chronic diseases, cancer or even sudden death in rare cases of extreme pollution. ➢ Small amounts of radiation can cause diseases that are not so serious and develop over the course of time. ➢ The biological damage resulting from ionizing radiations is generally termed as radiation damage.

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II. Pollutants in Environment

➢ Movement of the pollutants involves the following two main processes such as: 1. Bioaccumulation. 2. Biomagnification. Bioaccumulation ➢ It explains how pollutants enter a food chain. ➢ In this stage, there is an increase in the concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain.

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➢ If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down before it can pose risk to life or become dangerous. ➢ If the pollutant is water soluble, it will be excreted by the organism. ➢ Pollutants that dissolve in fats, however, may be retained for a long time in their body.

➢ Pollutants, especially the non-biodegradable ones move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. ➢ Non-degradable pollutants are the materials that cannot be metabolized by the living organisms. ➢ Pollutants such as Chlorinated Hydrocarbons / Organochlorine or CHC are hydrocarbons whose some or most hydrogen atoms have been replaced by chlorine. Example, Endosulfan, DDT, etc. ➢ A variety of simple chlorinated hydrocarbons including: Chloroform, dichloromethane and carbon tetrachloride.

➢ Production of vinyl chloride almost all of which was converted into polyvinyl chloride (PVC) ➢ Example, PVC pipes. ➢ Chloroform, dichloroethene, dichloromethane and trichloromethane are useful solvents. ➢ These solvents are immiscible with water and effective in cleaning applications such as dry cleaning and degreasing. ➢ Pesticides and insecticides such as heptachlor, DDT and endosulfan are CHCs.

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Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF C. E-waste

➢ Irreparable computers and other obsolete electronic goods are known as electronic wastes (e-waste). ➢ E-wastes are usually buried in landfills or incinerated. ➢ Over half of the e-waste generated in the developed world are exported to developing countries mainly to China, India, and Pakistan. ➢ At the importing countries, metals like iron, copper, silicon, nickel and gold are recovered during the process of recycling of e-waste. ➢ Developed countries have specifically built facilities for recycling of e-waste.

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➢ But recycling in developing countries often involves manual participation therefore, exposing workers to toxic substances present in e-waste. ➢ Recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-waste, provided it is carried out in an environment-friendly manner.

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➢ Fly ash is by-product recovered from gases of burning coal in thermal power plants during the production of electricity. ➢ They are micron-sized earth elements primarily consisting of alumina, silica and iron. ➢ Fly ash pollutes air and water and may cause heavy metal pollution in water bodies. ➢ Fly ash affects vegetation as a result of its direct deposition on leaf surfaces or indirectly through its deposition on the soil.

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Applications ➢ Fly ash is now being used for making bricks and as landfill material. ➢ Fly ash can be used as a replacement for some of the Portland cement contents of the concrete. ➢ It can be used in the construction of road embankment, filling the low lying area development, in agriculture as a soil conditioner, etc.

➢ Following efforts have been made to make optimum utilization of fly ash as an environmentally sustainable and economically viable product: ○ Union Government has made it mandatory for use of fly ash bricks in construction activities happening 500 km around thermal power plants. ○ GST rates on fly ash and its products have been reduced to 5%. ○ Ash-park has been developed and awareness programme for utilisation of fly ash and its products have been conducted.

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○ To facilitate 100% ash utilization by all coal-based thermal power plants, a web portal for monitoring of fly ash generation and utilization data of Thermal Power Plants and a mobile-based application titled “ASHTRACK” has been launched by the Government. ○ It aims to help to establish a link between fly ash users and power plants executives for obtaining fly ash for its use in various areas. ○ Maharashtra is the first state to adopt the Fly Ash Utilization Policy.

➢ Petroleum coke or pet coke is a solid carbon-rich (90% carbon and 3% to 6% sulphur) material derived from the refining of crude oil. ➢ It is categorized as a “bottom of the barrel” fuel. ➢ It is a dirtier alternative to coal and emits 11% more greenhouse gases than coal and nearly 17 times more sulphur than coal. ➢ Petcoke is a source of fine dust which can get lodged in the lungs. It may contain vanadium which is a toxic metal.

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➢ Sulphur-heavy petcoke and other polluting fuels such as furnace oil are widely used by cement factories, paper mills, dyeing units, brick kilns and ceramics businesses. ➢ India is the world’s largest consumer of petcoke and imports over half its annual petcoke consumption from the United States. ➢ Central Government has banned the import of pet coke for use as fuel. ➢ However, it is allowed only for cement, calcium carbide, lime kiln and gasification industries where it is used as the feedstock or in the manufacturing process on actual user condition.

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➢ The Indian government has been made for the improvement and protection of the environment by incorporating changes to the constitution of India. ➢ Originally, our constitution did not contain any direct provision regarding the protection of the natural environment. ➢ But later on, the Indian constitution was amended to include protection of the environment as a constitutional mandate. ➢ The Forty Second Constitutional Amendment Act added a Clause (g) to Article 51A of the Indian constitution to make it a fundamental duty to protect and improve the natural environment.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Article 51 (g) states, “It shall to be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and have compassion for living creatures.” ➢ There is also a directive given to the State for the protection and improvement of the environment under the Directive Principles of State Policy. ➢ Article 48A states “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”. ➢ Further, the Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure a healthy environment for the country.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ This later became a full-fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985. ➢ In 2014, this was renamed as the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to give the importance to the worldwide concern of global warming and climate change as a result of it. ➢ The constitutional provisions are backed by a number of legislation such as acts and rules. ➢ These Acts generally delegate powers to the regulating agencies, to make rules for the purpose of their implementation.

➢ The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974 to provide the ○ prevention and control of water pollution, and ○ for the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country. ➢ The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards and empowers these Boards to establish and enforce effluent standards for factories discharging pollutants into water bodies.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ A Central Pollution Control Board performs the same functions for Union Territories and formulates policies and coordinates activities of different State Boards. ➢ The Act was amended in 1988. ➢ The 1988 amendment strengthened the Act’s implementation of the pollution provisions. ➢ Board may close a defaulting industrial plant or withdraw its supply of power or water by an administrative order; the penalties are more stringent, and a citizen suit provision supports the enforcement machinery. ➢ The Act was last amended in 2003.

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➢ The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977. ➢ It aims to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities. ➢ This cess is collected with a view to augment the financial resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974.

➢ This Act provides for the prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution. ➢ To implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, the Indian Parliament enacted the nationwide Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1981. ➢ The Air Act’s framework is similar to that of the Water Act of 1974.

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➢ To enable an integrated approach to environmental problems, the Air Act expanded the authority of the Central and State Boards established under the Water Act, to include air pollution control. ➢ According to the Act “Air Pollution” means “the presence in the atmosphere of any air pollutant”; ➢ And “air pollutant’’ means “any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere in such a concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plant or property or environment.” ➢ Prior to its amendment in 1987, the Air Act was enforced through mild court administered penalties on violations.

➢ It was launched by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) in January 2019. ➢ The NCAP is a mid-term, five-year action plan with 2019 as the first year. ➢ It is a pollution control initiative to reduce the concentration of particles PM10 and PM2.5 by 20-30% by 2024. ➢ It will have 2017 as the base year for the purpose of comparison. ➢ It is to be implemented in 102 non-attainment cities which are chosen on the basis of Ambient Air Quality India (2011-2015) and WHO report 2014-2018.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The NCAP is institutionalized by respective ministries and organized through inter-sectoral groups which include, ○ Ministry of Road Transport and Highway, ○ Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, ○ Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, ○ Ministry of Heavy Industry, ○ Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, ○ Ministry of Agriculture, ○ Ministry of Health, ○ NITI Aayog, ○ CPCB, ○ Experts from the industry, academia, and civil society.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ It is not a legally binding instrument and CPCB is the executing authority. Objectives of NCAP: ➢ Stringent implementation of mitigation measures for prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution. ➢ Augment and strengthen air quality monitoring network across the country. ➢ Augment public awareness and capacity building measures.

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Significance of NCAP: ➢ Strives towards framing a national framework for air quality management with a time-bound reduction target. ➢ Multisectoral Collaboration and Participatory approach to incorporate measures for urban as well as rural areas. ➢ NCAP also identifies the transboundary nature of air pollution. ➢ Links Health and Pollution

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➢ System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting ➢ It monitors the following pollutants UV-Index, PM1, PM2.5, PM10, Black Carbon, Sulfur Dioxide, Ozone, Nitrogen Oxides, Mercury, Carbon Monoxide, Benzene, Toluene, and Xylene. ➢ It is implemented in four cities of India – Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, and Ahmedabad. ➢ It is developed by Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune and operationalized by Indian Meteorological Department (IMD).

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ SAFAR accelerates public awareness and preparedness of air pollution and weather extremes. ➢ It also leads to a better understanding of linkages among emissions, weather, pollution and climate. ➢ It monitors all weather parameters like ○ temperature, ○ rainfall, ○ humidity, ○ wind speed and ○ wind direction.

➢ In the wake of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, the Government of India enacted the Environment Protection Act of 1986 under Article 253 of the Constitution. ➢ The Act is an “umbrella” legislation designed to provide a framework for Central Government, coordination of the activities of various central and state authorities established under previous Acts, such as the Water Act and the Air Act. ➢ The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972).

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➢ In this Act, “Environment”, is defined to include water, air and land and the inter-relationships which exist among water, air and land and human beings and other living creatures, plants, micro-organisms and property. ➢ And “Environmental pollution” is the presence of pollutant, defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such a concentration as may be or may tend to be injurious to the environment. ➢ “Hazardous substances” include any substance or preparation, which may cause harm to human beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the environment

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IV. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

➢ The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change under the Environmental Protection Act of 1986, initiated the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in 1994. ➢ It was re-engineered in 2006. ➢ Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool that links the environment with developmental activities. ➢ It is an assessment of the impact of industrial and economic development on environmental health. ➢ It is a participatory tool for informed decision making.

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➢ It ensures that the development of a project is environmentally sound and sustainable and within limits of the capacity of assimilation and regeneration capacities of the ecosystem. ➢ The important aspects of EIA are the following: ○ Risk assessment, ○ Environmental management and ○ Post product monitoring. ➢ EIA provides a cost-effective method to eliminate or minimize the adverse impact of development projects.

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➢ In order to carry out an environmental impact assessment, the following are essential: ○ assessment of existing environmental status. ○ assessment of various factors of the ecosystem (air, water, land, biological). ○ analysis of adverse environmental impacts of the proposed project to be started. ○ impact on people in the neighborhood.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF The core values of EIA: ➢ Integrity: It ensures that the project is in agreement with standard and good principles. ➢ Utility: A balanced approach and credible information for the decision making process. ➢ Sustainability: An environmentally sound development with a regenerative capacity of the resources.

1. Screening: It takes into account whether a project requires environmental clearance as per the statutory requirements or not. 2. Scoping: It is the preliminary assessment. It scans the Ministry’s guidelines to see which significant issues are to be addressed in the EIA study.

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8. Monitoring as per the clearance conditions: It has to be done during both construction and operation phases of the project. 9. Risk assessment: It mainly involves hazard identifications including any probability of natural hazards.

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Thank you!

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Part - 4 Environment & Ecology

I. Climate Change II. Impact of Climate Change III. Mitigation Strategies IV. India & Climate Change

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I. Climate Change

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➢ Climate is the long-term average of a region’s weather events. ➢ The phrase 'climate change' represents a change in the long-term weather patterns of a particular region. ➢ Climate change denotes the measurable effects of the continued warming trend. ➢ Usually, measured in major shifts in temperature, snow, rainfall and wind patterns lasting decades or more. ➢ The Sun emits energy that is transmitted to Earth. ➢ Because the Sun is very hot, the energy is emitted in high-energy short wavelengths that penetrate the Earth's atmosphere.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Absorption ➢ About 30% of the Sun's energy is reflected directly back into space by the atmosphere, clouds, and surface of the Earth. ➢ The rest of the Sun's energy is absorbed into the Earth's system (70%). Emission ➢ The Earth re-emits energy back into the atmosphere. ➢ Because the earth is cooler than the Sun, the energy is emitted in the form of infrared radiation at the wavelengths longer than the incoming solar energy.

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➢ It is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth's surface and in the troposphere, which possibly can contribute to changes in global climate patterns. ➢ Life on the earth has been possible because of this natural greenhouse effect which is due to water vapour and small particles of water present in the atmosphere. ➢ Average global temperature is maintained at about 15°C due to the natural greenhouse effect. ➢ Without this phenomenon, average global temperatures might have been around –17°C and at such low-temperature life would not be able to exist.

➢ Greenhouse gases mean those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere and absorb and re-emit infrared radiation. ➢ They are both natural and anthropogenic listed as the following 1. Water vapour 2. Carbon Dioxide 3. Methane 4. Nitrous Oxide 5. Fluorinated Gases 6. Black Carbon

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➢ The water vapour is the biggest overall contributor to the greenhouse effect. ➢ Humans are not directly responsible for emitting this gas in quantities sufficient to change its concentration in the atmosphere. ➢ Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are increasing the amount of water vapour in the air by increasing the rate of evaporation. ➢ Unlike CO2, which can persist in the air for centuries, water vapour cycles through the atmosphere quickly.

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➢ The main sources of this gas are the following: 1. The combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity. 2. The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel used for transportation 3. Many industrial processes emit CO2 through fossil fuel combustion. 4. Several processes also produce CO2 emissions through chemical reactions that do not involve combustion.

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➢ Methane (CH4) is emitted by natural sources such as wetlands, rice fields, etc. and through human activities such as leakage from natural gas systems, the raising of livestock, etc. ➢ Globally, the agriculture sector is the primary source of CH4 emissions. ➢ Methane is the primary component of natural gas. ➢ Some amount of CH4 is emitted to the atmosphere during the processing, production, storage, transmission, and distribution of crude oil and natural gas.

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➢ Nitrous oxide (N2O) is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's nitrogen cycle and has a variety of natural sources. ➢ Natural emissions of N2O are mainly from bacteria breaking down nitrogen in the soils and the oceans. ➢ It is emitted when people add nitrogen to the soil through the use of synthetic fertilizers and transportation fuels (petrol, diesel, etc.) are burnt. ➢ It is also emitted during the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine.

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➢ It is generated as a byproduct during the production of nitric acid which is used to make synthetic commercial fertilizers and in the production of adipic acid which is used to make fibers like nylon and other synthetic products. ➢ It is removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by certain types of bacteria or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation or chemical reactions.

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➢ They are emitted through a variety of industrial processes such as semiconductor and aluminum manufacturing and substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS). ➢ It has very high Global warming potentials (GWPs) when compared to other greenhouse gases. ➢ They mix very well in the atmosphere and spread around the world after they're emitted. ➢ It can be removed from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed by sunlight in the far upper atmosphere.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The most potent and long-lasting type of greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are the following: 1. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 2. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and 3. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Hydrofluorocarbons ➢ HFCs are mainly used as refrigerants, solvents, aerosol propellants, and fire retardants. ➢ These chemicals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) as they do not deplete the ozone layer.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Unfortunately, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with high GWPs and long atmospheric lifetimes. Perfluorocarbons ➢ They are compounds produced as a by-product of various industrial processes associated with the production of aluminum and the manufacturing of semiconductors. ➢ Like HFCs, PFCs generally have high Global Warming Potential and long atmospheric lifetimes.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Sulfur hexafluoride ➢ It is used in the processing of magnesium and manufacturing of semiconductors and as a tracer gas for leak detection. ➢ Sulfur hexafluoride is also used in electrical transmission equipment, inducing circuit breakers, etc.

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➢ It is commonly known as soot that is a form of particulate air pollutant, produced from incomplete combustion. ➢ It consists of pure carbon in several linked forms. ➢ It is a solid particle or aerosol (though not a gas) which contributes to the warming of the atmosphere. ➢ It is emitted by biomass burning, cooking with solid fuels, diesel exhaust, etc.

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Effects of Soot ➢ It warms the Earth by absorbing heat in the atmosphere and by reducing albedo, (the ability to reflect sunlight) when deposited on snow and ice. ➢ It is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats the air directly. ➢ It darkens snowpacks and glaciers through deposition and leads to melting of ice and snow. ➢ It disrupts cloudiness and monsoon rainfall and accelerates melting of mountain glaciers such as the Hindu Kush-Himalayan glaciers.

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➢ These are factors in the climate system that either increase or decrease the effects on the climate system. ○ Positive forcings like excess greenhouse gases warm the earth. ○ Negative forcings such as the effects of aerosols and volcanic eruptions, actually cool the earth. ○ Natural Forcings includes changes in the amount of energy emitted by the Sun, very slow variations in Earth's orbit, and volcanic eruptions.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Human-Induced Forcings ➢ Activities include greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions from burning fossil fuels and modifications of the land surface such as deforestation. ➢ Greenhouse gases are a positive climate forcing; that is, they have a warming effect. ➢ Carbon dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil fuel is presently the largest single climate forcing agent accounting for more than half of the total positive forcing since 1750 ➢ Burning fossil fuels adds aerosols to the atmosphere.

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➢ Aerosols are tiny particles in the atmosphere composed of many things including water, ice, ash, mineral dust, or acidic droplets. ➢ Aerosols can deflect the Sun's energy and impact the formation and lifetime of clouds. ➢ Aerosols are a negative forcing; that is, they have a cooling effect.

➢ There are three main factors for estimating the effect of each GHGs: 1. How much quantity of these gases are in the atmosphere? 2. How long do they stay in the atmosphere? 3. How strongly do they impact global temperatures?

➢ The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a gas is the measure of the total energy absorbed by a gas over a particular period of time (usually 100 years) compared to carbon dioxide. ➢ Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy, per pound, than gases with a lower GWP, and thus contribute more to warming the Earth. ➢ Methane (CH4) has a GWP more than 20 times higher than CO2 for a 100-year time scale. ➢ Nitrous Oxide (N20) has a GWP 300 times that of CO2 for a 100-year timescale

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➢ Other gases known for the high-GWP are the following ○ Chloro fluoro carbons (CFCs), ○ Hydro fluoro carbons (HFCs), ○ Hydro chloro fluoro carbons (HCFCs), ○ Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and ○ Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)

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➢ Acid rain refers to precipitation in any form such as the rain, fog, mist, snow, etc. that is more acidic than normal. ➢ Acid rain is formed when the air that contains acidic gases emitted mostly from power plants, industries, automobiles, etc. combines with the rain drops. ➢ Acid rain is caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted from the burning of fossil fuels.

Sulphur ➢ Natural sources - seas and oceans, volcanic eruptions, etc. and biological processes in the soil e.g. decomposition of organic matter. ➢ Man-made sources: ○ Burning of coal and petroleum products. ○ The smelting of metal sulfide ores to obtain pure metals. ○ Industrial production of Sulphuric acid in chemical, metallurgical, and fertilizer industries.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Nitrogen ➢ Natural sources - volcanic eruption, lightening, and biological activity. ➢ Anthropogenic sources - Forest fires, combustion of oil, gas, and coal. Formic acid ➢ Burning of biomass due to forest fires causes emission of formic acid (HCOOH) and formaldehyde (HCHO) into the atmosphere. ➢ Large fraction formaldehyde gets photo-oxidation and forms formic acid in the atmosphere.

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➢ These are three main compounds that cause acidification of rain in the atmosphere. Other Acids: ○ Chlorine, Phosphoric acid, Carbon monoxide, Hydrochloric acid (smokestacks) and carbon dioxide(automobiles). ○ These become carbonic acid. ○ Acid rain containing ions of nitrate, sulphate, ammonium and hydrogen falls as a wet deposition.

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On Soil: ➢ The exchange between hydrogen ions and the nutrient cations like magnesium and potassium in the soil cause leaching of the nutrients, making soil infertile. ➢ Increase in ammonia in the soil due to a decreases in other nutrients decrease the rate of decomposition. ➢ The impact of acid rain on the soil is less in India because Indian soils are mostly alkaline with good buffering ability.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF On Human Health: ➢ The obvious ones are bad smells, reduced visibility, irritation of the skin, eyes and the respiratory tract. ➢ Some direct effects include chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and cancer. On Materials: ➢ Metals, Stone, Paints, Paper, Photographic Micro material, Leather is damaged by sulphur dioxide mainly and some other gas oxides. ➢ Rubber by ozone gas; Textiles by nitrogen oxide; and Ceramic and Surface glass by fluoride-containing acid gases.

1. Mercury ➢ Methyl mercury and related short chain alkyl, mercurial compounds are most dangerous to humans since they accumulate in tissues of the edible fish. ➢ Although acid deposition may not increase the production of methyl mercury, it may increase the partitioning of methyl mercury into the water column. ➢ The usage of lime has helped in reducing the mercury levels in fish.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2. Aluminium: ➢ Acidified waters are known to leach substantial amounts of aluminum from watersheds. ➢ Even at relatively low levels, aluminum has been implicated in dialysis dementia, a disorder of the central nervous system which may be toxic to individuals with impaired kidney function.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 3. Cadmium: ➢ The decrease in water pH level from 6.5 to 4.5 can result in a fivefold increase in cadmium and could cause renal tubular damage. ➢ Cadmium can enter the drinking water supply through corrosion of galvanized pipe or from the copper-zinc solder used in the distribution systems.

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➢ The change in ocean chemistry such as lowering of ocean pH (i.e. increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions) driven by the uptake of carbon compounds by the ocean from the atmosphere. ➢ As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean increases, the concentration of hydrogen ions in the ocean increases. ➢ The concentration of carbonate ions decreases and the oceans become less alkaline — this process is known as ocean acidification.

➢ It is found in two different layers of the atmosphere. ○ Ozone in the troposphere is "bad" because it pollutes the air and helps to form smog which is not good to breathe. ○ Ozone in the stratosphere is "good" because it protects life on the Earth by absorbing some of the sun's harmful Ultraviolet (UV) rays. ➢ The decrease in the concentration of ozone in a particular region of the atmosphere is called 'ozone hole'. ➢ The best example of such an ozone hole is the atmosphere over the Antarctic which has only about 50 percent of the ozone that originally occurred there. Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Sources of Ozone Hole

1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): ➢ CFCs molecules are made up of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. ➢ They are used as refrigerants (66%), propellants in aerosol sprays, foaming agents in plastic manufacturing (30%), fire extinguishing agents, solvents for cleaning electronic and metallic components, for freezing foods, etc. ➢ CFCs has a wide and varied application due to its properties like non-corrosiveness, non-inflammability, low toxicity, and chemical stability, etc.

CFCs + UV radiation = Freeing up of Chlorine atoms

A free chlorine atom + Ozone molecule = Chlorine monoxide

Chlorine monoxide + Atom of oxygen = Oxygen and reformation of the free Chlorine atom (CI). ➢ A single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules before encountering reactive nitrogen or hydrogen compounds that eventually return chlorine to its reservoirs.

Nitric oxide + Ozone = Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen Nitrogen dioxide + Monoxide = Nitric oxide + Oxygen

3. Bromine ➢ Compounds containing bromine are called halons and HBFCs, i.e. hydrobromofluorocarbons [both used in fire extinguishers and methyl bromide (a widely used pesticide)]. ➢ Each bromine atom may destroy a hundred times more ozone molecules than what a chlorine atom does.

➢ The ice particles of the cloud provided substrates for chemical reactions which freed chlorine from its reservoirs. ➢ Generally, the reaction between them is very slow but this reaction occurs at a faster rate in the presence of a suitable substrate which is provided by the stratospheric clouds at the poles. ➢ The PSCs not only activate chlorine but they also absorb reactive nitrogen. ➢ If nitrogen-oxides were present, they would combine with chlorine monoxide to form a reservoir of chlorine nitrate.

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➢ During every spring, a hole as big as the size of the USA develops in the ozone layer at the South Pole over Antarctica. ➢ A smaller hole develops each year over the Arctic at the North Pole. Why is the ozone hole predominant at the Antarctic? ➢ The Antarctic stratosphere is much colder. ➢ The low temperature enables the formation of Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) below 20 km. ➢ The longevity of the Antarctic vortex is another factor, enhancing favorable conditions for the depletion of ozone.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The vortex is a ring of rapidly circulating air that confines the ozone depletion in the Antarctic region. ➢ The vortex remains, in fact, throughout the polar winter, well into mid-spring, whereas the vortex in the Arctic disintegrates by the time the polar spring (March-April) arrives.

On Human On Plants On Other On Beings Organisms Non-Livings

● Increase ● Inhibit ● Marine/freshwater ● Accelerate breakdown of susceptibility of photosynthesis organisms are paints skin-cancer very sensitive to ● Inhibit ● Accelerate ● Increase cataract metabolism UV-rays breakdown of ● Damage DNA ● Repress growth ● Fish larvae are plastics ● Damage cornea ● Destroy cells very sensitive ● Affect temperature gradient levels in ● Cause retinal ● Cause mutation ● Plankton the atmosphere, diseases population ● Decline forest circulation pattern, ● Suppers human productivity severely climatic changes. immune systems damaged

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II. Impact of Climate Change

➢ Climate change hits the poorest countries severely in terms of reducing the agricultural products ➢ Crop yield gets reduced in most tropical and subtropical regions due to decreased water availability and new or changed insect/pest incidence. Impacts on Indian agriculture ➢ Agriculture will be adversely affected not only by an increase or decrease in the overall amounts of rainfall but also by shifts in the timing of the rainfall.

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➢ Summer rainfall accounts for almost 70 percent of the total annual rainfall over India and is crucial to Indian agriculture. ➢ Semi-arid regions of western India are expected to receive higher than normal rainfall as temperatures soar, while central India will experience a decrease of between 10 and 20 percent in winter rainfall by the 2050s. ➢ There would be a decline in the productivity of Rabi as compared to Kharif season crops.

➢ By 2020, between 75 and 250 million people are projected to be exposed to increased water stress due to climate change ➢ By 2050s freshwater availability in Central, South, East and South-East Asia, particularly in large river basins, is projected to decrease. Impacts on the water situation in India ➢ Available records suggest that the Gangotri glacier is retreating about 28 m per year. ➢ Statistics available on water demand shows that the agriculture sector is the largest consumer of water in India

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ A serious environmental problem has also been witnessed in the Indo-Gangetic Plain Region (IGPR) in the past whereby different rivers (including Kosi, Ganga, Ghaghara, Son, Indus, and its tributaries and Yamuna) changed their course a number of times. Impacts on the Coastal States in India ➢ The coastal states of Maharashtra, Goa, and Gujarat face a grave risk from the sea level rise which could flood land (including agricultural land) and cause damage to coastal infrastructure and other property. ➢ Goa will be the worst hit state which loses a large quantum of its total land area including many of its famous beaches and tourist infrastructure.

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➢ The states along the coasts like Orissa experience worse cyclones. ➢ Many species that live along the coastline are also threatened. ➢ The coral reefs that India has in its biosphere reserves are also saline sensitive and thus the rising sea level threatens their existence too, not only the coral reefs but the phytoplankton.

➢ International World Wildlife Fund (WWF) asserted that one-fifth of the world's most vulnerable natural areas may be facing a "catastrophic" loss of species. Impacts on India's biodiversity ➢ It is predicted that there will be an increase in the phenomenon of Glacial Lake: Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the eastern and the central Himalayas causing catastrophic flooding downstream with serious damage of biodiversity.

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➢ The warmer the climate the likelihood of its impact on human health becomes worse. ➢ It is anticipated that there will be an increase in the number of deaths due to the greater frequency and severity of heat waves and other extreme weather events. ➢ Many new diseases along with prevalent may occur that has not any past history or they may not be cured in a short time.

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III. Mitigation Strategies

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Geo-engineering

➢ Geo-engineering or Climate Engineering basically aims at modifying and cooling the Earth's environment to defeat the environmental damage and ensuing climate changes to make the planet more habitable. ➢ It is usually made possible by removing CO2 from the air or limiting the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface. ➢ Geo engineering, at this point of time, is still only a theoretical concept.

1. Greenhouse gas removal: ➢ Carbon capture and storage (CCS): ○ Through this process, some of the carbon being emitted by coal-fired power stations is recaptured by physically sucking it and transporting it elsewhere (like oilfields) to be sequestered underground. ➢ Carbon Capture Utilization Storage (CCUS): ○ It is a process that captures carbon emitted from sources like coal-fired power plants and either store or reuses it, so it will not enter the atmosphere.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ○ In CCS, emitted carbon is forced into underground rocks at great cost and no economic benefit, while CCUS aims at using CO2 emissions by exploiting the resource itself and creating new markets around it. ➢ Biochar making: ○ Partly burnt materials such as logging slash or crop waste are used to make a carbon-rich, slow-to decompose substance known as biochar. ○ Then, it can be buried or spread on farmland. ○ Biochar has been used for centuries to enrich the soil for farming but of late has been drawing increased attention for its ability to sequester carbon.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2. Solar Radiation Management or Sunlight Reflection Methods (SRM): ➢ This method aims to reduce the amount of heat trapped by greenhouse gases by reflecting sunlight back into space. ➢ It is done either by deploying a layer of reflective particles in the atmosphere, or by increasing the reflectivity of the earth’s surfaces. 3. Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI): ➢ It involves spraying fine, light-coloured particles into the stratosphere that is designed to reflect back part of the solar radiation before it reaches and warms the earth. ➢ Sulphur Dioxide gas is used for the process.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 4. Cirrus cloud manipulation: ➢ In this process, the cirrus clouds are removed or thinned, so that their long-wave trapping capacity is reduced and thus cools the surface. 5. Marine cloud brightening: ➢ The low warm clouds that are highly reflective to sunlight are modified to increase their reflectivity. 6. Space sunshade: ➢ To Obstruct sun rays with the help of space-based mirrors. ➢ Growing high albedo crops or using pale-coloured roofing material to increase albedo.

➢ Carbon Capture and Storage is also known as CCS or carbon sequestration. ➢ It describes the technologies that are designed to tackle global warming by capturing CO2 at power stations, industrial sites or even directly from the air and permanently storing it underground. ➢ Carbon sequestration makes possible long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The three main steps to carbon capture and storage (CCS): 1. Trapping and separating the CO2 from other gases, 2. Transporting this captured CO2 to a storage location, and 3. Storing the captured CO2 far away from the atmosphere (underground or deep in the ocean).

➢ 'Carbon sinks' is defined as an area that absorbs carbon. ○ Natural sinks - Soil, Oceans, Forests, etc. ○ Artificial sinks - Unmineable mines, Depleted oil reserves, etc.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Green Carbon ○ Green carbon is the carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems and is a vital part of the global carbon cycle. ➢ Blue Carbon ○ Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by the indicative vegetation, marine organism, and sediments. ○ These coastal ecosystems are very efficient at sequestering and storing carbon. ○ Each square mile of these systems can remove carbon from the atmosphere and oceans at rates higher than each square mile of mature tropical forests.

➢ Ocean Sequestration: ○ Carbon stored in oceans through direct injection or fertilization. ➢ Geologic Sequestration: ○ Natural pore spaces in geologic formations like rocks serve as reservoirs for long-term storage of carbon dioxide. ○ Geologic Sequestration is considered to have the largest potential for near-term application.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Terrestrial Sequestration: ○ A large amount of carbon is stored in soils and vegetation which acts as our natural carbon sinks. ○ Carbon uptake in these natural sinks can be enhanced by the following ■ Increasing carbon fixation through photosynthesis, ■ Slowing down or reducing the process of decomposition of organic matter, and ■ Changing land use practices. ○ Carbon dioxide can be effectively stored in the earth's sub-surface by hydrodynamic trapping and solubility trapping. But, the combination of these two is most effective.

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➢ A carbon credit is a Tradable certificate or Permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon or carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e). ➢ An organisation which produces one tonne less of carbon or carbon dioxide equivalent than the standard level of carbon emission allowed for its outfit or activity earns a carbon credit. ➢ Countries which are signatories to the Kyoto Protocol under the UNFCCC have laid down gas emission norms for their companies to be met. ➢ In such cases, a company has two ways to reduce emissions.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF a. It can reduce the GHGs by adopting new technology or improving upon the existing technology in order to attain the new norms for the emission of gases. b. It can tie up with developing nations and help them set up new technology that is eco-friendly, thereby helping developing country or its companies 'earn' the valuable credits. ➢ This credit becomes a permit for the company to emit GHGs in its own country. ➢ Like any other commodity, Carbon has begun to be traded on India's Multi Commodity Exchange. ➢ MCX has become first exchange in Asia to trade carbon credits.

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➢ These are credits for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions made at another location. ➢ For example, wind farms which create renewable energy and reduce the need for fossil-fuel powered energy. ➢ They are quantified and sold in metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). ➢ The fastest way to achieve the deepest reductions within businesses and it also often delivers added benefits at the project site such as employment opportunities, community development programmes, and training and education.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ For a Carbon offset to be credible it must meet essential quality criteria including proof of what it has achieved. ➢ It addresses issues such as permanence (it delivers the reductions it stated) and leakage (the emission reduction in one area doesn't cause an increase in emissions somewhere else).

➢ Sustainable agriculture can be defined in many ways but ultimately it seeks ○ to sustain farmers, resources and communities ○ by promoting farming practices and methods ○ that are profitable, environmentally sound and good for communities. ➢ Sustainable agriculture fits into and complements modern agriculture. ➢ It rewards the true values of producers and their products.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ It draws and learns from organic farming. ➢ It works on farms, harnessing new technologies, and renewing the best practices of the past. ➢ Sustainable agriculture means an integrated approach to increasing farm yield and managing resources in order to address all the following three critical aspects of sustainability: 1. Economic, 2. Environmental and 3. Social.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) ○ It approaches to stabilize income streams through natural resource management and livelihood diversification. ○ The IFS approach has multiple objectives of sustainability, food security, farmer security, and poverty reduction. ○ It involves the use of outputs of one enterprise component as inputs for other related enterprises wherever feasible. ○ For example, cattle dung mixed with crop residues and farm waste can be converted into nutrient-rich vermicompost.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The salient features of IFS include the following ○ Innovation in farming for maximizing production through optimal use of local resources, ○ Effective recycling of farm waste for productive purposes, ○ Community-led local systems for water conservation, ○ Organic farming, and ○ Developing a judicious mix of income-generating activities such as dairy, poultry, fishery, goat-rearing, vermicomposting, and others.

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IV. India & Climate Change

➢ India is committed to keeping its per capita emission levels below the per capita emission levels of developed countries. ➢ However, India cannot and will not take on emission reduction targets. ➢ Because she is a developing country that needs to fulfill the requirement of the world’s second largest population. ➢ According to the World Bank study, India will continue to be a low-carbon economy. ➢ India's primary focus is on "adaptation" with a specific focus for “mitigation”.

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➢ India wants a comprehensive approach to Reducing Emissions from Deforestation & Forest Degradation (REDD) and advocates REDD+ that includes conservation, afforestation, and sustainable management of forests. ➢ India advocates collaborative research in future low-carbon technology and access to Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) as global public goods. ➢ India has already unveiled a comprehensive National Action Plan on Climate Change and has clearly spelled out its INDC (Intended Nationally Determined Contributions) targets. (It will be discussed in later sessions)

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The National Action Plan mainly hinges on the development and use of new technologies. ➢ The implementation of the Plan has been decided to be done through appropriate institutional mechanisms, suited for effective delivery of each individual Mission objectives and it also includes public-private partnerships and civil society action.

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India’s National Action Plan on Climate change

1. National Solar Mission 2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency 3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat 4. National Water Mission 5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem 6. National Mission for Green India 7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture 8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

➢ This initiative started in 2010 to promote the use of solar power and to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. ➢ Recently, India has achieved 20 GW (gigawatt) cumulative solar capacity. ➢ India has been achieving the milestone four years ahead of the target for 2022 originally set in the National Solar Mission.

➢ The initiative was undertaken to promote the market for energy efficiency by fostering innovative policies and effective market instruments. ➢ Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power is implementing Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) scheme, a component under NMEEE in India. ➢ PAT is a market-based mechanism to enhance cost effectiveness through certification of excess energy savings in energy-intensive industries that can be traded.

➢ It aims to make cities sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency in buildings, management of solid waste and shift to public transport. ➢ The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs implements the mission.

➢ The mission’s aim is to ensure integrated water resource management helping to conserve water, minimize wastage and ensure more equitable distribution both across and within states. ➢ This is one of the most proactive mission and is backed by the National Water Policy. ➢ It is implemented by the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation.

➢ The primary objective of the Mission follows ○ To develop in a time-bound manner a sustainable national capacity to continuously assess the health status of the Himalayan Ecosystem; ○ To enable policy bodies in their policy-formulation functions; and ○ To assist States in the Indian Himalayan Region with the implementation of actions selected for sustainable development.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ The Department of Science and Technology has been given the responsibility to coordinate the implementation of NMSHE. ➢ The NMSHE will attempt to address a variety of important issues. These are: 1. Himalayan glaciers and associated hydrological consequences, 2. Prediction and management of natural hazards. 3. Biodiversity conservation and protection, 4. Wildlife conservation and protection, 5. Traditional knowledge societies and their livelihood, etc.

➢ It is also termed as the Green India Mission or Green India Scheme. ➢ It is implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change. ➢ GIM acknowledges the influence that forests have on environmental amelioration though climate change mitigation, food security, water security, biodiversity conservation and livelihood security of forest-dependent communities. ➢ The mission hinges on a decentralized participatory approach.

➢ National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) has been made operational from the year 2014-15 which aims at making agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate resilient. ➢ It seeks to transform Indian agriculture into a climate resilient production system through suitable adaptation and mitigation measures in domains of both crops and animal husbandry.

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➢ NMSA as a programmatic intervention focuses on the following ○ promotion of location-specific integrated/composite farming systems; ○ resource conservation technologies; ○ comprehensive soil health management; ○ efficient on-farm water management and ○ mainstreaming rainfed technologies. ➢ Soil Health Management (SHM) is one of the components under the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).

➢ SHM aims at promoting Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) through judicious use of chemical fertilizers in conjunction with organic manures and biofertilizers, strengthening of soil and fertilizer testing facilities to improve soil test based recommendations to farmers for improving soil fertility. ➢ “Soil Health Card” Scheme is under implementation in the country since 2015 to provide Soil Health Card to all farmers in the country. ➢ Soil Health Card will provide information to farmers on soil nutrients status of their soil and recommendation on appropriate dosage of nutrients to be applied for improving soil health and its fertility.

➢ The mission seeks to build a dynamic and vibrant knowledge system that informs and supports national policy and action for responding effectively to climate change challenges, while not compromising on the nation's growth goals.

➢ Biofuels in India are of strategic importance as it augurs well with the ongoing initiatives of the Government such as Make in India, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Skill Development, etc. ➢ Biofuel is any hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from organic matter in a short period of time. Different generations of Biofuels: ○ First Generation Biofuels(1G) It uses the food crops like wheat and sugar for making ethanol and oilseeds for biodiesel by the conventional method of fermentation.

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○ Second Generation Biofuels(2G) It uses non-food crops and feedstock such as Jatropha, wood, grass, seed crops, organic waste, etc. ○ Third Generation Biofuels (3G) It uses specially engineered Algae whose biomass is converted into biofuels. ○ Fourth Generation biofuels (4G) It aims at not only producing sustainable energy but also a way of capturing and storing CO2.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Different types of Biofuels: ➢ Bioethanol: It is a fermentation of carbohydrate and cellulosic material of crops and other plants and grasses. ➢ Biodiesel: It is methyl or methyl ester of fatty acids produced by transesterification of oils and fats obtained from plants and animals. ➢ Biogas: It is a mixture of methane and other gases like CO2 and N2 is produced by anaerobic digestion of organic materials.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Biojet: It is produced from biomass resources and used in place of, or blended with air turbine fuel. Recently, India’s first ever bio-jet fuel flight taken off by using the fuel developed by the CSIR-Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP).

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Salient Features of the National Policy on Biofuels, 2018 1. The Policy categorises biofuels as "Basic Biofuels" viz. First Generation (1G) bioethanol and biodiesel and "Advanced Biofuels" - Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to drop-in fuels, Third Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG, etc. 2. Thrust on Advanced Biofuels: Viability gap funding scheme for 2G ethanol Biorefineries in addition to additional tax incentives and a higher purchase price as compared to 1G biofuels. 3. Allows use of surplus food grains for production of ethanol.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 5. Expands the scope of raw material for ethanol production by allowing the use of Sugarcane Juice, Sugar-containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch-containing materials like Corn, Cassava, Damaged food grains like wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes, unfit for human consumption for ethanol production. 6. Encourages setting up of supply chain mechanisms for biodiesel production from used cooking oil, non-edible oilseeds, short gestation crops. 7. Synergising efforts by capturing the roles and responsibilities of all the concerned Ministries and Departments with respect to biofuels in the policy document itself.

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➢ Buildings are considered as one of the major pollutants that affect urban air quality and contribute to climate change. ➢ The aim of a green building design is to: ○ minimize the demand for non-renewable resources like energy generated through fossil fuels, ○ maximize the utilization efficiency of these resources when in use, ○ maximize reuse and recycling of available resources and ○ utilization of renewable resources.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➢ Green building is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building’s life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction. ➢ It costs a little more to design and construct a green building. ➢ However, it costs less to operate a green building. ➢ Building system designed in a way to efficiently use HVAC (heating ventilation and air conditioning), lighting, electricity, and water heating. ➢ Integration of renewable energy sources to generate energy onsite is one of the features of the Green Building concept.

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➢ Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment ➢ GRIHA has been conceived by TERI and developed jointly with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India. ➢ GRIHA is a rating tool that helps people assess the performance of their building against certain nationally acceptable benchmarks and is suitable for all kinds of buildings in different climatic zones of the country

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➢ The green building rating system is a voluntary scheme. ➢ It helps to design green buildings and, in turn, help evaluate the 'greenness' of the buildings. ➢ The building is assessed based on its predicted performance over its entire life cycle — inception through operation. ➢ The stages of the life cycle that have been identified for evaluation are the following ○ Pre-construction stage, ○ Building operation and ○ Maintenance stage

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➢ Green bonds are debt instruments like normal bonds but the proceeds are used for renewable energy projects or for services that are ecologically sustainable. ➢ The bond is voluntary and may be issued by a financial institution, the government or even a company to raise funds for a defined period. ➢ The first Green bond was issued by the European Investment Bank (EIB) in 2007.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF The Indian Green Bond Market ➢ In 2015, YES Bank issued the first green bond in India for financing renewable and clean energy projects particularly, for wind and solar. ➢ Gradually, the market has expanded to several public sector undertakings, state-owned commercial banks, state-owned financial institutions, corporates, and the banking sector. ➢ SEBI published its official green bonds requirements for Indian issuers making India the second country (after China) to provide national level guidelines.

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Thank you!

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Part - 5 Environment & Ecology

By Dr. Roman Saini

● Rio Earth Summit - Background ● UN Environment Programme (1972) ● Brundtland report (1987) ● UN Conference on Environment & Development (1992) ○ Agenda 21 ○ UNFCCC

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Kyoto protocol (1997) ● Bali Road Map (2007) ● Copenhagen Accord (2009) ● Cancun Agreement (2010) ● Doha Amendments (2012) ● Paris Agreements (2015) ○ NDCs ○ India’s INDC ○ Global Stocktake (GST) ○ Climate Neutral Now

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Convention on Biological Diversity ○ Cartagena Protocol (2000) ○ Nagoya Protocol (2010) ○ Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (2011-20) ○ Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010) ○ Hyderabad Convention (2012) ● Rio+20 (2012) ○ UN Sustainable Development Summit (2015) ○ UN REDD Programme (2008) ● Conventions For Natural Resources ○ Ramsar Convention (1971) ○ UN Convention to Combat Desertification (1994)

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Conventions For Climate Change/Global Warming ○ IPCC Reports ○ Vienna Convention (1985) ○ Montreal Protocol (1987) ○ Kigali Amendment (2016) ● Conventions For Hazardous Chemicals & Waste ○ Basel Convention (1989) ○ Rotterdam Convention (1998) ○ Stockholm Convention (2004) ● Conventions For Natural Disaster ○ WCDR - Hyogo Framework (2005-15) ○ WCDRR - Sendai Framework (2015-30)

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Developments Before The Earth Summit

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Background ● The relationship between economic development and environmental degradation was first placed on the international agenda in 1972, at the UN Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. ● After the Conference, Governments set up the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) which today continues to act as a global catalyst for action to protect the environment. ● In 1983, the UN set up the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) as environmental degradation was understood to be a matter of survival for developing nations.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Led by Gro Harlem Brundtland, the Commission put forward the concept of sustainable development as an alternative approach. ● After considering the 1987 Brundtland report, the UN General Assembly called for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). ● The primary goals of the Summit were to come ○ to an understanding of “development” that would support socio-economic development and prevent the continued deterioration of the environment, and ○ to lay a foundation for a global partnership between the developing and the more industrialized countries, based on mutual needs and common interests, that would ensure a healthy future for the planet.

● The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was an international conference convened under United Nations auspices held in Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-16, 1972. ● It is also known as the Stockholm Conference. ● It was the UN's first major conference on international environmental issues. ● It marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics.

● The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading global environmental authority. ● The UNEP has been authorised for the following ○ To sets the global environmental agenda, ○ To promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system and ○ To serve as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● In India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is the nodal Ministry to assist the UNEP. ● UNEP’s work encompasses the following: ○ Assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends; ○ Developing international and national environmental instruments and; ○ Strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment. ● Every year, UNEP honour and celebrate individuals and institutions that are doing outstanding work on behalf of the environment.

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● UNEP’s focus areas are categorised into the following seven broad thematic areas: 1. Climate change, 2. Disasters and conflicts, 3. Ecosystem management, 4. Environmental governance, 5. Chemicals and waste, 6. Resource efficiency, and 7. Environment under review.

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● UNEP also hosts several environmental conventions, secretariats, and inter-agency coordinating bodies. ● These include the following: 1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 2. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 3. The Minamata Convention on Mercury 4. The Basel Conventions

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5. The Rotterdam Convention 6. The Stockholm Convention 7. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer 8. The Montreal Protocol 9. The Convention on Migratory Species 10. The Carpathian Convention 11. The Bamako Convention 12. The Tehran Convention

1. Our Planet; 2. Tunza: a way of life (UNEP magazine for youth.); 3. Atlas; 4. GEO: Global Environment Outlook;

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Brundtland Report (1987) “Our Common Future” ● This report defined Sustainable Development as the following: 'development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'' ● The report highlighted three fundamental components of sustainable development such as: 1. Environmental protection, 2. Economic growth and 3. Social equity.

● Therefore, the concept of sustainable development focused attention on finding strategies to promote economic and social advancement. ● And this needs to be done in ways that avoid the following ○ Environmental degradation, ○ Over-exploitation or ○ Pollution. ● Moreover, it sidelined less productive debates about whether to prioritize development or the environment.

● Five years after the Brundtland Report, the UN General Assembly asked for a report on progress made towards sustainable development and held the Rio Earth Summit. ● It took place in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and was regarded as the largest environmental conference ever held. ● “Environment & Sustainable Development” was principle theme of the summit. ● The developed nations demanded environmental sustainability while the developing nations argued that they should be given the opportunity to catch up socio-economic equality with the developed world.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The objectives of the conference were the following ○ To build upon the hopes and achievements of the Brundtland Report, in order to respond to pressing global environmental problems and ○ To agree with major treaties on biodiversity, climate change, and forest management. ● The biggest challenges faced at the Rio Earth Summit involved ○ Finance, ○ Population growth and ○ Consumption rates.

1. Agenda 21 — a comprehensive programme of action for global action in all areas of sustainable development; 2. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development — a series of principles defining the rights and responsibilities of States; 3. The Statement of Forest Principles — a set of principles to underlie the sustainable management of forests worldwide; 4. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change — UNFCCC; and 5. The Convention on Biological Diversity — CBD

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Agenda 21

● Agenda 21 is an action plan initiated by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. ● Hence, Agenda 21 is a comprehensive blueprint of actions that are to be taken globally, nationally, and locally by organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area, in which humans directly affect the environment. ● The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century. ● Agenda 21 addresses today’s pressing problems and aims to prepare the world for the challenges of the next century.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● It contains detailed proposals for action in social and economic areas such as combating poverty, changing patterns of production and consumption, addressing demographic dynamics, the atmosphere, oceans and biodiversity, preventing deforestation, promoting sustainable agriculture, etc. ● The programme of action also recommends ways to strengthen the part played by major groups — women, trade unions, farmers, children and young people, indigenous peoples, the scientific community, local authorities, business, industry, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) — in achieving sustainable development.

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Agenda 21 for Culture ● It was agreed during the first World Public Meeting on Culture, held in Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2002. ● This is the first document with a worldwide mission which advocates establishing the groundwork of an undertaking by cities and local governments for the development of culture.

● It supports Agenda 21 by defining the rights and responsibilities of States regarding these issues. ● Among its principles: ○ That human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. ○ That scientific uncertainty should not delay measures to prevent environmental degradation.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ○ That States have a sovereign right to exploit their own resources but not to cause damage to the environment of other States. ○ That eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in worldwide standards of living are “indispensable” for sustainable development. ○ That the full participation of women is essential for achieving sustainable development. ○ That the developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.

● The Statement of Forest Principles was the first global consensus reached on forests. ● It is a non–legally binding statement of principles for the sustainable management of forests. ● Among its provisions: ○ That all countries, notably developed countries, should make an effort to “green the world” through reforestation and forest conservation;

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○ That States have a right to develop forests according to their socio-economic needs, in keeping with national sustainable development policies; and ○ That specific financial resources should be provided to develop programmes that encourage economic and social substitution policies.

● UN Framework Convention on Climate Change or the UNFCCC is the first multilateral legal instrument on Climate Change adopted during the Earth Summit in 1992. ● As of 2015, the UNFCCC has 195 parties including the following ○ All United Nations member states, ○ UN General Assembly observer State of Palestine, ○ UN non-member states Niue and the Cook Islands and ○ The supranational union European Union.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The UNFCCC objective is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". ● The framework sets non-binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms. ● Instead, the framework outlines how specific international treaties may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC. ● These international treaties are called "protocols" or "Agreements" of UNFCCC.

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● The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing with climate change. ● All subsequent multilateral negotiations on different aspects of climate change, including both adaptation and mitigation, are being held based on the principles and objectives set out by the UNFCCC.

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● The UNFCCC divides countries into the following three main groups according to differing commitments: 1. Annex I Parties 2. Annex II Parties 3. Non-annex Parties

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF i. Annex I Parties

● Annex I Parties include the industrialized countries that were the members of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) in 1992. ● Also, the countries with economies in transition (the EIT Parties), including the Baltic States, Russian Federation and several Central and Eastern European States are also Annex I parties to the convention.

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● Annex II Parties consist of the OECD members of Annex I but not the EIT Parties. ● They are required to provide financial resources to enable developing countries to undertake emissions reduction activities under the Convention and to help them adapt to the adverse effects of climate change. ● Also, they have to "take all practicable steps" to promote the development and transfer of environmentally friendly technologies to EIT Parties and developing countries. ● Funding provided by Annex II Parties is channeled mostly through the Convention’s financial mechanism.

● Non-Annex I Parties are mostly developing countries. ● Certain groups of developing countries are recognized by the Convention as being especially vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change, including countries with low-lying coastal areas and those prone to desertification and drought. ● India is non-annex party to the convention.

● The 49 Parties classified as least developed countries (LDCs) by the United Nations are given special consideration under the Convention ● On account of their limited capacity to respond to climate change and adapt to its adverse effects. ● Parties are urged to take full account of the special situation of LDCs when considering funding and technology-transfer activities.

● The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was set up in 1991. ● During the early years, countries implemented activities with the support of three agencies – ○ the World Bank, ○ the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and ○ the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). ● Since then, the Partnership has evolved to include 183 countries and 18 Agencies as well as Civil Society Organizations (CSO), Indigenous Peoples and the private sector.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● GEF funds are available to developing countries and countries with economies in transition to meet the objectives of the international environmental conventions and agreements. ● The GEF provides funding for activities aimed at achieving global environmental benefits in the following areas: ○ Biological diversity; ○ Climate change; ○ International waters; ○ Land degradation, primarily desertification and deforestation; ○ Ozone layer depletion; and ○ Persistent organic pollutants.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● At the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, the GEF became the funding mechanism for activities under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity. ● Since then, the GEF has become the financial mechanism for the following conventions ○ UNFCCC ○ CBD ○ Stockholm Convention ○ UNCCD ○ Minamata Convention

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Kyoto Protocol (1997)

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● The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. ● The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. ● Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. ● In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was adopted to resolve the issues for the second commitment period (2013 to 2020).

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● It recognized that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere. ● So, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities." ● Industrial and developed nations agreed to reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% from 1990 levels by the period 2008 to 2012. ● Crucially, the Kyoto Protocol committed even developed countries to make legally binding reductions in their greenhouse gas emissions.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The targets for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol cover emissions of the six main greenhouse gases, namely: 1. Carbon dioxide (CO2); 2. Methane (CH4); 3. Nitrous oxide (N2O); 4. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); 5. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and 6. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) ● The global cut in emissions of 5.2% was to be achieved by differential reductions for individual countries.

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● Greenhouse gas emission was made a new commodity under the protocol mechanism. ● Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Parties) have accepted targets for limiting or reducing emissions. ● These targets are expressed as levels of allowed emissions, or assigned amounts, at over the 2008-2012 commitment period. ● The allowed emissions are divided into assigned amount units (AAUs).

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● Emissions trading allows countries that have emission units to spare - emissions permitted them but not "used" - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets. ● Hence, more than actual emissions units can be traded and sold under the Kyoto Protocols emissions trading scheme. ● Thus, a new commodity was created in the form of emission reductions or removals. ● Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon. ● Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other commodity. ● This is known as the "carbon market."

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● Emissions trading schemes may be established as climate policy instruments at the national level and the regional level. ● Under such schemes, governments set emissions obligations to be reached by the participating entities. ● The European Union emissions trading scheme is the largest in operation.

● The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. ● Such projects can earn saleable Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. ● Each CER is considered equivalent to one tonne of CO2. ● It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme that provides a standardized emission offset instrument, CERs.

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● The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions. ● While it gives industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation targets. ● The CDM is the main source of income for the UNFCCC Adaptation Fund. ● The Adaptation Fund is financed by a 2% levy on CERs issued by the CDM.

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● The Adaptation Fund (AF) was established in 2001 to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing country Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. ● Specifically, the countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. ● The Adaptation Fund is financed with a share of proceeds from the clean development mechanism (CDM) project activities and other sources of funding. ● The Adaptation Fund is supervised and managed by the Adaptation Fund Board (AFB).

● The mechanism known as "joint implementation" allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target. ● The joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments. ● While the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer.

● The seventh Conference of the Parties (COP 7) to the UNFCCC held in 2001, results in the Marrakesh Accords. ● The Marrakesh Accords details the rules and procedures for meeting the emission reduction targets set in the Kyoto Protocol. ● It set up the stage for ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. ● This had formalized an agreement on operational rules for International Emissions Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation along with a compliance regime and accounting procedures.

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● Conference of the Parties (COP) serving as the Meeting of the Parties (CMP) to the Kyoto Protocol. ● The Convention's supreme body is the COP which serves as the meeting of the Parties (CMP) to the Kyoto Protocol. ● The sessions of the COP and the CMP are held during the same period to reduce costs and improve coordination between the Convention and the Protocol.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Montreal Action Plan COP 11/CMP 1 (2005) ● Following the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol earlier in the year of 2005, the eleventh Conference of the Parties (COP 11) for the first time is held in conjunction with the first Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties (CMP 1). ● CMP 1 held in Montreal, Canada, in November-December 2005 adopted the Marrakesh Accords as well as the draft CMP decisions that were negotiated after COP 7. ● The UNFCCC in Montreal finalized the rule book of the Kyoto Protocol, the 1997 landmark treaty designed to curb greenhouse gas emissions for the first commitment period (2008-12).

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Bali Road Map/ Bali Action Plan (2007)

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● The thirteenth Conference of the Parties adopts the Bali Road Map, including the Bali Action Plan, charting the course for a new negotiating process to address climate change. ● The Plan has the following five main categories: 1. Shared vision, 2. Mitigation, 3. Adaptation, 4. Technology and 5. Financing.

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● Other elements in the Bali Road Map included the following: ○ A decision on deforestation and forest management; ○ A decision on technology for developing countries; ○ The establishment of the Adaptation Fund Board ○ The review of the financial mechanism, going beyond the existing Global Environmental Facility.

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Copenhagen Accord (2009)

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● World leaders gather for the fifteenth Conference of the Parties in Copenhagen, Denmark which produced the Copenhagen Accord. ● The Copenhagen Accord expressed clearly a political intent to constrain carbon and respond to climate change, in both the short and long term. ● Due to some serious disagreement between developing and developed countries, a legally binding agreement could not be finalized in COP15 Copenhagen. ● Finally, the Copenhagen accord is a non-binding agreement.

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● The Copenhagen Accord contained several key elements on which there was strong convergence of the views of governments. ● This included the long-term goal of limiting the maximum global average temperature increase to no more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, subject to a review in 2015. ● There was, however, no agreement on how to do this in practical terms. ● It also included a reference to consider limiting the temperature increase to below 1.5 degrees - a key demand made by vulnerable developing countries.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The accord stated that the developed nations (Annex 1) had agreed to set targets to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. ● Developing nations agreed to pursue nationally appropriate reduction strategy to slow the growth or their emission but refused to commit on the reduction of their carbon output. ● Developed countries promised to fund for the following ○ Take actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ○ To adapt to the inevitable effects of climate change in developing countries.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Developed countries promised the following ○ To provide US$30 billion for the period 2010-2012 and ○ To mobilize long-term finance of a further US$100 billion a year by 2020 from a variety of sources. ● The establishment of the following four new bodies was announced: 1. a mechanism on REDD-plus, 2. a High-Level Panel under the COP to study the implementation of financial provisions, 3. the Copenhagen Green Climate Fund, and 4. a Technology Mechanism.

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Cancun Agreement (2010)

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● It looked forward to preparing a second commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol. ● As per the Agreements concluded in Cancun, all Parties to the Convention (including the developed and developing countries) have agreed to report their voluntary mitigation goals for implementation. ● Parties agreed at Cancun for the following: ○ to commit to a maximum temperature rise of 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and to consider lowering that maximum to 1.5 degrees in the near future.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ○ to make fully operational by 2012 a technology mechanism to boost the innovation, development, and spread of new climate-friendly technologies; ○ to establish a “Green Climate Fund” to provide financing to projects, programmes, policies, and other activities in developing countries via thematic funding windows; ○ on the Cancun Adaptation Framework, which included setting up an Adaptation Committee to promote the implementation of stronger, cohesive action on adaptation.

● GCF is a UN-backed fund considered as the key vehicle for funding the climate-related development programs. ● It is guided by the provisions and principles of the UNFCCC. ● The general concept for GCF is first proposed at COP15 to the UNFCCC in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009. ● The COP 16 in Cancun, Mexico in 2010, decides to establish GCF. ● The Fund establishes its permanent headquarters in Songdo, Republic of Korea, in 2013.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The Fund aims to allocate its resources to low-emission and climate-resilient projects and programmes in developing countries. ● The Fund pays particular attention to the needs of societies that are highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, in particular ○ Least Developed Countries (LDCs), ○ Small Island Developing States (SIDS), and ○ The African States. ● GCF launched its initial resource mobilization in 2014, and rapidly gathered pledges worth around USD 10 billion.

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● These funds come mainly from developed countries, but also from some developing countries, regions, and one city (Paris). ● The Fund’s investments can be in the form of grants, loans, equity or guarantees. ● Board of 24 members governs this body and was initially supported by a Secretariat. ● GCF was central to the Paris climate agreement signed in the year 2015. ● It was intended to be the lynchpin among the efforts to raise Climate Finance of $100 billion a year by 2020.

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Doha Amendments (2012)

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● At the eighteenth Conference of the Parties, governments agreed to speedily work toward a universal climate change agreement by 2015 and to find ways to scale up efforts before 2020 beyond existing pledges to curb emissions. ● They also adopt the Doha Amendment, launching a second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. ● Kyoto protocol period was extended as it propagated a second commitment period from 2013 to 2020. ● Russia, Japan, and Canada refused to join the second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The amendments to the Kyoto Protocol includes the following: a. New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020; b. A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by Parties in the second commitment period; and c. Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and which needed to be updated for the second commitment period.

● The G77 and China led the group of 132 poor countries which staged a walkout during talks about “loss and damage” compensation for the consequences of global warming. ● Poor countries have demanded that the developed nations to give them $100 billion annually by 2020.

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Paris Agreement (2015)

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF COP 21/CMP 11 (2015) ● The Paris Agreement for the first time brings all nations into a common cause based on their historic, current, and future responsibilities. ● It deals with greenhouse gases emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance starting in the year 2020. ● It was opened for signature on the Earth Day (22 April) in 2016 and till date, 185 parties have ratified it. ● It entered into force on 4 November 2016, 30 days after the so-called “double threshold” (ratification by 55 countries that account for at least 55% of global emissions) had been met.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● This Agreement in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty, including by: ○ Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, ○ Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production; and ○ Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● This Agreement aims to be implemented to reflect equity and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances. ● The Paris Agreement addresses crucial areas necessary to combat climate change. ● Some of the key aspects of the Agreement are set out below: ○ Long-term temperature goal ○ Global peaking and 'climate neutrality' ○ Mitigation and Adaptation

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ○ Sinks and reservoirs ○ Voluntary cooperation/Market- and non-market-based approaches ○ Loss and damage ○ Finance, technology and capacity-building support ○ Climate change education, training, public awareness, public participation and public access to information ○ Transparency, implementation, and compliance ○ Global Stocktake (GST)

● Nationally determined contributions (NDCs) are at the heart of the Paris Agreement and the achievement of these long-term goals. ● NDCs embody efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. ● The Paris Agreement requests each country to outline and communicate their post-2020 climate actions, known as NDCs. ● The contribution that each individual country should make in order to achieve the worldwide goal are determined by all countries individually called "Intended Nationally Determined Contributions" (INDCs).

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● This includes requirements that all Parties report regularly on their emissions and on their implementation efforts. ● So, NDCs are submitted every five years to the UNFCCC secretariat, with the next round of NDCs (new or updated) being submitted by 2020. ● These targets will not be binding as it is not possible to enforce them. ● NDCs will be revised after 5 years in 2023. ● There will also be a global stocktake every 5 years to assess the collective progress towards achieving the purpose of the agreement and to inform further individual actions by Parties.

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● India is a signatory to the Paris Agreement. ● India’s proposed INDC targets: ○ Reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35% by 2030 from 2005 level. ○ Achieve about 40% electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030 with the help of transfer of technology and low-cost international finance. ○ Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Besides, India has also decided to anchor a global solar alliance, INSPA (International Agency for Solar Policy and Application), of all countries located in between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. ● The INDC proposals are based on the following areas: ○ Sustainable Lifestyles ○ Cleaner Economic Development ○ Reduce Emission intensity of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ○ Increase the Share of Non-Fossil Fuel Based Electricity ○ Enhancing Carbon Sink (Forests) ○ Adaptation ○ Mobilizing Finance ○ Technology Transfer and Capacity Building

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● Despite facing enormous development challenges like poverty eradication, ensuring housing, electricity and food security for all, India declared a voluntary goal of reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20–25%, over 2005 levels by 2020. ● To accelerate development and deployment of renewable energy in the country, the Government is taking a number of initiatives like up-scaling of targets for renewable energy capacity addition from 30GW by 2016-17 to 175 GW by 2021-22. ● India already has ambitious climate action plans in place, National Climate Action Plan. ● The NCAP has the eight sub plans for specific areas such as solar energy, water, Himalayan ecosystem, etc.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The technology gap between rich and poor countries remains enormous and the capacity of developing economies to adopt new technology needs to be enhanced. ● Enhanced action on technology development and the transfer will be central in enabling the full and effective implementation of India’s INDC. ● Lastly, the approach of India’s INDC has been anchored in the vision of equity inspired by the Father of our Nation Mahatma Gandhi's famous exhortation; “Earth has enough resources to meet people’s needs, but will never have enough to satisfy people's greed”.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● In the INDC, the country has focused on adaptation efforts, including: ○ Developing sustainable habitats; ○ Optimizing water use efficiency; ○ Creating ecologically sustainable climate resilient agricultural production systems; ○ Safeguarding the Himalayan glaciers and mountain ecosystem; and, ○ Enhancing carbon sinks in sustainably managed forests and implementing adaptation measures for vulnerable species, forest-dependent communities, and ecosystems.

● The GST to take place in 2023 and every 5 years thereafter was formed under the Paris Agreement in 2015. ● A “global stocktake” will assess collective progress toward achieving the purpose of the Agreement in a comprehensive and facilitative manner. ● It will be based on the best available science and its long-term global goal. ● Its outcome will inform Parties in updating and enhancing their actions and support and enhancing international cooperation on climate action.

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● Climate Neutral Now is an initiative launched by the UN Climate Change in 2015. ● It aimed at encouraging and supporting all levels of society to take climate action to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-century, as enshrined in the Paris Agreement adopted the same year. ● Because, to achieve the Paris Agreement objective, relying solely on governmental action will not be sufficient.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The initiative, therefore, invites companies, organizations, governments, and citizens to work towards climate neutrality by reducing their climate footprint to a simple 3-steps method such as 1. Measure their greenhouse gas emissions; 2. Reduce them as much as possible; and 3. Compensate those which cannot be avoided by using UN certified emission reductions (CERs).

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● COP serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement is regarded as CMA. ● All States that are Parties to the Paris Agreement are represented at the CMA, while States that are not Parties participate as observers. ● The CMA oversees the implementation of the Paris Agreement and takes decisions to promote its effective implementation. ● CMA met for the first time in conjunction with COP22 in Marrakesh in November 2016. ● It is also known as CMA1

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Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

● The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. ● It entered into force on 29 December 1993. ● It is the first global agreement to cover all aspects of biological diversity. ● The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD), based in Montreal, Canada was established to support the goals of the Convention. ● The CBD is an international legally-binding treaty.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The Convention on Biological Diversity was inspired by the world community's growing commitment to sustainable development. ● Its overall objective is to encourage actions which lead the world towards a sustainable future. ● It has the following three main objectives: 1. The conservation of biological diversity 2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity 3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The Convention on Biological Diversity covers biodiversity at all levels: ○ Ecosystems, ○ Species and ○ Genetic resources. ● It also covers biotechnological aspects including through the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. ● In fact, it covers all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from politics, science, and education to agriculture, culture, business, and much more.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The CBD’s governing body is the Conference of the Parties (COP). ● This ultimate authority of all governments (or Parties) that have ratified the treaty meets every two years to review progress, set priorities, and commit to work plans. ● The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal, Canada. ● The Convention has near universal membership with 196 Parties. ● USA is the only major country which is not a Party to the CBD.

● Global Biodiversity Outlook (GBO) is the flagship publication of the Convention on Biological Diversity. ● It is a periodic report that summarizes the latest data on the status and trends of biodiversity. ● It also draws conclusions relevant to the further implementation of the Convention.

● The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs). ● It was adopted in 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity and entered into force in 2003. ● India is the party of this protocol since 2003. ● The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● It establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. ● The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.

● The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources Benefit Sharing (ABS) was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. ● It entered into force in 2014 and India is the party since then. ● The Nagoya Protocol on to the Convention on Biological Diversity is a supplementary agreement to the CBD. ● Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. ● It applies to genetic resources that are covered by the CBD, and to the benefits arising from their utilization.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The Nagoya Protocol also covers traditional knowledge (TK) associated with genetic resources that are covered by the CBD and the benefits arising from its utilization. ● It also addresses genetic resources where indigenous and local communities have the established right to grant access to them. ● Contracting Parties are to take measures to ensure these communities’ prior informed consent, and fair and equitable benefit-sharing, keeping in mind community laws and procedures as well as customary use and exchange. ● The Convention on Biological Diversity recognizes the sovereign rights of States over their natural resources in areas within their jurisdiction.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Parties to the Convention therefore have the authority to determine access to genetic resources in areas within their jurisdiction. ● Parties also have the obligation to take appropriate measures with the aim of sharing the benefits derived from their use. ● Parties have agreed to develop national and regional targets and report thereon to the Conference of the Parties at its eleventh meeting (COP-11) in 2012 in Hyderabad. ● Parties have committed to revising and/ or updating their National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) in light of the new strategic plan and to implement them as policy instruments by COP-12.

● The Nagoya Protocol will create greater legal certainty and transparency for both providers and users of genetic resources by: ○ Establishing more predictable conditions for access to genetic resources. ○ Helping to ensure benefit-sharing when genetic resources leave the country providing the genetic resources ● By helping to ensure benefit-sharing, the Nagoya Protocol creates incentives to conserve and sustainably use genetic resources, and therefore enhances the contribution of biodiversity to development and human well-being.

● In 2010 Parties to the CBD adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, a ten-year framework for action by all countries and stakeholders to safeguard biodiversity and the benefits it provides to people. ● As part of the Strategic Plan, 20 ambitious but realistic targets, known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, were adopted. ● The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity is comprised the vision— "Living in Harmony with Nature" where “By 2050, biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people.”

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The new plan consists of the following five strategic goals 1. Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society 2. Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use 3. Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity 4. Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services 5. Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management, and capacity building

● The 'Aichi Targets' were adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at Nagoya conference in 2010. ● Living in Harmony with Nature - the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity contributes to the implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020. ● The twenty headline Aichi Biodiversity Targets are organized under the five strategic goals. ● The important Aichi targets are the following

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ➔ By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably. ➔ By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes and are being incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate, and reporting systems. ➔ By 2020, at the latest, Governments, business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have implemented plans for sustainable production and consumption and have kept the impacts of use of natural resources well within safe ecological limits.

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➔ By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced. ➔ By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation of biodiversity. ➔ By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity. ➔ By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or eradicated.

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➔ By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained. ➔ By 2020, knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied.

● India has hosted the eleventh Conference of the Parties (CoP-11) to the CBD in Hyderabad on 1-19 October, 2012. ● Developed countries agreed to double funding to support efforts in developing states towards meeting the internationally-agreed Biodiversity Targets, and the main goals of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020. ● The COP also set targets to increase the number of countries that have included biodiversity in their national development plans, and prepared national financial plans for biodiversity, by 2015.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● As this will translate into additional financial flows to the developing countries to the tune of about US $ 30 billion in the next 8 years. ● The 193 Parties to the CBD agreed to classify a diverse list of marine areas, some renowned for containing ‘hidden treasures’ of the plant and animal world, as ecologically or biologically significant. ● To meet the Aichi Biodiversity Target of ensuring that 10 % of marine areas are protected by 2020. ● The conference also saw the launch of the Hyderabad Call for Biodiversity Champions.

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● India has committed US $50 million towards strengthening the institutional mechanism for biodiversity conservation in the country during its presidency of the CBD, called the Hyderabad Pledge. ● This funds will be used to enhance technical and human capabilities at the national and state-level mechanisms to attain the CBD objectives. ● India has instituted together with UNDP Biodiversity Governance Awards and the first such awards were given during the CoP 11. ● India proposed to institute Rajiv Gandhi International Award for Harnessing Biodiversity for Livelihood.

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● "Rio+20" is the name for the UNCSD which took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012, 20 years after the landmark 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de janeiro. ● In this conference, the official discussions focussed on the following two main themes: 1. How to build a green economy in order to achieve sustainable development and lift people out of poverty and 2. How to improvise international coordination for sustainable development.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● In Rio, Member States decided to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and to establish the UN High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development. ● It had been built upon the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and converge with the post-2015 development agenda. ● The Conference also adopted groundbreaking guidelines on green economy policies. ● The Conference also took forward-looking decisions on a number of thematic areas, including energy, food security, oceans, cities, etc. ● The Rio +20 outcome also contained for future programmes of work in small island developing states and more.

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● The MDGs were launched in 2000 for the period of 2000 to 2015. ● The MDGs focused primarily on the social agenda. ● While the SDGs are broad in scope because they will address the interconnected elements of sustainable development: ○ Economic growth, ○ Social inclusion and ○ Environmental protection. ● The MDGs targeted developing countries, particularly the poorest while the SDGs will apply to the entire world, the rich and the poor.

● The United Nations summit for the adoption of the post-2015 development agenda was held from 25 to 27 September 2015 in New York and convened as a high-level plenary meeting of the General Assembly. ● In this summit, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals summarizing 169 targets were announced to demonstrate the scale and ambition of this new universal 2030 Agenda. ● They were consider as an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and developing - in a global partnership. ● They seek to realize the human rights of all and to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls.

● Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere ● Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture ● Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages ● Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all ● Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls ● Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all ● Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all ● Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation ● Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries ● Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable ● Goal 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns ● Goal 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development ● Goal 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss ● Goal 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels ● Goal 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development Now, the annual High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development serves as the central UN platform for the follow-up and review of the SDGs.

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● The Goals and targets will stimulate action over the next fifteen years in areas of critical importance for humanity and the planet such as 5Ps: 1. People: To end poverty and hunger and to ensure that all human beings can fulfil their potential in dignity and equality and in a healthy environment. 2. Planet: To protect the planet from degradation, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of the present and future generations.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 3. Prosperity: To ensure that all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that economic, social and technological progress occurs in harmony with nature. 4. Peace: To foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies which are free from fear and violence. “There can be no sustainable development without peace and no peace without sustainable development.” 5. Partnership: To mobilize the means required to implement this Agenda through a revitalised Global Partnership for Sustainable Development focussed in particular on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable and with the participation of all countries, all stakeholders, and all people.

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● 2015 was a landmark year for multilateralism and international policy shaping with the adoption of several major agreements: 1. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (March 2015) 2. Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for Development (July 2015) 3. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with its 17 SDGs was adopted at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in New York.(September 2015) 4. Paris Agreement on Climate Change (December 2015)

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III. UN-REDD Programme (2008)

● The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries was launched in 2008. ● It builds on the convening role and technical expertise of the following organisations 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and 3. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

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● The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally led REDD+ processes. ● It also promotes the informed and meaningful involvement of all stakeholders, including indigenous peoples and other forest-dependent communities, in national and international REDD+ implementation.

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● REDD+ goes beyond simply deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. ● Since REDD+ is part of the climate change solution but REDD+ alone cannot adequately mitigate or abate climate change. ● The implementation of REDD+ must co-exist with significant emission reductions in both developed and developing countries if we hope to curb climate change.

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● REDD+ readiness relates to the efforts a country is undertaking, with the support of multilateral or bilateral support, to build its capacity to be ready for a REDD+ mechanism. ● REDD+ conceptualizes flow of positive incentives' for demonstrated reduction in deforestation or for enhancing quality and expense of forest cover. ● India has made a submission to UNFCCC on "REDD, Sustainable Management of Forest(SMF), and Afforestation and Reforestation (A&R)" in December 2008

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I. For Natural Resources

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The Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention)

● The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is the intergovernmental treaty. ● This Convention holds the unique distinction of being the first modern treaty between countries aimed at conserving natural resources. ● It provides the framework for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. ● The Convention was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Since then, almost 90% of UN member states, from all the world’s geographic regions, have acceded to become “Contracting Parties”. ● The Convention aims to the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation. ● Therefore, it is considered the convention contributing towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world. ● The Secretariat to the convention is based at the headquarters of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in Gland, Switzerland. ● The Convention uses a broad definition of wetlands.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● It includes all natural lakes and rivers, underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands, peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas, and tidal flats, mangroves and other coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs and salt pans. ● Under the “three pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties commit to the following: ○ Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands; ○ Designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands of International Importance (the “Ramsar List”) and ensure their effective management; ○ Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, and shared species.

● They are recognized as being of significant value not only for the country or the countries in which they are located but for humanity as a whole. ● Contracting parties select suitable wetlands for designation by referring to the Criteria for identifying Wetlands of International Importance. ● The inclusion of a wetland in the List embodies the government’s commitment to take the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological character is maintained.

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● The Convention includes various measures to respond to threats to the ecological character of Sites. ● In order to designate a wetland as a Ramsar site, countries need to agree to establish and oversee a management framework aimed at conserving the wetland and ensuring its wise use. ● Wise use under Ramsar Convention can be broadly defined as maintaining the ecological character of a wetland. ● Wetlands can be included on the List of Wetlands of International Importance because of their ecological, zoological, botanical, limnological, or hydrological importance.

● The convention entered into force in India on 1 February 1982. ● India currently has 27 sites designated as Ramsar Sites with a surface area more than 10 lakh hectares.

State Ramsar Site

Uttar Pradesh 1. Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch)

Rajasthan 1. Keoladeo National Park 2. Sambhar Lake

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Madhya Pradesh 1. Bhoj Wetland

Punjab 1. Harike Wetland 2. Kanjli Wetland 3. Ropar Wetland

Himachal Pradesh 1. Chandratal 2. Pong Dam Lake 3. Renuka Lake

Jammu & Kashmir 1. Hokera Wetland 2. Wular Lake 3. Surinsar-Mansar Lakes 4. Tsomoriri

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Odisha 1. Bhitarkanika Mangroves 2. Chilika Lake

West Bengal 1. East Kolkata Wetlands 2. Sundarban Wetland

Andhra Pradesh 1. Kolleru Lake

Tamil Nadu 1. Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary

Kerala 1. Ashtamudi Wetland 2. Sasthamkotta Lake 3. Vembanad-Kol Wetland

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State Ramsar Site

Gujarat 1. Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary

Assam 1. Deepor Beel

Manipur 1. Loktak Lake

Tripura 1. Rudrasagar Lake

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● It was Adopted by the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention in Brisbane, 1996, accompanying the Guidelines for Operation of the Montreux Record. ● The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International. ● It is the principal tool of the Convention and is maintained as part of the Ramsar List. ● It is a voluntary mechanism to highlight specific wetlands of international importance that are facing immediate challenges.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The wetland of international importance is considered where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference. ● Currently, there are only two Indian wetlands listed in the Montreux Record such as 1. Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan (1990) 2. Loktak Lake, Manipur (1993) ● Chilika Lake, Orissa was included in Montreux Record in 1993 but have been removed in November 2002. ● Chilika Lake gets Wetland Conservation Award for 2002.

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United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

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Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The new UNCCD 2018-2030 Strategic Framework is the most comprehensive global commitment ○ to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) in order to restore the productivity of vast expanses of degraded land; ○ to improve the livelihoods of more than 1.3 billion people, and ○ to reduce the impacts of drought on vulnerable populations ● All these commitments are required to achieve a land degradation-neutral world consistent with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. ● The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification and land degradation.

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● As the dynamics of land, climate, and biodiversity are intimately connected, the UNCCD collaborates closely with the other two Rio Conventions to meet these complex challenges with an integrated approach and the best possible use of natural resources. ○ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and ○ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

● The United Nations General Assembly declared the United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight Against Desertification, which runs from January 2010 to December 2020 to promote action that will protect the drylands. ● It was decided due to the concern about the deteriorating situation of desertification in all regions. ● This situations has far-reaching implications for the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly the eradication of poverty and ensuring environmental sustainability.

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● The Decade events and campaigns are spearheaded by the following UN agencies 1. UN Department of Public Information (DPI), 2. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), 3. UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), 4. UN Development Programme (UNDP) and 5. UN Environment Programme (UNEP).

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The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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● The IPCC is the UN body for assessing the science and researches related to climate change. ● It was established by the following organisation in 1988 ○ United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) ○ World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ● It was created to provide policymakers with the following ○ regular scientific assessments concerning climate change, ○ its implications and potential future risks, and ○ to put forward adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The IPCC does not conduct its own research. ● IPCC assessments provide governments, at all levels, with scientific information that they can use to develop climate policies. ● IPCC assessments are a key input into the international negotiations to tackle climate change. ● IPCC reports are drafted and reviewed in several stages, thus guaranteeing objectivity and transparency. ● In 2007, the IPCC was jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with U.S. Vice-President Al Gore “for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change”.

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● The IPCC has the following three working groups: ○ Working Group I Dealing with the physical science basis of climate change ○ Working Group II Dealing with impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability ○ Working Group III Dealing with the mitigation of climate change. ● IPCC Assessment Reports consist of contributions from each of the three working groups and a Synthesis Report.

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● Special Reports undertake an assessment of cross-disciplinary issues that span more than one working group and are shorter and more focused than the main assessments. ● It also has a Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories that develops methodologies for measuring emissions and removals. ● Alongside the Working Groups and the Task Force, other Task Groups may be established by the Panel for a set time period to consider a specific topic or question. ● Task Group to improve gender balance and address gender-related issues within the IPCC has been established in 2018.

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● Assessing and controlling marine pollution by development and adoption of Protocols that prescribe measures, procedures, and regulations and by using the best environmental practices. ● Sustainable management of natural marine and coastal resources. ● Protecting the natural and cultural heritage. ● Integrating the environment into economic and social development. ● Strengthening solidarity by promoting cooperation between countries bordering the Mediterranean. ● Contributing to improving the quality of life.

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● In 1990, the First IPCC Assessment Report (FAR) underlined the importance of climate change as a challenge with global consequences and requiring international cooperation. ● It played a decisive role in the creation of the UNFCCC. ● In 1995, the Second Assessment Report (SAR) provided important material for governments to draw from in the run-up to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. ● In 2001, the Third Assessment Report (TAR) focused attention on the impacts of climate change and the need for adaptation.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● In 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) laid the groundwork for a post-Kyoto agreement, focusing on limiting warming to 2°C. ● The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) was finalized between 2013 and 2014. ● It provided the scientific input into the Paris Agreement in 2015. ● The IPCC is currently in its Sixth Assessment cycle where it will prepare three Special Reports, a Methodology Report, and the Sixth Assessment Report. ● The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) is expected to be finalized in 2022 in time for the first global stocktake the following year.

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Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

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● In 1981, UNEP acted on a proposal to develop a global convention on the ozone layer. ● Subsequently, a multilateral environmental agreement was signed during the Vienna Conference in 1985 and entered into force in 1988. ● It is one of the most successful treaties of all time in terms of universality. ● It has been ratified by 197 states as well as the European Union. ● India has ratified it in 1991.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● It established global monitoring and reporting on ozone depletion. ● It also created a framework for the development of protocols for taking more binding action. ● The Montreal Protocol under the Vienna Convention (the protocol) was agreed in 1987. ● The Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol are the first and only global environmental treaties to achieve universal ratification, with 197 parties. ● However, it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs which are the main chemical agents causing ozone depletion.

● The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is the landmark multilateral environmental agreement. ● It regulates the production and consumption of ozone depleting substances (ODS). ● Under this treaty, all parties have specific responsibilities related to the phase-out of the different groups of ODS, control of ODS trade, annual reporting of data, national licensing systems to control ODS imports and exports, and other matters.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Throughout the implementation of the Montreal Protocol, developing countries have demonstrated that, with the right kind of assistance, they are willing, ready and able to be full partners in global efforts to protect the environment. ● In fact, many developing countries have exceeded the reduction targets for phasing out ODS, with the support of the Multilateral Fund. ● Developing and developed countries have equal but differentiated responsibilities. ● But most importantly, both groups of countries have binding, time-targeted and measurable commitments.

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● The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol was established in 1991 under the treaty. ● The Fund's objective is to provide financial and technical assistance to developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol. ● Only for the countries whose annual per capita consumption and production of ODS is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol.

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● The Multilateral Fund’s activities are implemented by the following four international agencies as well as bilateral agencies of countries. ○ UN Environment (UNEP), ○ UN Development Programme (UNDP), ○ UN Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) and ○ World Bank.

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● The Montreal Protocol controls nearly 100 chemicals that are grouped in the following categories: 1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 2. Halons 3. Carbon Tetrachloride (CTC) 4. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) 5. Methyl Chloroform 6. Methyl Bromide

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● The transition from CFCs (high ozone depleting potential or ODP) to intermediate HCFCs (with lower ODP) has been completed and the final transition is to alternatives that have zero ODP. ● Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are gases used worldwide in refrigeration, air-conditioning, and foam applications. ● Recognizing the potential benefits to the Earth’s climate, in 2007 the Parties decided to accelerate their schedule to phase out HCFCs.

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● Developed countries have been reducing their consumption of HCFCs and will completely phase them out by 2020. ● Developing countries agreed to start their phase-out process in 2013 and are now following a stepwise reduction until the complete phase-out of HCFCs by 2030.

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● Another group of substances, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were introduced as non-ozone depleting alternatives to support the timely phase-out of CFCs and HCFCs. ● HFCs are now widespread in air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosols, foams, and other products. ● While these chemicals do not deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, some of them have high Global Warming Potential (GWPs) ranging from 12 to 14,000.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The Parties to the Montreal Protocol reached an agreement at their 28th Meeting of the Parties in 2016 in Kigali, Rwanda to phase-down HFCs. ● Countries agreed to add HFCs to the list of controlled substances and approved a timeline for their gradual reduction by 80-85 % by the late 2040s. ● A key upcoming challenge for developing countries will be to simultaneously implement the timely phase-out of their remaining HCFC consumption while at the same time preparing for the phase down of HFCs. ● This is particularly crucial for the refrigeration and air conditioning servicing sector which represents the majority of HCFC and HFC consumption in most countries.

● As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. ● Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070. So, it can be termed as a successful treaty. ● To date, the Parties to the Protocol have phased out 98% of ODS globally compared to 1990 levels. ● Because most of these substances are potent greenhouse gases, the Montreal Protocol is also contributing significantly to the protection of the global climate system.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The Montreal Protocol also makes important contributions to the realization of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. (1, 2, 3, 5, 8 ,9,11, 13, and 17) ● The Montreal Protocol is to protect the earth’s ozone layer by eliminating the use of ozone-depleting substances (ODS), which would otherwise allow increased UV radiation to reach the earth, resulting in the higher incidence of skin cancers and eye cataracts, more-compromised immune systems, and negative effects on watersheds, agricultural lands, and forests. ● It has been estimated, for example, that the Montreal Protocol is saving an estimated two million people each year by 2030 from skin cancer.

● In 2016, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted the agreement on HFCs at the close of the 28th Meeting of the Parties (MOP 28) in Kigali, Rwanda. ● The Kigali Amendment entered into force on 1 January 2019, following ratification by 65 countries. ● Kigali Amendment amends the Montreal Protocol of 1987 with the aim to phase out Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), a family of potent greenhouse gases, by the late 2040s. ● The Amendment also includes agreements on technologies to destroy HFCs, data reporting requirements, and provisions for capacity building for developing countries.

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● Under this Amendment, in all 197 countries, including India, China, and the USA, have agreed to a timeline to reduce the use of HFCs by roughly 85% of their baselines by 2045. ● In recent times, it was found that HFCs have several thousand times heat retaining capacity (in the atmosphere) when compared to that of a carbon dioxide (CO2), a potent GHG. ● Thus, it can be said that HFCs have helped the ozone layer but have contributed towards increasing global warming. ● At present, HFCs are the world’s fastest-growing GHGs, with emissions increasing by up to 10% every year.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● All signatory nations have been divided into three groups with different timelines to go about reductions of HFCs. Group 1: ● It includes rich countries like the US, the European Union (EU), etc. ● They have to freeze production and consumption of HFCs by 2018. ● They will reduce the HFC emission to about 15% of 2012 levels by 2036.

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Group 2: ● It includes countries like Brazil, China and all of the African countries, etc. ● They will freeze the use of HFCs by 2024 and cut it to 20% of 2021 levels by 2045. Group 3: ● It includes countries India, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, etc. ● They would be freezing HFC use by 2028 and reducing it to about 15% of 2025 levels by 2047.

● Now, it also includes HFCs that are responsible for global warming. ● This amendment will help to prevent a potential 0.5 degree Celsius rise in global temperature by the end of the century. ● This amendment will be binding on countries from 2019 onwards. ● It also contains the provision of penalties for non-compliance. ● Under this amendment, developed countries will provide enhanced funding support estimated at billions of dollars, to help developing world.

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● Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) are a new class of unsaturated HFC refrigerants. ● They have lower GWPs and shorter atmospheric lifetimes when compared to other HFCs. ● HFOs are not included as substances to be phased down in the Kigali Amendment.

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II. For Hazardous Chemicals & Wastes

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● The Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions are multilateral global environmental agreements. 1. Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989) 2. Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides (1998) 3. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) (2004) ● They share the common objective of protecting human health and the environment from hazardous chemicals and wastes.

● The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted in 1989 by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Basel, Switzerland. ● The Convention entered into force in 1992. ● It was the result of the public outcry following the discovery, in the 1980s, in Africa and other parts of the developing world of deposits of toxic wastes imported from abroad.

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● The overarching objective of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. ● The Basel Protocol on Liability and Compensation for Damage resulting from Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted by COP 5 in 1999. ● The Bali Declaration on Waste Management for Human Health and Livelihood, adopted by COP 9 in 2008, has affirmed at the political level that waste, if not managed in a safe and environmentally sound manner, may have serious consequences for the environment, human health, and sustainable livelihood.

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● Its scope of application covers a wide range of wastes defined as “hazardous wastes” based on their origin and/or composition and their characteristics, as well as two types of wastes defined as “other wastes” - ○ household waste and ○ incinerator ash. ● However, it does not address the movement of radioactive waste.

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● The provisions of the Convention center around the following principal aims: ○ the reduction of hazardous waste generation and the promotion of environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal; ○ the restriction of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes except where it is perceived to be in accordance with the principles of environmentally sound management; and ○ a regulatory system applying to cases where transboundary movements are permissible.

● It was adopted on 10 September 1998 by a Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. ● The Convention entered into force on 24 February 2004. ● It was built on the voluntary PIC procedure, initiated by UNEP and FAO in 1989 that was ceased on 24 February 2006. ● The Convention provides for legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure. ● India is the party to this convention.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The objectives of the Convention are the following: ○ To promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm; ○ To contribute to the environmentally sound use of those hazardous chemicals, ■ by facilitating information exchange about their characteristics, ■ by providing for a national decision-making process on their import and export and ■ by disseminating these decisions to Parties.

● The Stockholm Convention is an International Environmental Treaty under the aegis of the UN. ● It was opened for signature in 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden and became effective in 2004. ● It aims to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs) ● It focuses to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). ● It has 180 Parties and India is also party to this treaty.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The Stockholm Convention is perhaps best understood as having five essential aims: 1. Eliminate dangerous POPs, starting with the 12 worst 2. Support the transition to safer alternatives 3. Target additional POPs for action 4. Cleanup old stockpiles and equipment containing POPs 5. Work together for a POPs-free future ● The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) is the designated financial mechanism for the Stockholm Convention.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Initially 12 POPs were added to the list but later on, more POPs has been added. ● As POPs can be reviewed and added to the convention if they meet certain criteria for persistence and transboundary threat i.e. list of POPs can change and evolve over time. ● There is the provision that developed countries provide new and additional financial resources and measures to minimise/regulate POPs to developing nations.

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● Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are organic chemical substances, that is, they are carbon-based. ● Though not soluble in water, POPs are readily absorbed in fatty tissue, where concentrations can become magnified by up to 70,000 times the background levels. ● Fish, predatory birds, mammals, and humans are high up the food chain and so absorb the greatest concentrations. ● When they travel, the POPs travel with them. As a result, POPs can be found in people and animals living in regions such as the Arctic, thousands of kilometers from any major POPs source.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● They possess a particular combination of physical and chemical properties such that, once released into the environment, they: ○ remain intact for exceptionally long periods of time (many years); ○ become widely distributed throughout the environment as a result of natural processes involving soil, water and, most notably, air; ○ accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms including humans, and are found at higher concentrations at higher levels in the food chain; and ○ are toxic to both humans and wildlife.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Specific effects of POPs can include such as ○ cancer, allergies, and hypersensitivity, ○ damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, ○ reproductive disorders, and ○ disruption of the immune system. ● Some POPs are also considered to be endocrine disruptors, which, by altering the hormonal system, can damage the reproductive and immune systems of exposed individuals as well as their offspring; they can also have developmental and carcinogenic effects.

● Initially, twelve POPs have been recognized as causing adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem and these can be placed in 3 categories: ○ Pesticides: aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, toxaphene; ○ Industrial chemicals: hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); and ○ By-products: hexachlorobenzene; polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF), and PCBs.

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III. For Natural Disasters

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UN World Conferences For Disaster Risk Reduction

● The Conference had to take stock of progress in disaster risk reduction accomplished since the Yokohama Conference of 1994 and to make plans for the next ten years from 2005 to 2015. ● It represented a strong commitment of the international community to address disaster reduction and to engage in a determined, results-oriented plan of action for the next decade. ● These have resulted in the Hyogo Declaration and Hyogo Framework of Action.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters (HFA) is the first plan to explain, describe, and detail the work that is required from all different sectors and actors to reduce disaster losses. ● It was developed and agreed on with the many partners needed to reduce disaster risk - governments, international agencies, disaster experts, and many others - bringing them into a common system of coordination. ● Its goal is to substantially reduce disaster losses by 2015 by building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters. ● This means reducing the loss of lives and social, economic, and environmental assets when hazards strike.

● The HFA outlines five priorities for action and offers guiding principles and practical means for achieving disaster resilience. ○ Priority Action 1: Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation. ○ Priority Action 2: Identify, assess, and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ○ Priority Action 3: Use knowledge, innovation, and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels. ○ Priority Action 4: Reduce the underlying risk factors. ○ Priority Action 5: Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.

● The Sendai Framework is the successor instrument to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. ● The Sendai Framework was adopted by the UN Member States on 18 March 2015 at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan ● The Sendai Framework is a 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● It recognizes that the State has the primary role to reduce the risks related to disasters. ● But that responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders including local government, the private sector, and other stakeholders. ● It aims for the following outcome: The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods, and health and in the social, economic, physical, cultural, and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities, and countries.

● Priority 1. Understanding disaster risk ● Priority 2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk ● Priority 3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience ● Priority 4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.

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1. Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower average per 100,000 global mortality rate in the decade 2020-2030 compared to the period 2005-2015. 2. Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the average global figure per 100,000 in the decade 2020 -2030 compared to the period 2005-2015. 3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to the global gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030.

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Thank you!

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Part - 6 Environment & Ecology

A. What is Biodiversity? B. Levels of Biodiversity a. Genetic b. Species c. Ecosystem/Community C. Services provided by Biodiversity D. Causes of Loss of Biodiversity E. Hotspots of Biodiversity F. Biodiversity Conservation

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L. IUCN Red List a. List of Threatened Species (CR, EN & VU) b. List of Near Threatened Species c. List of Least Concerned Species M. Conservation Efforts a. International b. National

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Biodiversity

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● Biodiversity is our living wealth. ● Biodiversity as we have today is the result of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. ● Before the advent of humans, our earth supported more biodiversity than in any other period. ● Since, the emergence of humans, however, biodiversity has begun a rapid decline, with one species after another bearing the brunt of extinction due to overuse.

● Biodiversity is a system in constant evolution, from a view point of species, as well as from view point of an individual organism. ● It describes the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are an integral part. ● It also includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. ● In simple terms, biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region.

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● It refers to the varieties of plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form. ● Biodiversity is not found evenly on the earth. ● It is consistently richer in the tropics. ● As one approaches the polar regions, one finds larger and larger populations of fewer and fewer species.

3 Level 3

Level 2 Ecosystem Diversity Species 2 Diversity Level 1

1 Genetic Diversity

Rat Rabbit Fish Crab (Species 1) (Species 2) (Species 1) (Species 2)

R R C R R F C 1 1 2 F1 2 2 2 1 R F C R 3 3 3 3

Level 1 Diversity Website - https://upscpdf.com Level 2 Diversity findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Genetic Diversity

● Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities in their physical characteristics are called species. ● Genetic diversity defines the variation in genes within a particular species. ● It describes the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. ● This genetic diversity is essential for healthy breeding of population of species.

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● Genetic diversity allows adaptability of the species to change environments. ● If a species has more genetic variation, it can adapt better to the changed environmental conditions ● The genetic diversity gives us parakeets, beautiful butterflies, roses, or coral in myriad colors, shapes, and sizes.

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● Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a geographical area. ● It refers to the variety of living organisms on earth. ● As the species differ from one another with regard to their genetic makeup. ● Species diversity is the ratio of one species population overa total number of organisms across all species in the given biome. ● 'Zero' represents infinite diversity, and 'one' represents that only one species is present.

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● Species diversity is not evenly distributed across the globe. ● The overall richness of species is concentrated in equatorial regions and tends to decrease as one moves from equatorial to polar regions. ● In addition, biodiversity in land ecosystems generally decreases with increasing altitude. ● In marine ecosystems, species richness tends to be much higher in continental shelves. ● Areas rich in species diversity are called hotspots of diversity.

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● The diversity of species can be measured through its richness, abundance and types.

Species Species Taxonomic/ Phylogenetic Richness Abundance Diversity The number of The relative The genetic various numbers among relationships species in a species between different defined area groups of species

● It refers to different types of habitats. ● A habitat is the cumulative factor of the climate, vegetation, and geography of a region. ● The broad differences between ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats and ecological processes occurring within each ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem diversity. ● For instance, tropical south India with rich species diversity will have altogether different structure compared to the desert ecosystem which has far less number of plant and animal species.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The ‘boundaries’ of communities (associations of species) and ecosystems are not very rigidly defined. ● Thus, the demarcation of ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex. ● India has very diverse terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems ranging from the ice-capped Himalayas to deserts, from arid scrub to grassland to wetlands and tropical rainforests, from coral reefs to the deep sea. ● The most diversity-rich are western-ghats and the north-eastern region. ● A very large number of species found in these ecosystems are endemic or found in these areas only in India.

1. Ecosystem Services: ● Protection of water resources, Soils formation, Nutrient storage and recycling. ● Pollution breakdown and absorption. ● Contribution to climate stability. ● Maintenance of ecosystems ● Recovery from unpredictable events.

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2. Biological services: ● Food, Medicinal resources, and pharmaceutical drugs. ● Wood products, Ornamental plants, etc. ● Diversity in genes, species, and ecosystems etc.

3. Social services: ● Research, education, and monitoring. ● Recreation and tourism. ● Cultural values (Sacred Groves etc.)

● Loss of Biodiversity occurs when either a particular species is destroyed or the habitat essential for the survival of a species is damaged. The latter is more common as habitat destruction is inevitable fallout of the development process. ● The extinction of species takes place when they are exploited for economic gain (like poaching for skin, Tusk, etc.) or hunted as a sport (Eg. Blackbuck, etc.) or for food.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Extinction of species may also occur due to environment-related reasons like ecological substitutions, biological factors, and pathological causes which can be caused either by nature or man. ● Extinction indicates the end of a species which is inevitable when the capacity to breed and recovery is lost i.e when they are no longer able to survive in changing the environment or against a superior competitor, finally marked by the death of the last individual of that species.

● Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed across the geographical regions of the earth. Certain regions of the world are very rich in biodiversity. ● These areas are called “mega diversity zones”. These are also Known as “hotspots”. ● For example, India accounts for only 2.4 % of the land area of the world but it contributes approximately 8% species to the global diversity due to the existence of such pockets. ● In Madagascar, about 85 % of the plants and animals are found which nowhere else in the world.

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Criteria of Hotspots: ● Norman Myers, a British Ecologist, developed the concept of hot spots in 1988 to designate priority areas for in situ conservation. ● According to him, the hot spots are the richest and the most threatened reservoirs of biodiversity on the earth. ● The criteria for determining a hot spot are the following: 1. The area should support >1500 vascular plants as endemic species, and 2. It must have lost over 70 % of the original habitat. ● There are currently 36 recognized biodiversity hotspots.

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● Four hotspots are found in India namely 1. the Eastern Himalayas, 2. the Western Ghats, 3. the Indo-Burma region and 4. the Sundaland (Includes Nicobar group of Islands). ● There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region, they possess a large number of the world’s species diversity. ● They are called mega diversity centres. ● There are 17 such countries in which these centres are located. ● India is one of these mega diversity centers.

● Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains. ● Conservation of biodiversity is also important due to the following ○ prevent the loss of genetic diversity of a species, ○ save a species from becoming extinct, and ○ protect ecosystems damage and degradation.

Conserving biodiversity outside The process of conserving the the areas where they naturally animals and plants in their natural occur is known as ex-situ habitats is known as in-situ conservation. conservation.

For example, botanical gardens, The established natural habitats zoo, gene banks, seed bank, are National parks, Sanctuaries, tissue culture and Biosphere reserves and Reserved cryopreservation, etc. forests, Protected forests, Nature reserves, etc.

● Low priority accorded for conservation of living natural resources. ● Exploitation of living natural resources for monetary gain. ● Values and knowledge about the species and ecosystem inadequately known and such knowledge systems are not conserved. ● Unplanned urbanization and uncontrolled industrialization leads to destruction of habitats.

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Protected Area Network

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Protected Areas

● According to IUCN, a protected area is a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. ● Helping countries and communities designate and manage systems of protected areas on land and in the oceans, is one of IUCN’s main areas of expertise.

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● Protected areas such as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, community conserved areas, nature reserves and so on – are a mainstay of biodiversity conservation, while also contributing to people’s livelihoods, particularly at the local level. ● Protected Area systems are both ○ ENDS (protected areas directly conserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems and ecosystem processes) and ○ MEANS (to enable many other thematic conservation objectives through in situ implementation, governance and equitable sharing).

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● Protected areas are at the core of efforts towards conserving nature and the services it provides us – food, clean water supply, medicines and protection from the impacts of natural disasters. ● Effectively managed systems of protected areas have been recognized as critical instruments in achieving the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

● The Global Protected Areas Programme implements the IUCN Programme for 2017-2020 across all programmatic elements. ● The priorities of the GPAP will help deliver IUCN’s 2017-2020 Global Programme. ● Within the three programmatic elements of IUCN’s new quadrennial programme, GPAP has three priority areas as outlined below. 1. Valuing and conserving biodiversity. 2. Governing nature’s use and sharing its benefits equitably. 3. Deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges.

● National parks and sanctuaries are areas of significant ecological, floral, faunal or natural significance. ● They are notified by the State Governments and protected by the Forest Departments. ● They are protected under the provisions of the following legislation ○ Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and its amendments, ○ Forest (Protection) Act of 1980, ○ Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and ○ the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Hunting of wild animals, encroachment and/or destruction of habitat, construction of tourist lodges and other such activities are prohibited in protected areas. ● A National park is a protected area which is reserved for the conservation of only animals, where no human interference in any form of harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products and private ownership rights is allowed. ● While a wildlife sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the conservation of only animal and human activities like harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products and private ownership rights are allowed as long as they do not interfere with the well-being of animals.

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● While most of the provisions are common for sanctuaries and national parks, there are four key differences: 1. All rights of people within a national park have to be settled, while in a sanctuary certain rights can be allowed, 2. Livestock grazing is prohibited in a national park but can be allowed in a regulated manner in sanctuaries, 3. A sanctuary can be upgraded to a national park but a national park cannot be downgraded as a sanctuary, and 4. Boundaries of sanctuaries are not well defined and controlled biotic interference is permitted, while the boundaries of a national park are well defined and no biotic interference is permitted.

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List of National Parks

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Campbell Bay National Park 2. Galathea National Park 3. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park (Wandur National Park) Andaman & 4. Middle Button Island National Park Nicobar 5. Mount Harriet National Park Islands 6. North Button Island National Park 7. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park 8. Saddle Peak National Park 9. South Button Island National Park

1. Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh 2. Mouling National Park

1. Dibru-Saikhowa National Park 2. Kaziranga National Park Assam 3. Manas National Park 4. Nameri National Park 5. Orang National Park

1. Indravati National Park Chhattisgarh 2. Kanger Ghati National Park (Kanger Valley) 3. Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) National Park

Goa 1. Bhagwan Mahavir (Mollem) National Park

1. Vansda National Park Gujarat 2. Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar 3. Gir National Park 4. Gulf of Kachchh Marine National Park

1. Great Himalayan National Park 2. Pin Valley National Park Himachal Pradesh 3. Inderkilla National Park 4. Khirganga National Park 5. Simbalbara National Park

1. Dachigam National Park Jammu and Kashmir 2. Hemis National Park 3. Kishtwar National Park 4. Salim Ali National Park

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1. Betla National Park Jharkhand 2. Dimna National Park 3. Hazaribagh National Park

1. Eravikulam National Park 2. Mathikettan Shola National Park 3. Periyar National Park Kerala 4. Silent Valley National Park 5. Anamudi Shola National Park 6. Pampadum Shola National Park

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Anshi National Park 2. Rajiv Gandhi National Park Karnataka 3. Bandipur National Park 4. Bannerghatta National Park 5. Kudremukh National Park

1. Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur 2. Sirohi National Park

1. Balphakram National Park Meghalaya 2. Nokrek National Park

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1. Bandhavgarh National Park 2. Mandla Plant Fossil National Park 3. Kanha National Park 4. Madhav National Park Madhya Pradesh 5. Panna National Park 6. Pench National Park 7. Sanjay National Park 8. Satpura National Park 9. Van Vihar National Park

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Chandoli National Park 2. Gugamal National Park 3. Navegaon National Park Maharashtra 4. Pench National Park 5. Sanjay Gandhi (Borivali) National Park 6. Tadoba National Park

1. Murlen National Park Mizoram 2. Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Park

Nagaland 1. Ntangki National Park

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1. Bhitarkanika National Park Orissa 2. Nandankanan National Park 3. Simlipal National Park

Punjab 1. Harike Wetland

1. Darrah National Park 2. Desert National Park Rajasthan 3. Keoladeo National Park 4. Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary 5. Ranthambore National Park 6. Sariska National Park

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Sikkim 1. Khangchendzonga National Park

1. Mudumalai National Park 2. Mukurthi National Park Tamil Nadu 3. Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) National Park 4. Guindy National Park 5. Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park

Tripura 1. Bison (Rajbari) National Park 2. Clouded Leopard National Park

Uttar Pradesh 1. Dudhwa National Park

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1. Gangotri National Park 2. Govind Pashu Vihar 3. Jim Corbett National Park Uttarakhand 4. Nanda Devi National Park 5. Rajaji National Park 6. Valley of Flowers National Park

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1. Gorumara National Park 2. Buxa National Park 3. Neora Valley National Park West Bengal 4. Singalila National Park 5. Jaldapara National Park 6. Sundarbans National Park

● It is an area owned by the State Government adjacent to National Parks and sanctuaries for protecting the landscape, seascape, and habitat of fauna and flora. ● It is managed through a Conservation Reserve Management Committee. ● State Government may, after having consultations with the local communities, declare any area owned by the Government as a conservation reserve. ● Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve in Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu is the first conservation reserve established in the country.

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● State Govt may notify any community land or private land as a Community Reserve, provided that the members of that community or concerned are agreeable to offer such area for protecting the fauna and flora, as well as their traditions, cultures, and practices. ● The declaration of such an area is aimed at improving the socio-economic conditions of the living in such areas and conserving the Reserve is managed through a Reserve Management Committee. ● No change in the land use pattern shall be made within the Community Reserve except in according with a resolution passed by the management Committee and approval of same by the State Government.

● It aims to protect and conserve the natural marine ecosystems in their pristine condition ● According to IUCN, Marine Protected Area (MPA), as "any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlaying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment". ● The MPAs in the marine environment, in India, are primarily classified into the following three categories:

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1. Category-I: This covers National Parks and Sanctuaries and having entire areas in intertidal/subtidal or mangroves, coral reefs, creeks, seagrass beds, algal beds, estuaries, lagoons. 2. Category-II: This includes Islands which have major parts in the marine ecosystem and some part in the terrestrial ecosystem. 3. Category-IIIA: This includes sandy beaches beyond the intertidal line but occasionally interacting with the seawater. Category-IIIB: This includes evergreen or semi-evergreen forests of Islands.

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● A traditional strategy for the protection of biodiversity has been in practice in India and some other Asian countries in the form of sacred forests. ● These are small forest patches protected by tribal communities due to religious sanctity. ● These have been free from all disturbances. ● Sacred forests are located in several parts of India i.e. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Meghalaya, etc. ● Similarly, several water bodies have been declared sacred by the people, leading to protection of aquatic flora and fauna. For example, Khecheopalri lake in Sikkim.

● The International Coordinating Council (ICC) of UNESCO, introduced the designation Biosphere Reserve for natural areas in the year 1971. ● Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation by UNESCO for representative parts of natural and cultural landscape's which extends over a large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof. ● BRs are special areas for both people and nature and are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each other’s needs.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Biosphere reserves are sites established by nations and recognized under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. ● Biosphere reserves are nominated by national governments and remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located. ● Their status is internationally recognized. ● A Biosphere Reserve consists of the following three zones 1. Core Zone 2. Buffer Zone 3. Transition Zone

Core Human Zone Settlement is allowed.

Completely Prohibited Research & Area Educational work are allowed.

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1. The core zone It is fully protected and natural area of the Biosphere Reserve least disturbed by human activities. It is legally protected ecosystem in which entry is not allowed except with permission for some special purpose. Destructive sampling for scientific investigations is prohibited. 2. The buffer zone It surrounds the core zone and is managed to accommodate a greater variety of resource use strategies, and research and educational activities.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 3. The transition zone It is the outermost part of the Biosphere Reserve. It is an area of active cooperation between the reserve management and the local people, wherein activities like settlements, cropping, forestry, recreation and other economic activities that are in harmony with the conservation goals.

● The main functions of the biosphere reserves are the following ○ Conservation: Long term conservation of representatives, landscapes and different types of ecosystems, along with all their species and genetic resources. ○ Development: Encourages traditional resource use and promote economic development which is culturally, socially, and ecologically sustainable. ○ Scientific research, monitoring, and education: Support conservation research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national, and global environmental and conservation issues.

● The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme is an Intergovernmental Scientific Programme aiming to set a scientific basis for the improvement of the relationships between people and their environment globally. ● Launched in the early 1970s, it proposes an interdisciplinary research agenda and capacity building that target the ecological, social, and economic dimensions of Biodiversity loss and the reduction of this loss. ● By focusing on sites internationally recognized within the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, the MAB Programme strives to the following:

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. To identify and assess the changes in the biosphere resulting from human and natural activities and the effects of these changes on humans and the environment, in particular in the context of climate change. 2. To study and compare the dynamic interrelationships between natural/near- natural ecosystems and socio-economic processes. 3. To promote the exchange and transfer of knowledge on environmental problems and solutions, and to foster environmental education for sustainable development. 4. To ensure basic human welfare and a livable environment in the context of rapid urbanization and energy consumption as drivers of environmental change.

Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu 2001 List of Sunderban, West Bengal Biosphere 2004 Nanda Devi, Uttarakhand Nokrek, Meghalaya Reserves 2009 Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh Under Similipal, Odisha

UNESCO 2012 Achanakmar-Amarkantak, MP & Chhattisgarh

2013 Great Nicobar, Nicobar Islands

2016 Agasthyamala, Kerala & Tamil Nadu

2018 Khangchendzonga, Sikkim Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF

Faunal Diversity

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Vertebrates

● Vertebrates are animals which has backbones and spinal columns. ● Vertebrates are the most advanced organisms on Earth. ● Although vertebrates represent only a very small percentage of all animals, their size and mobility-often allow them to dominate their environment. ● For example: Reptiles, Fishes, Amphibians, Mammals, etc.

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● Invertebrates are animals which do not have backbones. ● More than 97% of animal species in the world are invertebrates. ● They don't have an internal skeleton made of bone. ● Many invertebrates have a fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeleton, like the jellyfish or worm. ● Others have a hard outer shell like insects and crustaceans. ● Protozoa, Arthropods, Crustaceans, Insects, Arachnids are the other Invertebrates.

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● They have bodies that are divided into segments. ● They have very well-developed internal organs. ● They are found almost anywhere in the world. ● Annelids don't have any limbs. ● For example, Earthworms, Leeches, Roundworms, etc.

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● They have a soft, skin-like organ covered with a hard outside shell. ● Some mollusks live on lands such as the snail and slug. ● Some other mollusks live in water such as the squid, oyster, mussel, clam, and Octopus.

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● They are marine animals. ● Most echinoderms have arms or spines that radiate from the center of their body. ● Common echinoderms include the sea star, sea urchin, sand dollar and sea cucumber.

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● The group of mammals commonly thought of as pouched mammals (like the wallaby and kangaroo). ● They have a placenta but it is very short-lived and does not make as much of a contribution to fetal nourishment. ● They give birth very early and the young animal, essentially a helpless embryo, climbs from the mother's birth canal to the nipples. ● They have short gestation time due to having a yolk-type placenta in the mother marsupial. ● For example, Phalangers, Opossum, Kola, Tasmanian devils etc.

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Floral Diversity

● Herb is defined as a plant whose stem is always green and tender with a height of not more than 1 meter. ● Shrub is defined as a woody perennial plant differing from a perennial herb in its persistent. and woody stem. ● It differs from a tree in its long stature and its habit of branching from the base. Not more than 6 meters in height. ● Tree is defined as a large woody perennial plant having a single well-defined stem with a more or less definite crown.

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● A plant growing on the host plant but not nourished by the host plant. ● They only take the help of the host plant in getting access to light. ● Their roots perform two functions. ● While changing roots establish the plant on the branches of the host plant, aerial roots draw moisture from the air. ● For example, Vanda - Climbers, etc.

● These plants are specialised in trapping insects and are popularly known as insectivorous plants. ● They can broadly be divided into two types based on their method of trapping their prey i.e, Active and Passive types. ● The Active plants can close their leaf traps the moment insects land on them. ● Unlike Active ones, passive plants don’t have a closing mechanism instead, they have a 'pitfall' mechanism. ● They having some kind of jar or pitcher-like structure into which the insect slips and falls which eventually be digested.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Reasons for Hunting: ● These plants are usually associated with lateritic, nutrient-poor soils, or wet and acidic areas that are ill-drained. ● They are acidic because of anaerobic conditions which cause partial decomposition of organic matter releasing acidic compounds into the surroundings. ● Most of the microorganisms which are necessary for complete decomposition of organic matter cannot survive in such poorly oxygenated conditions. ● Hence, insectivorous plants supplement their photosynthetic food production by trapping insects and digesting their nitrogen-rich bodies.

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● The green non-differentiated plants (non-differentiated into organs like root, stem and leaf) possessing chlorophyll is known as Algae. ● The fresh-water algae are generally green or blue-green in colour, whereas the marine ones are red or brown. ● These are autotrophic plants as they can manufacture their own food.

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● Non-green non-differentiated plants characterized by the total absence of chlorophyll are called Fungi. ● Moulds and mushrooms are familiar examples of saprophytic fungi. ● The maximum diversity of fungi is in the Western Ghats followed by the eastern Himalaya and the western Himalaya in India.

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● Non-chlorophyllous micro-organisms which have saprophytic or parasitic existence. ● Many of them are pathogenic. ● Saprophytic bacteria are rather beneficial. ● They are soil borne and many of them are used in industries.

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● A peculiar combination of an alga and a fungus—the two live deriving mutual benefit. ● They are a group of greyish green plants which grow on rocks, thee-trunks, dead wood, etc. ● The algae manufacture carbohydrate food which becomes available to the fungus, and the latter absorbs and retains water and thus keeps the algal cells moist. ● So, it is a nice example of symbiosis.

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● The plant body is differentiated into a small stem and simple leaves but true roots are absent. ● They usually grow in moist places. For example, Liverworts, Mosses, etc. ● They are the second largest group of green plants in India distributed largely in Eastern Himalaya, North-eastern India, Western Himalaya, and the Western Ghats. ● Mosses constitute the major component of Indian flora followed by liverworts and hornworts.

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● They are specialized angiosperms (marine flowering plants) that resemble grass in appearance. ● They produce flowers, have strap-like or oval leaves and a root system. ● They grow in shallow coastal waters with sandy or muddy bottoms and require comparatively calm areas. ● They are the only group of higher plants adapted to live in the salt water. ● Major Seagrass meadows in India occur along the southeast coast of Tamil Nadu and in the lagoons of a few Lakshadweep Islands. Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 10. Seaweeds

● They are (thalloid plants) macroscopic algae which mean they have no differentiation of true tissues such as roots, stems, and leaves. ● Seaweeds have leaf-like appendages. ● It grows in shallow coastal waters wherever sizable substrate is available. Uses of seaweeds: ● Seaweeds are important as food for humans, feed for animals, and fertilizer for plants.

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● Seaweeds are used as a drug for goiter treatment, intestinal and stomach disorders. ● Products like agar-agar and alginates, iodine which are of commercial value, are extracted from seaweeds. ● By the biodegradation of seaweeds methane like economically important gases can be produced in large quantities. ● It is the potential indicators of pollution in coastal ecosystem particularly heavy metal pollution due to their ability to bind and accumulate metals strongly. ● Rotting seaweed is a potent source of hydrogen sulfide, a highly toxic gas.

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Indian Biodiversity

Flora: ● Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dominant species are Sal, Silk-cotton Trees, Giant Bamboos; tall Grassy meadow with Savannahs in Terai. Fauna: ● Includes big mammals of like Elephant, Sambar, Swamp Deer, Cheetal, Hog Deer, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Tiger, Panther, Wild Dogs, Hyena, Black Bear, Sloth Bear, Porcupine, Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros, Wild Buffalo, Gangetic Gharial, Golden Langur.

Flora: ● Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; Rhododendrons; Dwarf Hill Bamboo And Birch forests mixed with Alpine pastures. Fauna: ● Wild Ass, Wild Goats (Thar, Markhor, Ibex) and Sheep; Antelopes, Deers (Hangul, Kashmir Stag and Sikkim Stag, Musk Deer); Marmots and Mouse hares; Golden Eagle, Snow Cocks, Snow Partridges; Snow Leopard, Wolf, Fox, Cats, Black And Brown Bears; birds like Himalayan monal pheasant, western Tragopan, Koklass, Griffon vultures, Lammergeiers, Choughs, Ravens etc.

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Flora: ● Oaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns; coniferous forests of pine, fir, yew and junipers with undergrowth of scrubby rhododendrons and dwarf bamboos; lichens, mosses, orchids, and other epiphytes dominant (due to high humidity and high rainfall). Fauna: ● Red Panda, Hog Badgers, Forest Badgers, Crestless Porcupines, Goat Antelopes.

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● Distributed in areas of Western Ghats and Northeast India. Flora: ● Extensive grasslands interspersed with densely forested Gorges of evergreen vegetation known as Sholas occur in the Nilgiris (an offshoot of Western Ghats). ● The rain forests of the Western Ghats have dense and lofty trees with much species-diversity. ● Mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids, lianas and vines, herbs, shrubs make diverse habitat.

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● Ebony trees are predominant in these forests. A variety of tropical orchids are found. ● Stratification in rain forests is very distinct and three horizontal layers are distinguished. Fauna: ● There are wild Elephants, Gaur and other larger animals. Most species are tree dwellers. ● The most prominent are Hoolock Gibbon (only ape found in India), Golden Langur, Capped Langur or Leaf Monkey, Assam Macaque and The Pig-tailed Macaque, Lion-tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Langur Slender Loris, Bats, Giant Squirrel, Civets, Flying Squirrels, Nilgiri Mongoose, Spiny Mouse, etc.

Flora: ● These are home for tropical rainforests. Fauna: ● Among marine mammals, there are Dugong, False Killer Whale, Dolphin, etc. ● Among birds are rare one is Narcondam Hornbill. ● Nicobar Pigeon and Megapode. ● There are also other birds like White-bellied Sea-eagle, White-breasted Swiftlet and several fruit Pigeons

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Migratory Birds Species

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● Siberian Cranes are snowy white color birds and are winter migrants to India. ● These cranes are omnivorous in nature and breeds in the arctic tundra region of Russia and Siberia. ● Siberian Cranes are critically endangered species of migratory birds. ● They wintered in Bharatpur Keoladeo National Park till 2002.

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● Amur falcons are small raptor species that breed in Siberia and migrate to Southern Africa. ● During migration in large flocks across North East India and over the Arabian sea, they feed around Doyang Lake in Nagaland in the evening or early in the morning during the winter season. ● Amur Falcons was massacred in Nagaland during the migration but because of Conservation India, the raptor is now a protected species and a successful campaign was begun to prevent their killing.

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● Greater Flamingo is the largest among all species of the flamingo family, found in the Indian subcontinent. ● The migratory bird found in parts of Khijadiya Bird Sanctuary, Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Flamingo City and in the Thol Bird Sanctuary of Gujarat during the entire winter season. ● Greater Flamingo and Lesser flamingo are the most beautiful migratory birds found in India at Sewri Mudflats, Chilka Lake, Bhigwan Bird Sanctuary and Jawai Dam Sanctuary, which are the few best places to spot Flamingoes in India.

● Black Winged Stilt is a wader bird with a very long leg and it became a regular migrant to India and is usually found around the wetland. ● The bird has 5 subspecies named as Black-necked stilt, White-backed stilt, Black-winged stilt, and White-headed stilt. ● The breeding habitat of all these species of stilts is shallow lakes, marshes and ponds. ● Pune shallow lakes, Basai Wetlands and Gujarat water ponds are the few places to spot Black Winged Stilt.

● Blue Tailed Bee Eater is a strongly migratory bird found seasonally found in parts of peninsular India. ● This species is a richly coloured and most often seen near large water bodies like lakes. ● Blue Tailed Bee Eater nest under the ground in open flat areas or sandy banks near water bodies and predominantly feed on Honey Bees, Indian bees, wasps and hornet.

● The great white pelican (also known as rosy pelican) is a large bird with a long beak and a large throat pouch distributed in Eastern Europe, Africa and Northwestern parts of India. ● This species migrates to India during winters in large numbers and settles down mainly in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

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IUCN Red List

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● It is published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) located in Morges, Switzerland. ● The IUCN Red List is a critical indicator of the health of the world’s biodiversity. ● Far more than a list of species and their status, it is a powerful tool to inform and catalyze action for biodiversity conservation and policy change, critical to protecting the natural resources we need to survive. ● It provides information about the range, population size, habitat and ecology, use and/or trade, threats, and conservation actions that will help inform necessary conservation decisions.

IUCN Red List data are used for a variety of purposes: ● International agreements use IUCN Red List data to guide decision making and as an indicator of the status of nature. These include but are not limited to agreements such as CITES, the Ramsar Convention, UN Sustainable Development Goals and CBD Aichi Targets. ● World Bank Group Performance Standard PS6 uses The IUCN Red List Index to minimise the risk to biodiversity from large-scale infrastructure and natural resource extraction projects

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Government agencies rely on IUCN Red List data to guide policies such as National Parks regulations ● Zoos use the IUCN Red List Categories to educate the public about species' status. ● Scientists use IUCN Red List data as a primary data source in their analyses and publications.

● The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction. ● It divides species into the following nine categories: 1. Not Evaluated, 2. Data Deficient, 3. Least Concern (LC), 4. Near Threatened (NT),

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5. Vulnerable (VU), 6. Endangered (EN), 7. Critically Endangered (CR), 8. Extinct in the Wild and 9. Extinct.

● Threatened species are those listed under the following three categories such as CR, EN, and VU categories.

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● Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. ● Extinct in the Wild (EW)- A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range.

Criteria for determining Critically Endangered Species: ● Reduction in the population (> 90% over the last 10 years). ● Population size (a number less than 50 mature individuals). ● Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild in at least 50% in their 10 years. ● Therefore, it is considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

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Criteria for Endangered: ● Reduction in population size (70% over the last 10 years). ● Population size estimated to be number fewer than 250 mature individuals. ● Quantitative analysis shows that the probability of extinction in wild in at least 20% within 20 years. ● Therefore, it is considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

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Criteria for Vulnerable: ● Reduction in the population (> 50% over the last 10 years). ● Population size estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. ● Probability of extinction in wild is at least 10% within 100 years. ● It is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

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List of Threatened Species

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1. Critically Endangered (CR)

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1. Pygmy Hog 2. Andaman White-toothed Shrew & Critically Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny Shrew 3. Kondana Rat Endangered 4. Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat Mammals 5. Namdapha Flying Squirrel 6. Malabar Civet 7. Sumatran Rhinoceros

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● It is the world's smallest wild pig, with adults weighing only 8 kgs. ● This species constructs the nest throughout the year. ● The grasslands where the pygmy hog resides are crucial for the survival of other endangered species such as Indian Rhinoceros, Swamp Deer, Wild Buffalo, Hispid Hare, Bengal Florican and Swamp Francolin. ● In 1996, a captive-breeding programme of the species was initiated in Assam, and some hogs were reintroduced in Sonai Rupai area in 2009.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Habitat: Relatively undisturbed tall ‘Terai' grasslands. ● Distribution: Formerly, the species was more widely distributed along the southern Himalayan foothills but now is restricted to only a single remnant population in Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and its buffer reserves. ● Pygmy hog-sucking Louse (Haematopinus Oliveri), a parasite that feeds only on Pygmy Hogs will also fall in the same risk category of critically endangered as its survival is linked to that of the host species. ● Threats: The main threats are loss and degradation of grasslands, dry-season burning, livestock grazing and afforestation of grasslands. Hunting is also a threat to remnant populations.

● They are Endemic to India. ● They are usually active by twilight or in the night and have specialized habitat requirements. ● Habitat: Leaf litter and rock crevices. ● Distribution: The Andaman White-toothed Shrew is found on Mount Harriet in the South Andaman Islands. ● The Jenkin's Andaman Spiny Shrew is found on Wright Myo and Mount Harriet in the South Andaman Islands.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The Nicobar White-tailed Shrew (Crocidura Nicobarica) is found in the southern tip of Greater Nicobar Island and is also recorded in the area extending from the Campbell Bay National Park to the Galathea River in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. ● Threats: Habitat loss due to selective logging, natural disasters such as the tsunami and drastic weather changes.

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● It is a nocturnal burrowing rodent that is found only in India. It is sometimes known to build nests. ● Habitat: Tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests and tropical scrub. ● Distribution: Known only from the small Sinhagarh Plateau (about one square kilometer) near Pune in Maharashtra. ● Threats: Major threats are habitat loss, overgrazing of vegetation and disturbance from tourism and recreational activities.

● It is a medium-sized, nocturnal and burrowing rodent. ● It is also endemic to India. ● Habitat: Tropical dry deciduous shrubland forest, seen in rocky areas. ● Distribution: Known only from Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. ● Threats: Major threats are habitat loss, conversion of forests and fuel wood collection. .

● It is a unique (the only one in its genus) flying squirrel that is restricted to a single valley in the Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh. ● Flying squirrels are mammals too but they don’t really fly. ● They jump from high in a tree glide through the air like a kite. ● Habitat: Tropical forest. ● Threats: Hunted for food.

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● It is considered to be one of the world's rarest mammals. ● It is endemic to India and was first reported from Travancore, Kerala. ● Habitat: Wooded plains and hill slopes of evergreen rainforests. ● Distribution: Western Ghats. ● Threats: Deforestation and commercial plantations are major threats.

● It is the smallest and most endangered of the five rhinoceros species. ● It is now thought to be regionally extinct in India, though it once occurred in the foothills of the Himalayas and north-east India. ● Even Javan Rhinoceros is also believed to be extinct in India and only a small number survive in Java and Vietnam.

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1. Jerdon’s Courser 2. White-bellied Heron 3. Bengal Florican Critically 4. Himalayan Quail Endangered 5. Pink-headed Duck Birds 6. Sociable Lapwing 7. Spoon Billed Sandpiper 8. Siberian Crane 9. Vultures 10. Great Indian Bustard

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● It is a flagship species for the extremely threatened scrub jungle. ● The species was considered to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1986 and the area of rediscovery was subsequently declared as the Sri Lankamalleswara Wildlife Sanctuary. ● Distribution: Jerdon's Courser is endemic to Andhra Pradesh. ● Threats: Clearing of scrub jungle, creation of new pastures, growing of dry land crops, plantations of exotic trees, quarrying and the construction of the Telugu-Ganga Canal. ● Illegal trapping of birds is also a threat.

● Extremely rare bird found in five or six sites in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, one or two sites in Bhutan, and a few in Myanmar. ● Habitat: Rivers with sand or gravel bars or inland lakes. ● Distribution: Bhutan and north-east India to the hills of Bangladesh and north Myanmar. ● Threats: Loss and degradation of lowland forests and wetlands through direct exploitation and disturbance by humans.

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● A rare bustard species that is very well known for its mating dance. ● Habitat: Grasslands occasionally interspersed with scrublands. ● Distribution: Native to only 3 countries in the world - Cambodia, India, and Nepal. ● In India, it occurs in 3 states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. ● Threats: Ongoing conversion of the bird’s grassland habitat for various purposes including agriculture is mainly responsible for its population decline.

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● It is presumed to be extinct since no reliable records of sightings of this species exist after 1876. ● Possible sighting of this species was reported in Nainital in 2003. ● The Himalayan Quail is native to India, found only in the mountains of Uttarakhand in north-west Himalayas. ● Habitat: Tall grass and scrub on steep hillsides. ● Distribution: Western Himalayas. ● Threats: Indiscriminate hunting during the colonial period along with habitat modification.

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● It has not been conclusively recorded in India since 1949. ● Males have a deep pink head and neck from which the bird derives its name. ● Habitat: Overgrown still-water pools, marshes, and swamps in lowland forests and tall grasslands. ● Distribution: Recorded in India, Bangladesh and Myanmar. Maximum records are from north-east India. ● Threats: Wetland degradation and loss of habitat, along with hunting are the main causes of its decline.

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● It is a winter migrant to India. This species has suffered a sudden and rapid population decline due to which it is listed as critically endangered ● Habitat: Fallow fields and scrub desert ● Distribution: Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Egypt, India, Pakistan and Oman. In India, distribution is restricted to the north and north-west of the country. ● Threats: Conversion of habitat to arable land, illegal hunting and proximity to human settlements.

● It requires highly specialized breeding habitat, a constraint that has always kept its population scarce. ● India is home to some of the last existing wintering grounds of this species. ● Habitat: Coastal areas with sparse vegetation. No breeding records further inland than 7 km from the seashore. ● Distribution: Has been recorded in West Bengal, Orissa, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. ● Threats: Habitat degradation and land reclamation. Human disturbance also leads to a high incidence of nest desertion.

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● It is a large, strikingly majestic migratory bird that breeds and winters in wetlands. ● It is known to visit Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan during winter. However, the last documented sighting of the bird was in 2002. ● Habitat: Wetland areas. ● Located in: Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan. ● Threats: Pesticide pollution, wetland drainage, development of prime habitat into agricultural fields, and to some extent, hunting.

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● Out of nine species of vultures, the population of three species has declined so abruptly that all three are considered Critically Endangered such as ○ White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), ○ Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris) and

○ Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus) ● The Red-headed Vulture has also suffered a rapid decline in the recent past.

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● Habitat: Forests, villages, etc. ● Distribution: Across India. ● Threats: ○ A major threat to vultures is the painkiller diclofenac used by veterinarians to treat cattle. ○ When vultures consume these carcasses, diclofenac enters their system, but they are unable to metabolize it. ○ Accumulation of diclofenac results in gout-like symptoms such as neck-drooping, ultimately leading to death.

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● Vultures keep the environment clean by scavenging on animal carcasses. ● The decline in vulture populations has associated with the following two ○ disease risks, including increased risk of spread of rabies and anthrax, ○ besides adversely impacting the observance of last rites by the Parsis in the Towers of Silence.

● It is a bustard found in India and the adjoining regions of Pakistan. ● It has an ostrich-like appearance, this bird is among the heaviest of the flying birds. ● Habitat: Large expanses of dry grassland and scrub. ● Distribution: They are confined mostly to the arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra. ● Threats: Today very few birds survive and the species is on the brink of extinction, being critically endangered by hunting and loss of its habitat

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1. Gharial Critically 2. Hawksbill Turtle 3. Four-toed River Terrapin or Endangered River Terrapin Reptiles 4. Red-crowned Roofed Turtle or the Bengal Roof Turtle

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● It is one of the most uniquely evolved crocodilians in the world, a specialized, river-dwelling, fish eater. ● Now extinct in Myanmar, Pakistan, Bhutan and Bangladesh. ● Habitat: Clean rivers with sand banks. ● Distribution: Only viable population in the National Chambal Sanctuary, spread across three states of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh in India. ● Small non-breeding populations exist in Son, Gandak, Hooghly and Ghagra rivers.

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● Threats: The combined effects of dams, barrages, artificial embankments, change in river course, pollution, sand-mining, riparian agriculture and ingress of domestic and feral livestock caused irreversible loss of riverine habitat and consequently of the gharial.

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● It is a heavily exploited species. The species is migratory in nature and nesting occurs in about 70 countries across the world. ● Maturation is slow and is estimated between 25-40 years. ● Habitat: Nesting occurs on insular, sandy beaches. ● Distribution: In India, they are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the coast of Tamil Nadu and Orissa. ● Threats: Turtle shell trade, egg collection, slaughter for meat, oil pollution and destruction of nesting and foraging habitats.

● It is an omnivorous Turtle which makes them an essential part of the efficient clean-up systems of aquatic habitats. ● Habitat: Freshwater rivers and lakes. ● Distribution: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia and Malaysia. ● Threats: Use of flesh for medicinal purposes, demand for eggs, which are considered a delicacy.

● It is mainly restricted to the Ganga basin. ● Males have a bright red coloration during the breeding season. ● Habitat: Deep, flowing rivers but with terrestrial nest sites. ● Distribution: Found in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. ● In India, it resides basically in the watershed of the Ganga.

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1. Pondicherry Shark 2. Ganges Shark Critically 3. Knife-tooth Sawfish Endangered 4. Large-tooth Sawfish Fishes 5. Long-comb Sawfish or Narrow-snout Sawfish

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● It is a marine fish that occurs or occurred inshore on continental and insular shelves. ● This is a very rare and little-known species. ● Habitat & Distribution: The Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Oman to Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, China, Malaysia and Indonesia. ● In scattered localities spanning India to New Guinea. ● Also been recorded at the mouth of the Hooghly river.

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● It is a uniquely adapted fish-eating shark that occurs in the turbid waters of the Ganga river and the Bay of Bengal. ● The small eyes suggest that it is adapted to living in turbid water, while the slender teeth of the species suggest that it is primarily a fish-eater. ● Habitat & Distribution: It occurs in India and possibly in Pakistan. ● The Ganga river system and Hooghly river mouth are its known habitats.

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● Threats: Major fisheries targeting sharks. ● Other probable threats include overfishing, pollution, increasing river use and construction of dams and barrages. ● A few jaws of the species were found to have been traded in the international market during recent years, which testifies that the species is not extinct.

● It has a long narrow snout with blade-like teeth and a shark-like body. ● Habitat: It spends most of its time near the bottom of the sea. ● It is found in shallow coastal waters and estuaries. ● Distribution: Widespread in the western part of the Indo-Pacific region, including the Red Sea. ● Threats: The principal threat to all sawfish are fisheries (targeted, bycatch, commercial and subsistence).

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● Their long tooth-studded saw makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of netgear including primitive fishing contraptions. ● When sawfish are caught in bycatch, they often end up being traded because of the very high value of their products (meat is high quality and fins and saws extremely valuable in international trade).

● They are heavy-bodied sawfish with a short but massive saw and grow up to 3 meters in length. ● It is seen seasonally and very occasionally caught along with the Bull Sharks and the Green Sawfish. ● Habitat & Distribution: Western part of the Indo-Pacific (East Africa to New Guinea, Philippines and Vietnam to Australia). ● In India, it is known to enter the Mahanadi river, up to 64 km inland, and also is very common in the estuaries of the Ganga and Brahmaputra.

● It grows up to more than 4 meters in length and is heavily exploited by humans. ● Habitat: This species was reported as frequently found in shallow water. It inhabits muddy bottoms and also enters estuaries. ● Its presence has been recorded in inshore marine waters, and it goes down to depths of at least 40 m.

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● Distribution: Indo-Pacific region including Australia, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia and Malaysia. ● Threats: This species has been damaged intensively both as a target species and as incidental bycatch in commercial, sport or shark-control net fisheries, as well as for aquarium display. ● As a result, it has become severely depleted in recent decades, and now appears to have been extirpated from many parts of its range.

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1. Anamalai Flying Frog 2. Gundia Indian Frog Critically 3. Kerala Indian Frog Endangered 4. Kottigehara Bubble-nest Frog Amphibians 5. Sacred grove Bush Frog 6. Tiger toad

● It is confined to rainforests of southwestern Ghats and lives at elevations greater than 1,000 m above mean sea level. ● Distribution: It is found in Andiparai Shola, Puthuthottam and the Anamalai Hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. ● Threats: Conversion of forest to cultivated land (including timber and non-timber plantations) outside the Indira Gandhi National Park and extraction of wood and timber by local people are the major threats to this species.

● It is found at an elevation of around 200 m above mean sea level. ● Distribution: Known only to exist in Gundia, Kempu Holey in the Western Ghats region of Karnataka, South India. ● Threats: Habitat loss caused due to intensive livestock production, harvesting of wood and timber by local people, road construction, and the development of tourism facilities.

● It is found at elevations of around 500 m above mean sea level. ● Due to the presence of prominent warts and tubercles of various sizes and glandular folds on its dorsal surface, it is commonly also known as the toad-skinned frog. ● Distribution: Anamalai Hills of Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the Western Ghats of south India. ● Threats: Habitat loss due to subsistence wood collection is the major threat to this species.

● It is only known to occur in Kottigehara, Kadur in the Western Ghats of Karnataka state. ● Its distribution is restricted to an elevation around 1000 m above mean sea level. ● Distribution: This species is known to occur in Kottigehara, Kadur in the Hassan district and Bhadra in Chikmagalur district, Karnataka, India. ● Threats: Habitat loss as a result of conversion to agriculture, including paddy fields, and cash crops such as coconut and cashew.

● It is known to occur only in the Madhya Pradesh. ● Distribution: Known only to occur in Kapildhara Falls, Amarkantak, Jabalpur District, Madhya Pradesh. ● Threats: Habitat loss due to the harvesting of wood for subsistence purposes, infrastructure development for tourism, and occurrence of fires are the major threats to this species.

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● It was discovered in 2009 from Amboli in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra state. ● It is found at an altitude of around 720 m above mean sea level. ● Distribution: Found only in Amboli, Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra. ● Threats: Loss of forest and habitat fragmentation.

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1. Rameshwaram Ornamental or Critically Rameshwaram Parachute Spider Endangered 2. Gooty Tarantula, Metallic Tarantula or Peacock tarantula Spiders

● It was recently described in 2004 and is only found in India. ● It can give a nasty bite which usually is not fatal. ● The species is semi-social which means they live partly in groups. ● Habitat: Arboreal and tend to live in hiding. ● Distribution: Endemic to India. Spread along the coastal savannah, tropical lowland rain forests, and montane forests up to an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea level.

● Steel blue in colour with patches of intense orange-yellow, black and white. ● It was first found in Gooty (Ooty/Udagamandalam) in south India in a burn pile during railway construction. ● it has been in great demand in the illegal pet trade. ● Habitat: Wooded mountain area. ● Distribution: Endemic to South India

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2. Endangered (EN)

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Asiatic Lion 2. Dhole (Asiatic wild Dhole or Indian Wild Dog) 3. Sangai Deer (Eld’s Deer) 4. Golden Langur Endangered 5. Hog deer 6. Himalayan Musk deer Mammals 7. Hispid Hare 8. Lion-tailed Macaque 9. Nilgiri Tahr 10. Red Panda 11. Indian Pangolin 12. Hoolock Gibbon

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● The only place in the wild where this species is found is in the Gir Forest in Kathiawar region of Gujarat, India. ● The Asiatic lion is one of the five major big cats found in India. ● The others being the Bengal tiger, the Indian leopard, the snow leopard and leopard. ● They prey mainly on cattle, deer, pig and other herbivore by making a short, high speed charge upto 80 km per hour. ● The excessive hunting, habitat destruction, decline in natural prey and human interference have reduced their number.

● These endangered Indian dogs are very social animals. They tend to live in small groups, which are called clans. ● Distribution: Dhole population is present in around a dozen countries, including Bhutan, southern China, India, Malaysia, Sumatra, Tibet, and throughout Southeast Asia. ● Habitat: They are highly adaptable to their environment. ● They generally live in deciduous and evergreen forests, as well as alpine steppes.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● They are most often spotted in open spaces in the jungle, such as on trails, roads, and along rivers. But they don’t live in plains or deserts. ● Threats: As their prey populations dwindle, wild Indian dogs are forced to look for other sources of food. ● This puts them in direct conflict with farmers, who actively try to kill the offenders (despite the fact that it has been illegal to kill dholes since the 1970s). ● One common method of dealing with wild dogs is to poison the carcasses of dead animals, so that scavenging dholes die, too. ● The wild dogs of Asia have also been infected and affected by diseases introduced through domesticated animals, particularly cats and dogs. Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 3. Sangai deer (or Eld’s Deer or Thamin or Brow-antlered deer)

● It is an endemic and rare subspecies of brow-antlered deer found only in Manipur. It is also the state animal of Manipur. ● Habitats: Its habitat is restricted to the marshy wetland of Keibul Lamjao on Loktak Lake which is locally called ‘Phumdi’ (floating mass of entangled vegetation formed by the accumulation of organic debris and biomass with soil). ● While walking on the floating biomass, Sangai often balances itself which looks as if it is dancing on the green grassland and therefore popularly known as ‘Dancing deer’ of Manipur.

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● Distribution: Found in the small region of western Assam and in the neighboring foothills of the Black Mountains of Bhutan. 5. Hog Deer ● The hog deer runs through the forests with its head hung low (hog-like manner) so that it duck under obstacles instead of leaping over them as most other deer do. ● Habitat & Distribution: northern India.

● Habitat & Distribution: Kashmir, Kumaon and Sikkim. ● Musk deer lacks antlers but they possess a pair of enlarged canines that grow continuously. ● Deer musk is a substance with a persistent odor obtained from a gland of the male musk deer (Only males produce the musk). ● The substance has been used as a perfume fixative, incense material, and medicine.

● Habitat & Distribution: Southern foothills of the central Himalayas. ● Threat: Habitat of Hispid hares is highly fragmented due to increasing agriculture, flood control, and developmental activities.

● Endemic to the Western Ghats. ● Avoids human presence and they do not live, feed or travel, through plantations. ● Habitat: Lion-tailed macaques live in southwest India in pockets of evergreen forests, called sholas, in the Western Ghats range. ● Today, they only live in mountain forests in the three Indian states: Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. ● Captive breeding - Arignar Anna Zoological park, Chennai and in Mysore Zoo.

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● It is the largest of the three tahr species, inhabit montane grasslands of western ghats. ● It is the state animal of Tamil Nadu. ● Sholas forest (stunted evergreen forests) are typically avoided by tahr. ● Both male and female have curved horns, but they are larger in the males. ● Adult males develop a light grey area on their backs and thus, they are called as "saddlebacks".

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● It is a mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China. ● The population continues to decline due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and inbreeding depression ● It is arboreal (lives in trees), feeds mainly on bamboo but also eats eggs, birds, and insects. ● It is a solitary animal, active from dusk to dawn, and is largely sedentary during the day. ● It is also called the red bear-cat, the lesser panda and the red cat-bear.

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● It has large, overlapping scales on the body which act as armour. ● The massive, scaled armour of this animal which covers its upper face and its whole body, does not cover the belly and inner side of the legs. ● It can also curl itself into a ball as self-defense against predators such as the tiger. ● The colour of its scales varies depending on the earth’s colour in its surroundings. ● It is an insectivore that feeds on ants and termites,

● It is the only ape to be found in India. ● It is the most accomplished acrobat of all the apes. ● Habitat: It is found in Bangladesh and in some parts of China and Myanmar. ● It lives in dense forests of northeastern India. ● Its range extends into seven states covering Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura

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1. Forest Owlet Endangered 2. Greater Adjutant Stork Birds 3. Blue Robin 4. Narcondam Hornbill

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● It had been lost for more than a century. ● After 113 long years, the owlet was rediscovered in 1997 and reappeared on the list of Indian birds. ● Habitat: Dry deciduous forest. ● Distribution: South Madhya Pradesh, in North-west Maharashtra and North-central Maharashtra ● Threats: Logging operations, burning and cutting of trees damage roosting and nesting trees of the Forest Owlet.

● They disperse widely after the breeding season. ● This large stork has a massive wedge-shaped bill, a bare head and a distinctive neck pouch. ● During the day, they soar in thermals along with vultures with whom they share the habit of scavenging. ● They are opportunistic and will sometimes prey on vertebrates. ● Habitat & distribution: It was previously found widely across southern Asia, mainly in India but extending east to Borneo.

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● The greater adjutant is now restricted to a much smaller range with only three breeding populations; two in India, with the largest colony in Assam, some 400 around Bhagalpur; and another breeding population in Cambodia. ● In the 19th century, they were especially common in the city of Calcutta, where they were referred to as the "Calcutta adjutant". ● Known locally as hargila (derived from the Bengali words for "bone-swallower") and considered to be unclean birds, they were largely left undisturbed but sometimes hunted for the use of their meat in folk medicine. ● Valued as scavengers, they were once depicted in the logo of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation.

● They are small birds found on the forest floor and undergrowth of dense forest patches sheltered in the valleys of montane grassland, a restricted and threatened habitat. ● Habitat: Both are endemic to the High Altitude Shola forests of the higher hills of southern India, mainly north of the Palghat Gap. ● Distribution: Populations are also found in the Nilgiris, the Baba Budan hills and the Brahmagiri.

● It is endemic to the Indian island of Narcondam in the Andamans. ● Males and females have a distinct plumage. ● The Narcondam hornbill has the smallest home range out of all the species of Asian hornbills ● Habitat: Forest, Shrublands.

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Endangered 1. Gangetic Dolphin Fish

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● The MoEFCC has notified the Ganges River Dolphin as the National Aquatic Animal ● The River Dolphin’s habitat is Ganges- Brahmaputra-Meghna, and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh ● They are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972). ● The Ganges Dolphin is among the four "obligate" freshwater dolphins found in the world. ● The other three are the 'baiji’ found in the Yangtze River (China), the 'bhulan' of the Indus (Pakistan) and the 'boto' of the Amazon River (Latin America). Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF

3. Vulnerable (VU)

● These turtles are solitary, preferring the open ocean. ● They migrate hundreds or even thousands of miles every year and come together as a group only once a year when females return to the beaches where they hatched and lumber onshore, sometimes in the thousands, to nest. ● In the Indian Ocean, the majority of olive ridleys nest in two or three large bundles near Gahirmatha in the Orissa. ● However presently, olive ridleys are considered a rarity in most areas of the Indian Ocean

● It is the largest of the living sea turtles, weighing almost 900 kg. ● Adult leatherback turtles are excellent swimmers. They swim an average of 45-65 km a day. ● Jellyfish is their primary food. The population spikes of leatherback coincide with an abundance of jellyfish, making them Important top-predators in marine environments. ● Habitat: Tropical and subtropical oceans. ● Distribution: Found in tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and into Indian Oceans.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Threats: High sea fishing operations, harvesting of eggs, destruction of nests by wild predators and domesticated species such as cats, dogs and pigs. ● Artificial lighting disorients hatchlings and adults and causes them to migrate inland rather than towards the sea. ● Threats to habitat include construction, mining and plantation of exotics.

● Habitat: They are found only in the tall grasslands and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas. ● National Parks: ○ Kaziranga National Park, ○ Pobitora wildlife sanctuary, ○ Manas National Park.

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● It is a large non-migratory crane found in parts of the Southeast Asia, Indian Subcontinent and Australia. ● It is tallest among the flying birds, standing at a height of up to 1.8 m (5.9 ft) they are conspicuous species of open wetlands. ● They forage (mainly dependent on food for) on marshes and shallow wetlands for roots, tubers, insects, crustaceans and small vertebrate prey. ● Like other cranes, they form long-lasting pair bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays that include loud trumpeting, leaps and dance-like movements.

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List of Near Threatened (NT)

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● It is a large gecko which dwells usually in forests. ● It is largely insectivorous and nocturnal. ● Habitat & Distribution: Endemic to the Western Ghats and found in Sispara pass (Anginda peak, Tamil Nadu), Nilgiris, Kavalai near Cochin. ● Threats: Habitat conversion and modification.

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● Exhibit sexual dimorphism. ● National animal of Pakistan. ● Habitat & Distribution: Mountains of central Asia. ● In India, some parts of Jammu and Kashmir. ● Threat: Hunting (both for meat and for its twisted horns),

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● Habitat: Flat grassland covered expanse known as bets (islands where coarse grasses spring up during the monsoon) i.e, arid grasslands and shrublands are its preferred environments ● Distribution: Little and Greater Rann Of Kutch in Gujarat, Sindh and Balochistan in Pakistan, South Eastern Iran.

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List of Least Concerned (LC)

● It subspecies of Red Deer which is native to India. ● It is the State animal of Jammu & Kashmir. ● Habitat & Distribution: Dense riverine forests, high valleys, and mountains of Kashmir valley and northern Chamba in Himachal Pradesh.

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● It is an antelope species native to the Indian Subcontinent ● Males and females have distinctive coloration. ● Male blackbucks are dark brown, black, and white and have long, twisted horns, while females are fawn-coloured with no horns. ● Habitat & distribution: Blackbucks originally ranged over large tracts of India except in northeastern India. ● Presently, the blackbuck population is confined to areas of Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, with a few small pockets in central India.

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● Threats: The main threats to the species are habitat destruction, overgrazing, poaching, predation, diseases, inbreeding and sanctuary visitors.

● India's largest animals in the Himalayas. ● Omnivores in nature. ● Himalayan Brown Bears exhibit sexual dimorphism. ● Distribution: Nepal, Pakistan, and Northern India.

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Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Distribution: Its natural range spreads from eastern Afghanistan through the Himalayas including Kashmir region of Northern Pakistan, Nepal, India, southern Tibet and Bhutan ● In India, the states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. ● Threats: The population of this species in most of its range is threatened due to poaching and other anthropogenic factors. ● In a recent study, their population responded negatively to human disturbance (Hydro-electric project development) ● The male monal has been under heavy hunting pressure for its crest feather which was used for ornamental hats of Himachal men, until 1982 when legal hunting was banned in the state.

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Conservation Efforts (International)

● CITES is an international agreement between governments. ● It was signed on March 3, 1973, and therefore, World Wildlife Day is celebrated on 3rd March. ● It is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and it’s Secretariat is located in Geneva (Switzerland).

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● CITES is a legally binding instrument on states that are a party to the convention which is obliged to adopt their own domestic legislation to implement its goals. ● Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. ● Therefore, it is an International agreement to regulate worldwide commercial trade in plant species and wild animal. ● It also restricts trade in items made from such plants and animals such as food, medicine, clothing, and souvenirs. ● It classifies animals and plants into three categories, or appendices, based on how threatened they are.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 1. Appendix I: It lists species which are in danger of extinction. This category prohibits commercial trade of these plants and animals except in extraordinary situations for scientific or educational reasons. 2. Appendix II: It consists of species that are not threatened with extinction but that might suffer a serious decline in number if the trade is not restricted. A Permit system is used to regulate their trade. 3. Appendix III: These species are protected in at least one country which is a CITES member state and that has petitioned others for help in controlling international trade in that species.

● TRAFFIC was established in 1976 and has developed into a global network, research-driven and action-oriented, committed to delivering innovative and practical conservation solutions based on the latest information. ● TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, is a joint program of WWF and IUCN. ● TRAFFIC works to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● TRAFFIC has gained its greatest reputation from supporting CITES. ● Since TRAFFIC was created in 1976 it has helped with the evolution of this international wildlife trade treaty. ● TRAFFIC focuses on leveraging resources, expertise and awareness of the latest globally urgent species trade issues such as tiger parts, elephant ivory and rhino horn. ● Large scale commercial trade in commodities like timber and fisheries products are also addressed and linked to work on developing rapid results and policy improvements.

● The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention or CMS) was adopted in Bonn, Germany in 1979 and came into force in 1985. ● Contracting Parties work together to conserve migratory species and their habitats by providing strict protection for endangered migratory species (listed in Appendix I of the Convention). ● This convention involves concluding multilateral Agreements for the conservation and management of migratory species which require or would benefit from international cooperation (listed in Appendix II), and by undertaking cooperative research activities.

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Conservation Efforts (National)

● WPA 1972 consists of six schedule lists which give varying degrees of protection. ● Poaching, smuggling and illegal trade of animals listed Schedule 1 to schedule 4 are prohibited. ● Animals listed in schedule 1 and part II of schedule 2 have absolute protection - offences under these are prescribed the highest penalties. ● Examples of animals listed in schedule 1 are lion-tailed macaque, rhinoceros, great Indian bustard, narcondam hornbill, Nicobar megapode, blackbuck, etc.

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● Examples of animals listed in schedule 2 are rhesus macaque, dhole, Bengal porcupine, king cobra, flying squirrel, Himalayan brown bear. ● Animals listed in schedule 3 and schedule 4 are also protected, but the penalties are lower compared to schedule 1 and part 2 of schedule ● Examples of animals listed in schedule 3 are hyaena, hog deer, nilgai, goral, sponges, barking deer, etc ● Examples of animals listed in schedule 4 are mongooses, vultures, etc.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Animals listed in schedule 5 are called "vermin" which can be hunted. ● Mice, rat, 'common crow” and flying fox (fruit-eating bats) are the list of animals (only 4) in schedule 5. ● Cultivation, collection, extraction, trade, etc. of Plants and its derivatives listed in schedule 6 are prohibited. ● Red Vanda, bite Vanda, kuth, pitcher plant, beddomes cycad and ladies slipper orchid are the list of plants listed in schedule 6.

● The first formal government approach to forestry can be traced to the enactment of the National Forest Policy of 1894. ● It stressed on conserving forests for maintaining environmental stability and meeting basic needs of fringe forest user groups. ● The policy was revised in 1952 and the new policy emphasised on the extension of forests beyond the traditional forest areas. ● This gave impetus to social forestry and agro/farm forestry. ● This policy was the harbinger of the green movement in the country.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● It also proposed that 60% of the land in the hills and 20% in the plains and in all 33% of the total geographical area should be under forest/tree cover. ● The serious depletion of forest resources due to biotic and industrial pressure and other reasons made the policymakers review the situation in the late eighties and evolve a new strategy for conservation of forests. ● The National Forest Policy was once again revised in 1988 which envisaged community involvement in the protection and regeneration of forests. ● It accorded the highest priority to the sustainable management of the forest resource.

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7. Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce and maximising substitution of wood. 8. Creating a massive peoples movement with the involvement of women, for achieving these objectives and to minimize pressure on existing forests.

● Joint Forest Management (JFM) aims to regeneration and conservation of forests. ● It is done through the involvement of village communities in association with the state forest departments. ● It involves a contract specifying the distribution of authority, responsibility and benefits between villages and State Forest Departments with respect to land allocated for Joint Management.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Objectives: ○ To elicit active participation of villagers in (a) creation, (b) management and, (c) protection of plantations. ○ To achieve ecological needs consonant with sustainable productivity of wood and other non-timber forest resources. ○ To wean away from the landowning communities from shifting cultivation by adopting an alternative i. e. Tree Farming. ○ To productively utilize the degraded jhumland thereby checking soil erosion ○ To conserve Biodiversity through people’s action. ○ To create and generate forest-based economy for the villagers.

● India enacted the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 and notified Biological Diversity Rules in 2004 to give effect to the provisions of Convention on Biological Diversity 2002. ● The Act is implemented through the three-tier structure to regulate access to the biological resources, comprising of National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at the local level. ● The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) has been set up in October 2003 in Chennai.

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● As per Section 8(4) of the Act, the NBA consists of a Chairperson, five non-official, and ten ex-officio members to be appointed by the Central Government to represent various Ministries. ● The vision of the NBA is the conservation and sustainable use of India’s rich biodiversity and associated knowledge with people's participation, ensuring the process of benefit sharing for well being of present and future generations. ● The mission of NBA is to ensure effective implementation of Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Biological Diversity Rules 2004 for the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.

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● Project Tiger is an ongoing Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change providing central assistance to the tiger States for tiger conservation in designated tiger reserves. ● The Government of India has taken a pioneering initiative for conserving its national animal, the tiger, by launching the ‘Project Tiger’ in 1973. ● The tiger reserves are constituted on a core/buffer strategy.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The core areas have the legal status of a national park or a sanctuary, whereas the buffer or peripheral areas are a mix of forest and non-forest land, managed as a multiple use area. ● The Project Tiger aims to foster an exclusive tiger agenda in the core areas of tiger reserves, with an inclusive people-oriented agenda in the buffer.

● The National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change constituted under enabling provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, as amended in 2006. ● It aims for strengthening tiger conservation, as per powers and functions assigned to it under the above said Act.

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Objectives ● Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives become legal. ● Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of Tiger Reserves, by providing a basis for MoU with States within our federal structure. ● Providing for oversight by Parliament. ● Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Reserves.

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● The first tiger census conducted in 1972 for counting of the majestic tigers done in every four years by the National Tiger Conservation Authorities (NTCA). ● In 2018, NTCA used an android app named MSTrIPES for the proper location data feeding and filling the record more accurately. ● Another primary focus of the tiger census 2018 is to cover the northeast India that was not included in the previous census because of several reasons. ● Nagaland, Manipur, and Gujarat have been included this time besides the 18 tiger reign states.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● This inclusion will lead to an increase in the number of the tigers as compared to the census 2014. ● 2018 tiger census in India is also more important because we will be having a most accurate count of tigers in the wild as this will be the first time Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Nepal are the part of India’s Tiger census to jointly estimate the number of big cats In the region of shared borders areas. ● The result of the latest Tiger Census was expected to be disclosed in April – May 2019. ● But the result of Tiger census 2018 have been further delayed and yet to be released.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Some important facts from Tiger Census 2014 ● India is the home to almost 70% of the world’s tiger population. ● A total of 2226 tigers were estimated as per 2014 tiger census report. ● Karnataka becomes the state with the most number of tigers in India. ● Total tiger count in Karnataka was 408 as per the report.

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● Monitoring System for Tigers - Intensive Protection and Ecological Status is a software-based monitoring system launched across Indian tiger reserves by the Indian government's National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) in 2010. ● The system's objective is to strengthen patrolling and surveillance of the Endangered Bengal tiger. ● Forest guards in tiger reserves are equipped with personal digital assistants and GPS devices to capture data relating to tiger sightings, deaths, wildlife crime, and ecological observations while patrolling.

● As of December 2018, there are 50 Tiger Reserves in India. ● The oldest tiger reserve is Corbett Tiger Reserve which was declared in the year 1973 under ‘Project Tiger’. ● Whereas Kamlang Tiger Reserve is the newest Tiger Reserve of India declared in the year 2016.

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State Tiger Reserve Declared In Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunsagar Srisailam 1982 Namdapha 1983 Arunachal Pradesh Pakke 2002 Kamlang 2016

Manas 1973

Nameri 1998 Assam Kaziranga 2006

Orang 2016

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State Tiger Reserve Declared In

Bihar Valmiki 1989

Indravati 1983

Chhattisgarh Udanti-Sitanadi 2008

Achanakmar 2008

Jharkhand Palamau 1973

Periyar 1978 Kerala Parambikulam 2010

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State Tiger Reserve Declared In

Bandipur 1973

Bhadra 1998

Karnataka Nagarahole 1999

Dandeli-Anshi (Kali) 2008

Biligiri Ranganatha Temple 2010

Mizoram Dampa 1994

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State Tiger Reserve Declared In

Kanha 1973

Pench 1992

Bandhavgarh 1993 Madhya Pradesh Panna 1994

Satpura 2000

Sanjay-Dubri 2008

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State Tiger Reserve Declared In

Melghat 1973

Tadoba-Andhari 1995

Pench 1998 Maharashtra Sahyadri 2008

Navegaon-Nagzira 2012

Bor 2014

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State Tiger Reserve Declared In

Similipal 1973 Odisha Satkosia 2008

Ranthambore 1973

Rajasthan Sariska 1978 Mukundra Hills 2013

Kawal 2012 Telangana Amrabad 2014

Kalakad-Mundanthurai 1988

Anamalai 2008 Tamil Nadu Mudumalai 2010

Sathyamangalam 2013

Dudhwa 1987

Uttar Pradesh Amangarh (buffer of Corbett TR) 2012

Pilibhit 2014

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State Tiger Reserve Declared In

Corbett 1973 Uttarakhand Rajaji 2015

Sunderbans 1973 West Bengal Buxa 1983

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● Project Elephant was launched in February 1992 as a centrally sponsored scheme. ● It aims to assist the states in having free-ranging populations of wild elephants and to ensure 'long term’ survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitats. ● It is implemented in 13 States and UTs, viz., Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam, Jharkhand, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Small quantum of technical and financial support is also being given to Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh. Objectives ○ To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors, ○ To address issues of man-animal conflict, ○ Welfare of domesticated elephants. ● Elephant Corridors for wild elephants are essential to ensure their uninterrupted movement between key habitats. ● And to do this, designated corridors must be legally secured and protected.

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● ’Gaj Yatra’, a “journey celebrating India’s national heritage animal”, aims at securing 100 elephant corridors across India. ● It’s a nationwide campaign to protect elephants. ● It was launched on the occasion of World Elephant Day led by the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) and International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and NGOs, from Tura in Garo Hills, Meghalaya in 2018. ● It was organized in the Garo Hills as a part of the people’s initiative of community forests for human-elephant harmony and conservation of animals such as hoolock gibbon.

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● Haathi Mere Saathi is a campaign launched by the Ministry of environment and forest (MoEF) in partnership with the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI). ● It aims to improve the conservation and welfare prospects of the elephant - India's National Heritage Animal. ● The campaign was launched at the "Elephant- 8" Ministerial meeting held in Delhi on 24th May 2011 ● The E-8 countries comprise of India, Botswana, the Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Thailand.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The E-8 ministerial meeting represented regions with all 3 species of elephants, viz, Asian elephant, African Bush Elephant, and African Forest Elephant. E 50:50 forum ○ It is the shared vision of 50 states to promote conservation, management, and welfare of elephants in the next 50 years. ○ E-8 countries decided to hold the 1st International Congress of E-50:50 forum in early 2013 at New Delhi, India. ○ It aims to adopt a common global vision on conservation, management, and welfare of elephants across all range countries.

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● The decline of vulture populations in India was first recorded at the Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Rajasthan. ● Red-headed vulture or king vulture, Slender-billed Vulture and Long-billed Vulture are listed as critically endangered. ● Populations of Egyptian vultures and White-backed Vulture have also undergone a decline in India and are now classified as Endangered. ● The decline in population was due to the drug Diclofenac which is used to treat Livestock and vultures prey on carcasses of the dead animal body having drug.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Vultures indirectly consume Diclofenac drug which leads to Kidney failure in vultures and therefore their death. ● An alternative Meloxicam is a second generation NSAID and rated better than Diclofenac for the treatment of livestock with reduced risk of side effects. ● It has been also approved for human use in more than 70 countries. ● Meloxicam is licensed as a veterinary drug in India, Europe, and USA.

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Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF 2. Similarly, a belt between Dibrugarh in Assam to North Lakhimpur in Arunachal Pradesh will also be conserved as a vulture safe zone where slender-billed and white-backed species of vultures are found. 3. The third zone would be in central India, covering Chhattisgarh, where white-necked and long-billed vultures are found.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF India has nine species of vultures in the wild. They are: 1. Oriental White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), 2. Slender billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris), 3. Long billed Vulture (Gyps indicus), 4. Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), 5. Red Headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), 6. Indian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus), 7. Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis), 8. Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) and, 9. Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus).

● Indian Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020 was implemented by the Department of Environment and Forests, Assam with the Bodo Autonomous Council as an active partner in 2005. ● The programme is supported by ○ WWF- India; WWF areas (Asian rhino and elephant action strategy) programme, ○ the International Rhino Foundation (IRF), ○ Save the Rhinos campaign of zoological institutions worldwide.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The vision of this program is to increase the total rhino foundation in Assam from about 2000 to 3000 by the year 2020 and to ensure that these rhinos are distributed over at least 7 protected areas (PA) in order to provide long term viability of the one-horned rhino population. ● Translocations are the backbone of the Indian Rhino Vision 2020 program ● The goal set was to populate the potential rhino habitat areas identified viz, Dibru Saikhowa WLS, Manas NP, Laokhowa-Bura Chapori WLS with a viable population of rhino through translocations from Kaziranga NP and Pobitora WLS.

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● In Jan 2009, the Project Snow Leopard, an Indian initiative for strengthening wildlife conservation in the Himalayan high altitudes was started. ● They are at the apex of the ecological pyramid suffer the most on account of relatively smaller population size and also because of man-animal conflict. ● This situation further gets aggravated by the hostile landscape forming its habitat.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● Merely 7,500 are estimated to be surviving over two million square kilometers in the Himalaya and Central Asian mountains, where they are facing tremendous human pressures. ● Most snow leopards occur in China, followed by Mongolia and India. ● India is having a substantial proportion of its global population. Goal: ● To conserve and safeguard India's unique natural heritage of high altitude wildlife populations and their habitats by promoting conservation through participatory actions and policies.

Website - https://upscpdf.com findfind on on telegram telegram @unacademyplusvideos @unacademyplusvideos https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website - https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF ● The snow leopard is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN-World Conservation Union’s Red List of the Threatened Species. ● In addition, the snow leopard, like all big cats, is listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) which makes trading of animal body parts (i.e., fur, bones and meat) illegal in signatory countries. ● In India, their geographical range encompasses a large part of the western Himalayas including the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern Himalayas. ● The last three states form part of the Eastern Himalayas – a priority global region of WWF and the Living Himalayas Network Initiative.

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● A significant proportion of world's Olive Ridley Turtle population migrates to Indian coastal waters every winter for nesting, mainly at the eastern coast. ● Conservation of olive ridley turtles and other endangered marine turtles was an initiative of Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change along with UN Development Program (since 1999) and with Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun as the nationwide Implementing Agency.

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● Implemented across 10 coastal States of the country with special emphasis in the State of Orissa. ● One of the major achievement of this project has been a demonstration of the use of Satellite Telemetry to locate the migratory route of Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea. ● And sensitizing the fishermen and State Government for the use of Turtle Exclusion Device (TED) in fishing trawlers to check turtle mortality by getting stuck in fishing nets.

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● Hibernation is a state of deep sleep that helps them to save energy and survive the winter without eating much. ● During the hibernation, the animal’s body temperature drops and its breathing slow down so that it does not use much energy. ● Hibernating animals tend to get ready for their winter sleep by eating extra food and storing it as body fat which they then use as energy while sleeping. ● There are two types of fat – ○ Regular white fat and ○ Brown fat.

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● The brown fat forms patches near the animal’s brain, heart and lungs. ● It sends a quick burst of energy to warm these organs first when it is the time for them to wake up. ● Some of the hibernating animals include frogs, fish, and turtles, which have no way to keep warm during winter. ● They shelter under logs, rocks and fallen leaves in the water. ● When the weather gets cold, they move down to the bottom of lakes and ponds and some even burrow into the mud on the bottom surface.

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