Citation: Zachariades, C. (2018) Biological control of invasive alien plants in South Africa: a list of all insects, mites and pathogens considered as biological control agents from 1913- 2018. http://www.arc.agric.za/arc-ppri/Documents/Table1-NaturalEnemiesAll.pdf
Table 1. Target weed species in South Africa, their region of origin and degree of biological control achieved (see below for definitions): all natural enemies studied, their feeding guilds or association with the host plant, present research status, and degree of agent damage to the weed (if established) (see below for definitions), and key references for each (see separate references document). Winston et al. (2014) was consulted for some sources of agents.
Scientific name and author Degree of Natural enemy Feeding guild Agent research Damage inflicted Source of agent Key references Common name control status Region of origin ALISMATACEAE Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) J.G. Not Listronotus appendiculatus Flower feeder Under investigation Mississippi (USA) Sm applicable (Boheman) (Coleoptera: broad-leaf arrowhead, delta Curculionidae) arrowhead or delta duck potato Listronotus frontalis (LeConte) Tuber feeder Under investigation Mississippi (USA) North America (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Listronotus lutulentus (Boheman), Leaf feeder Shelved Mississippi (USA) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Listronotus sordidus (Gyllenhal) Root crown Shelved Mississippi (USA) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeder
ARACEAE Pistia stratiotes L. Complete Neohydronomus affinis Hustache Leaf and stem Released 1985, Extensive Brazil via Australia Cilliers 1991; Coetzee et water lettuce (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) borer established al 2011b South America ASTERACEAE Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) Negligible Baeodromus eupatorii (Arthur) Arthur Leaf rust Shelved Mexico Heystek et al. 2011 R.M.King & H.Rob. (= Eupatorium (Pucciniales: Pucciniosiraceae) pathogen adenophorum Spreng.) crofton weed (?)Eugnosta medioxima (Razowski) Shoot tip and Shelved Mexico Heystek et al. 2011 Central America (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) stem borer
Lophoceramica sp. (Lepidoptera: Leaf feeder Rejected Mexico Heystek et al. 2011 Noctuidae)
Passalora ageratinae Crous & A.R. Leaf spot Released 1987, Moderate Prob. Central Morris 1989, 1991; Wood pathogen established America, prob. via Buccellato et al. 2012 (=“Phaeoramularia” sp.) Hawaii (USA), via (anamorphic fungus; Australia Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Pentispa fairmairei (Chapuis) Leaf miner Rejected Mexico Heystek et al. 2011 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae)
Procecidochares utilis Stone (Diptera: Stem galler Released 1984, Moderate Mexico Kluge 1991; Erasmus et Tephritidae) established al.1992; Buccellato et al. 2012 Ageratina riparia (Regel) R.M.King & Complete Entyloma ageratinae R.W. Barreto Leaf pathogen Released 1989, Considerable Jamaica via Hawaii Morris 1991 H.Rob. (= Eupatorium riparium &H.C. Evans (Entylomatales: established (USA) Regel) Entylomataceae) mistflower Central America Campuloclinium macrocephalum Negligible Cochylis campuloclinium Brown Flower feeder Release permit Argentina Brown 2006; (Less.) DC. (formerly Eupatorium (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) issued McConnachie et al. 2011 macrocephalum Less.) pompom weed Liothrips tractabilis Mound & Pereyra Stem galler Released 2013, Moderate Argentina Mound & Pereyra 2008; South America (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) established McConnachie et al. 2011
Puccinia eupatorii Dietel (Pucciniales: Leaf rust Not released, occurs Moderate McConnachie et al. 2011; Pucciniaceae) pathogen locally Retief et al. 2016
Zeale (= Adesmus) nigromaculatus Stem borer Rejected Argentina Di Iorio et al. 1998; Klug (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) McConnachie et al. 2011
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King Substantial Actinote anteas (Doubleday) Leaf feeder Shelved Costa Rica Caldwell & Kluge 1993 & H. Rob. (formerly Eupatorium (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) odoratum L.) triffid weed Actinote thalia pyrrha (Fabricius) Leaf feeder Rejected Bahia state, Brazil Zachariades et al. 2002 (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) North, Central & South America Actinote thalia thalia (Linnaeus) Leaf feeder Rejected Northern Venezuela Strathie & Zachariades (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) 2002
Adaina primulacea Meyrick Stem galler Shelved Florida, USA Zachariades et al. 1999; (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae) Matthews & Maharajh 2009 Calycomyza eupatorivora Spencer Leaf miner Released 2003, Trivial Jamaica Zachariades et al. 2002; (Diptera: Agromyzidae) established Strathie et al. 2007; Zachariades et al. 2011b; Nzama et al. 2014a&b Carmenta chromolaenae Eichlin Stem-tip wilter Shelved Northern Venezuela Eichlin et al. 2009 (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)
Cecidochares connexa Macquart Stem galler Shelved Colombia via Zachariades et al. 1999 (Diptera: Tephritidae) Indonesia; north- western Argentina Conotrachelus reticulatus Champion Stem-tip galler Shelved Northern Venezuela; Zachariades et al. 2007, (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Manhuaçu, Brazil Zachariades et al. 2011b; Delgado et al 2014 Dichrorampha odorata Brown & Stem-tip galler Released 2013, Jamaica Brown & Zachariades Zachariades (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) establishment 2007, Dube et al. 2017 unconfirmed Dysschema sacrifica Hübner Leaf feeder Rejected Rio de Janeiro state, Zachariades et al. 1999 (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) Brazil
Leptocysta sexnebulosa (Stål) Sap sucker Rejected Northern Venezuela Strathie & Zachariades (Hemiptera: Tingidae) 2002
Lixus aemulus Petri (Coleoptera: Stem borer Released 2011, Acre state, Brazil Zachariades et al. 2002; Curculionidae) establishment Kluge & Zachariades 2006 unconfirmed Lixus sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Stem borer Shelved Northern Venezuela Zachariades et al. 1999
Longitarsus sp. (Coleoptera: Larva root Rejected Northern Venezuela; Strathie & Zachariades Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) feeder; adult leaf Trinidad 2004; Zachariades et al. feeder 2007 Melanagromyza eupatoriella Spencer Stem-tip wilter Under investigation Florida, USA; Zachariades et al. 2007; (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Jamaica; Trinidad; Zachariades et al. 2011b; Rio de Janeiro state, Robinson et al. 2013 Brazil; Venezuela Pareuchaetes aurata (Butler) Leaf feeder Released 1990, not North-western Kluge & Caldwell 1993a; (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) established Argentina Zachariades et al. 1999
Pareuchaetes insulata (Walker) Leaf feeder Released 2001, Extensive, Florida, USA; Kluge & Caldwell 1993b; (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) established localised Jamaica; Cuba Strathie & Zachariades 2004; Strathie et al. 2007; Zachariades et al. 2011b; Dube et al 2009, 2014; Uyi et al. 2014 a&b, 2015, 2016a&b, 2017, Zachariades et al. 2016 Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata Rego Leaf feeder Released 1989 & Trinidad via USA; Strathie & Zachariades Barros (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) 1998, not Trinidad via 2002; Zachariades et al. established Indonesia; Northern 2011b Venezuela Passalora caribensis Crous & Den Leaf pathogen Rejected Cuba; Jamaica Den Breeÿen et al. 2006 Breeÿen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Passalora chromolaenae Crous & Leaf pathogen Rejected Mexico Den Breeÿen et al. 2006 Den Breeÿen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Passalora convoluta Crous & Den Leaf pathogen Rejected Costa Rica Den Breeÿen et al. 2006 Breeÿen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Passalora perfoliati (Ellis & Everh.) U. Leaf pathogen Rejected Jamaica Den Breeÿen et al. 2006 Braun & Crous (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Phestinia costella Hampson Stem-tip galler Shelved Florida, USA; Solis et al. 2008 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Jamaica; Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil; Trinidad Polymorphomyia basilica Snow Stem galler Under investigation Jamaica; Cuba Zachariades et al. 2007 (Diptera: Tephritidae)
Pseudocercospora eupatoriella Crous Leaf pathogen Rejected USA; Jamaica Den Breeÿen et al. 2006 & Den Breeÿen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Recchia parvula (Lane) Stem and crown Released 2016, North-western Zachariades et al. 2007; (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) borer establishment Argentina Zachariades et al. 2011b unconfirmed Septoria chromolaenae Crous & Den Leaf pathogen Rejected Jamaica Den Breeÿen et al. 2006 Breeÿen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Septoria ekmaniana Petr. & Cif. Leaf pathogen Rejected Mexico Den Breeÿen et al. 2006 (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. Negligible Rhinocyllus conicus (Froelich) Seed feeder Released Moderate France Zimmermann 1991; spear thistle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1984,1986, Hodson et al. 2003 established Europe Urophora stylata (Fabricius) (Diptera: Seed feeder Released 1984, Germany, France Zimmermann 1991 Tephritidae) 1987, 1989, 1990, not established Parthenium hysterophorus L. Under Carmenta sp. nr. ithacae Root crown Under investigation Australia (originally parthenium evaluation (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) borer Mexico)
Caribbean Epiblema strenuana (Walker) Stem galler Under investigation Australia (originally Dhileepan & Strathie (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Mexico) 2009; Strathie et al. 2011; McConnachie 2015b Listronotus setosipennis (Hustache) Stem borer Released 2013, Considerable Argentina Dhileepan & Strathie (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established 2009; Strathie et al. 2011
Puccinia abrupta var. partheniicola Leaf rust Not released, occurs Moderate Unknown origin Wood & Scholler 2002; (Jack. & Holw.) (Pucciniales: pathogen locally Dhileepan & Strathie 2009 Pucciniaceae)
Puccinia xanthii Schwein. var. Leaf rust Released 2010, Considerable Australia (originally Dhileepan & Strathie parthenii-hysterophorae Seier, H.C. pathogen established Mexico) 2009; Strathie et al. 2011 Evans & Á. Romero (=P.melampodii; Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae)
Smicronyx lutulentus Dietz Seed feeder Released 2015, Unknown Australia (originally Dhileepan & Strathie (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established. Mexico) 2009; Strathie et al. 2011
Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister Leaf feeder Released 2013, Considerable Australia (originally Dhileepan & Strathie (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Mexico) 2009; Strathie et al. 2011; Cassidinae) McConnachie 2015a; Chidawanyika et al. 2017 Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Not Rhinocyllus conicus (Froelich) Seed feeder Alternative host, California, USA Zimmermann 1991 milk thistle determined (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 1985, not established Mediterranean, Asia
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray Not Physonota maculiventris (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Release permit Mexico Mphephu et al. 2017 Mexican sunflower applicable Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) issued
Central America Platyphora ligata (Stål) (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Shelved Simelane et al. 2011b Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae)
Puccinia enceliae Dietel & Holw. Leaf rust Shelved Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b (Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae) pathogen
Unidentified species (Lepidoptera: Under investigation ?Tortricidae)
Unidentified species (Lepidoptera: Shoot-tip feeder Rejected Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b Tortricidae)
Tithonia rotundifolia (Mill.) S.F.Blake Under Canidia mexicana Thomson Stem borer Shelved Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b red sunflower evaluation (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) (larva); leaf feeder (adult) Central America Chlosyne sp. (Lepidoptera: Leaf feeder Shelved Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b Nymphalidae)
Lixus fimbriolatus Boheman Stem borer Under investigation Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (larva); leaf feeder (adult) Puccinia enceliae Dietel & Holw. Leaf rust Shelved Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b (Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae) pathogen
Rhodobaenus auctus Chevrolat Stem borer Shelved Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (larva); leaf feeder (adult) Zygogramma piceicollis (Stål) Leaf feeder Released 2015, Considerable, Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established localised Chrysomelinae)
Zygogramma signatipennis (Stål) Leaf feeder Released 2015, Considerable, Mexico Simelane et al. 2011b (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established localised Chrysomelinae)
Unidentified species (Coleoptera: Stem borer Under investigation Simelane et al. 2011b Curculionidae) (larva); leaf feeder (adult) AZOLLACEAE Azolla cristata Kaulf. Complete Stenopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhal Frond feeder Alternative host, Extensive USA Madeira et al. 2016 Carolina water fern (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 1997, established North and South America Azolla filiculoides Lam. Complete Pseudolampsis guttata (LeConte) Frond feeder Rejected USA Hill & Oberholzer 2002 red water fern (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) South America Stenopelmus brunneus (Hustache) Frond feeder Shelved Argentina Hill & McConnachie 2009 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Stenopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhal Frond feeder Released 1997, Extensive USA McConnachie et al.2004; (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established Hill et al. 2008; Coetzee et al. 2011b BASELLACEAE Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis Under Isotes eruptiva (Bechyné) Leaf feeder, Shelved Van der Westhuizen 2011 subsp. cordifolia evaluation (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: possible root Madeira vine Galerucinae) feeder
South America Loxomorpha cf. cambogialis (Guenée) Leaf feeder Rejected Klein 1999; Van der [formerly in Epipagis] (Lepidoptera: Westhuizen 2011 Pyralidae)
Phenrica sp. (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Shelved Paraná, Brazil Van der Westhuizen 2006, Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) 2011
Plectonycha correntina Lacordaire Leaf feeder Released 2016, Trivial Buenos Aires, Cagnotti et al. 2007; Van (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Argentina der Westhuizen 2011 Chrysomelinae)
Unidentified species (Lepidoptera: Leaf miner Rejected ?Gelechiidae)
BIGNONIACEAE Dolichandra unguis-cati (L.) Lohman Negligible Apteromechus notatus (Hustache) Seed feeder Under investigation Paraná, Brazil King et al. 2011b (formerly Macfadyena unguis-cati (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (L.) A.H.Gentry) cat's claw creeper Carvalhotingis hollandi Drake Leaf sucker Released 2007, Unknown Misiones, Argentina Williams et al. 2008 (Hemiptera: Tingidae) established Central and South America Carvalhotingis visenda Drake & Leaf sucker Released 2007, Moderate Misiones, Argentina Williams et al. 2008 Hambleton (Hemiptera: Tingidae) established
Cercosporella dolichandrae Crous & Leaf spot Not released, occurs Moderate den Breeӱen (Mycosphaerellales: pathogen locally; also under Mycosphaerellaceae) investigation
Charidotis auroguttata Boheman Leaf feeder Released 1999, Trivial Miranda, Venezuela Sparks 1999; Williams (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established 2002 Cassidinae)
Hedwigiella jureceki (Obenberger) Leaf miner Released 2007, Trivial Misiones, Argentina King et al. 2011b (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) established
Hypocosmia pyrochroma Jones Leaf feeder Released 2010, Misiones, Argentina Dhileepan et al. 2007; (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) establishment King et al. 2011b unconfirmed Neocrassana undata Linnavuori Leaf feeder Under investigation Paraná, Brazil Dhileepan et al. 2007; (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) King et al. 2011b
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss ex Kunth Under Clydonopteron sacculana Bosc Seed feeder Rejected Baja California Sur, var. stans evaluation (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Mexico yellow bells Heikertingerella sp. (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Under investigation Chiapas, Xalapa Madire et al. 2011a North and Central America Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) (adult), root Mexico feeder (larva) Mada polluta (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Released 2013, Moderate Guerrero, Mexico Madire et al. 2011a; Coccinellidae) established Madire 2013
Prospodium appendiculatum (G. Leaf rust Rejected Southern USA, Madire et al. 2011a Winter) Arthur (Pucciniales: pathogen Mexico, north-west Uropyxidaceae) Argentina
Prospodium transformans (Ellis & Leaf rust Released 2010, not Mexico Wood 2008; Madire et al. Everh.) Cummins (Pucciniales: pathogen established 2011a Uropyxidaceae)
Pseudonapomyza sp. (Diptera: Leaf miner Released 2014, Trivial San Pedro, Madire 2009/10; Madire et Agromyzidae) established Argentina al. 2011a,b
CACTACEAE Austrocylindropuntia subulata Not Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) Cladode borer Alternative host, Unknown Argentina via Moran & Zimmermann (Muehlenpf.) Backeb. (=Opuntia determined (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) established Australia 1991b exaltata (Berger)) long spine cactus South America Cereus jamacaru DC. and C. Complete Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Stem sucker Alternative host, Extensive Argentina via Moran & Zimmermann hildmannianus K.Schum. Trelles) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) established Australia 1991b; Klein 1999; queen of the night Paterson et al. 2011 South America Nealcidion cereicola (Fisher) [formerly Stem borer Alternative host, Considerable Argentina via Klein 1999 in Alcidion] (Coleoptera: released 1990, Australia Cerambycidae) established
Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) Complete Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamarck), Cladode sucker Released 2008, Extensive Mexico (Baja Mathenge et al. 2009a,b, F.M.Knuth var. fulgida Zim 'cholla' biotype (Hemiptera: established California) 2010a,b; Paterson et al. chain-fruit cholla Dactylopiidae) 2011
North and Central America Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamarck), Cladode sucker Alternative host, Trivial South-Western USA Moran & Zimmermann 'imbricata' biotype (Hemiptera: released 1970, via Australia 1991b Dactylopiidae) established
Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) Complete Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamarck), Cladode sucker Released 2008, Extensive Mexico (Baja F.M.Knuth var. mamillata (Engelm.) 'cholla' biotype (Hemiptera: established California) Backeb. Dactylopiidae) boxing-glove cactus North and Central America Cylindropuntia imbricata (Haw.) Substantial Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamarck), Cladode sucker Released 1970, Considerable South-Western USA Moran & Zimmermann F.M.Knuth 'imbricata' biotype) (Hemiptera: established via Australia 1991b; Mathenge et al. imbricate prickly pear Dactylopiidae) 2009a
North and Central America Metamasius spinolae (Gyllenhal) Stem borer Alternative host, Mexico Moran & Zimmermann (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 1974, not 1991b established Cylindropuntia leptocaulis (DC.) Complete Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamarck) Cladode sucker Alternative host, Extensive South-Western USA Moran & Zimmermann F.M.Knuth ('imbricata' biotype) (Hemiptera: released 1977, via Australia 1991b; Mathenge et al. pencil cactus Dactylopiidae) established 2009a
North and Central America Harrisia bonplandii (Parm.) Britton & Substantial Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Stem sucker Alternative host, Considerable Argentina via Rose (= H. balansae (K.Schum.) Trelles) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) released 2006, Australia N.P.Taylor & Zappi) established angular cactus, strangler cactus South America Harrisia martinii (Labour.) Complete Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Stem sucker Released 1983, Extensive Argentina via Moran & Zimmermann moon cactus Trelles) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) established Australia 1991b; Klein 1999
South America Nealcidion cereicola Fisher [formerly Stem borer Released 1990, Considerable Argentina via Klein 1999 in Alcidion] (Coleoptera: established Australia Cerambycidae)
Harrisia pomanensis (F.A.C.Weber) Substantial Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Stem sucker Alternative host, Considerable Argentina via Britton & Rose Trelles) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) released 2013, Australia midnight lady, devil's rope cactus established South America Harrisia tortuosa (J.Forbes ex Otto & Substantial Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Stem sucker Alternative host, Considerable Argentina via A.Dietr.) Britton & Rose Trelles) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) released 2014, Australia spiny snake cactus established South America Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britton & Not Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Stem sucker Alternative host, Unknown Argentina via Rose determined Trelles) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) established Australia dragon fruit Tropical America Opuntia aurantiaca Lindl. Substantial Amalfrida leithella Dyar (Lepidoptera: Cladode borer Shelved Colombia, Moran & Zimmermann jointed cactus Pyralidae) Venezuela 1991a
South America Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) Cladode borer Alternative host, Moderate Argentina via Moran & Annecke 1979; (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) established Australia Moran & Zimmermann 1991a; Zimmermann et al. 2004 Cactoblastis mundelli Heinrich Cladode borer Shelved Bolivia, Argentina Moran & Zimmermann (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1991a
Dactylopius austrinus De Lotto Cladode sucker Released 1935, Extensive Central & Western Moran & Annecke 1979; (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) established Argentina via Moran & Zimmermann Australia 1991a Dasiops bourguini (Blanchard) Cladode borer Shelved Moran & Zimmermann (Diptera: Lonchaeidae) 1991a
Mimorista pulchellalis Dyar Cladode borer Released 1979, not Argentina (Parana) Moran & Zimmermann (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) established 1991a
Nanaia sp. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Cladode borer Released 1983, not Peru Moran & Zimmermann established 1991a Sigelgaita transilis Heinrich Fruit borer Shelved Peru Moran & Zimmermann (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1991a
Sigelgaita sp. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Fruit borer Shelved Peru Moran & Zimmermann 1991a Zophodia tapiacola (Dyar) [formerly in Cladode borer Released 1976 & Argentina (Formosa Moran & Zimmermann Tucumania] (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1982, not & Buenos Aires 1991a established Provinces) Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Negligible Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) Cladode borer Alternative host, Trivial on large Argentina via Engelm. (=O. lindheimeri, O. to (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) released 1938, plants, moderate Australia tardospina) substantial, established on small plants small round-leaved prickly pear depending on variety North and Central America Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), Cladode sucker Alternative host, Moderate to trivial, USA (Texas, Moran & Zimmermann 'ficus' biotype (Hemiptera: released 1938, depending on Arizona) via 1991b Dactylopiidae) established climate & plant Australia variety
Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), Cladode sucker Alternative host, Extensive, in Via Australia 'stricta' biotype (Hemiptera: released 2012, combination with Dactylopiidae) established pathogen
Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), Cladode sucker Under investigation USA (Arizona, New various biotypes(?) (Hemiptera: Mexico) Dactylopiidae)
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Substantial Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) Cladode borer Released 1933, Extensive Argentina via Annecke & Moran 1978; mission prickly pear, sweet prickly (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) established Australia Zimmermann & Moran pear 1991 Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), Cladode sucker Released 1938, Extensive USA (Texas, Annecke & Moran 1978; Central America 'ficus' biotype (Hemiptera: established Arizona) via Zimmermann & Moran Dactylopiidae) Australia 1991
Lagocheirus funestus (Thompson) Stem borer Released 1943, Trivial Mexico via Australia Annecke & Moran 1978; [formerly in Archlagocheirus] established Zimmermann & Moran (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) 1991
Metamasius spinolae (Gyllenhal) Stem borer Released 1948, Extensive Mexico Zimmermann & Moran (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established 1991
Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. Complete Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), Cladode sucker Alternative host, Considerable in Via Australia creeping prickly pear, large-flowered Australian ('stricta') biotype established hot, arid regions, prickly pear (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) moderate in cooler regions & Highveld North America Opuntia monacantha Haw. Complete Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) Cladode borer Alternative host, Considerable Argentina via Moran & Zimmermann smooth/drooping prickly pear (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) established Australia 1991b; Zimmermann et al. 2009 South America Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green) Cladode sucker Released 1913, Extensive Temperate South Moran & Zimmermann (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) established America, Brazil via 1991b; Zimmermann et al. Sri Lanka 2009 Opuntia salmiana J.Parm. ex Pfeiff. Negligible Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) Cladode borer Alternative host, Trivial to moderate Argentina via Moran & Zimmermann bur cactus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) established Australia 1991b
South America Dactylopius salmianus De Lotto Cladode sucker Shelved Argentina Moran & Zimmermann (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) 1991b
Opuntia spinulifera Salm-Dyck Not Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) Cladode borer Alternative host, Unknown Argentina via Moran & Zimmermann large round-leaved prickly pear determined (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) established Australia 1991b
Central America Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. Substantial Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) Cladode borer Alternative host, Extensive Argentina via Hoffmann et al. 1999 Australian pest pear (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) released 1980s, Australia established North America and Caribbean Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), Cladode sucker Released 1997, Extensive North America via Hoffmann et al.1999; Australian ('stricta') biotype established Australia Paterson et al. 2011 (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)
Opuntia tomentosa Salm-Dyck Substantial Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), Cladode sucker Alternative host, Extensive USA (Texas, velvet opuntia, velvet tree-pear but 'ficus' biotype (Hemiptera: released 1938, Arizona) via localised Dactylopiidae) established Australia Mexico and Guatemala Peniocereus serpentinus (Lag. & Not Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Stem sucker Alternative host, Unknown Argentina via Rodr.) N.P.Taylor determined Trelles) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) established Australia serpent cactus Mexico Pereskia aculeata Mill. Under Catorhintha schaffneri Brailovsky & Stem wilter Released 2014, Unknown Santa Catarina, Paterson et al. 2014a,b Barbados gooseberry, pereskia evaluation Garcia (Hemiptera: Coreidae) established Brazil
South America and Caribbean Loxomorpha cambogialis (Guenée) Leaf feeder Rejected Klein 1999 [formerly in Epipagis] (Lepidoptera: Brazil Pyralidae)
Maracayia chlorisalis (Walker) Stem borer Shelved Santa Catarina and Klein 1999; Paterson et al. (Lepidopera: Crambidae) Rio de Janiero, 2011 Brazil Pereskiophaga brasilensis Anderson Stem miner Under investigation Santa Catarina, Anderson 2015 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Brazil
Phenrica guerini Bechyné Leaf feeder Released 1991 & Extensive locally Rio de Janiero, Klein 1999; Paterson et al. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: 1995, established Brazil 2011, 2012 Galerucinae)
CLADOPHORACEAE (CHLOROPHYTA) Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kuetzing Not Pythium spp. (Chromista: Fungal Rejected Wood 1999, 2003 green alga, "draadalg" applicable Saprolegniales) pathogen
Widespread, probably indigenous CLUSIACEAE Hypericum perforatum L. Complete Agrilus (Spiragrilus) hyperici Root borer Released 1974- France via Australia Gordon & Kluge 1991 St John's wort (Creutzer) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) 1979, not & California (USA) established Europe and Asia
Aphis chloris Koch (Hemiptera: Sap sucker Released 1982, not Germany via Gordon & Kluge 1991 Aphididae) established Canada
Aplocera efformata (Guenée) Leaf feeder Released 1983, not France via Australia Gordon & Kluge 1991 (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) established
Chrysolina hyperici(Forster) Leaf feeder Released 1960- England via Gordon & Kluge 1991 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: 1973, not Australia (1960); Chrysomelinae) established England via Australia via USA via Canada (1973) Chrysolina quadrigemina Suffrian Leaf feeder Released 1960- Extensive France via Australia Gordon & Kluge 1991 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: 1973, established Chrysomelinae)
Zeuxidiplosis giardi (Kieffer) (Diptera: Shoot-tip galler Released 1972, Moderate France via California Gordon & Kluge 1991 Cecidomyiidae) established (USA) via Australia
COMMELINACEAE Tradescantia fluminensis Vell. Not Neolema abbreviata (Lacordaire) Shoot-tip and Release permit Brazil via New Fowler et al., 2013 wandering Jew, spiderwort applicable (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: leaf feeder issued Zealand Criocerinae) South America CONVOLVULACEAE Convolvulus arvensis L. Not Aceria malherbae Nuzzaci (Acari: Leaf galler Released 1994, not Greece Craemer 1995 field bindweed applicable Trombidiformes: Eriophyidae) established
Europe and Asia Septoria sp. (anamorphic fungus; Leaf spot Not released, occurs Trivial Mycosphaerellales: pathogen locally; rejected Mycosphaerellaceae)
FABACEAE Acacia baileyana F.Muell. Negligible Dasineura pilifera Kolesik (Diptera: Flower galler Released 2016, Unknown Victoria, Australia Bailey’s wattle Cecidomyiidae) established
Australia Melanterius maculatus Lea Seed feeder Alternative host, Moderate NSW, Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 2006 & et al. 2009, 2011 2009, established Acacia cyclops A.Cunn. ex G.Don Substantial Calonectria scoparia Ribeiro & Leaf spot Not released, occurs Trivial red eye, rooikrans Matsuoka ex Peerally (Hypocreales: pathogen locally; rejected Nectriaceae) (anamorphic fungus: Australia Cylindrocladium candelabrum)
Dasineura dielsi Rübsaamen (Diptera: Flower galler Released 2002, Extensive WA, Australia Adair 2005; Impson et al. Cecidomyiidae) established 2009, 2011
Melanterius servulus Pascoe Seed feeder Alternative host, Considerable WA, Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 1991 & et al. 2009, 2011 1994, established Pseudolagarobasidium acaciicola Die-back Not released, occurs Considerable Wood & Ginns 2006, Ginns (Polyporales: pathogen locally; under Kotzé et al. 2015 Phanerochaetaceae) investigation
Acacia dealbata Link Negligible Bruchophagus acaciae (Cameron) Seed feeder Shelved Victoria, Australia Impson et al. 2009 silver wattle (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae)
Australia Dasineura pilifera Kolesik (Diptera: Flower galler Released 2016, Unknown Victoria, Australia Cecidomyiidae) established
Melanterius maculatus Lea Seed feeder Alternative host, Moderate Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 1994-2007, et al. 2009, 2011 established Perilampella hecataeus Walker Bud and rachis Under evaluation unknown Victoria, Australia (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) galler
Acacia decurrens (Wendl.) Willd. Negligible Dasineura pilifera Kolesik (Diptera: Flower galler Release permit Victoria, Australia green wattle Cecidomyiidae) issued
Australia Melanterius maculatus Lea Seed feeder Alternative host, Moderate Victoria, Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 2000-2007, et al. 2009, 2011 established Acacia elata A. Cunn. ex Benth. Not Melanterius maculatus Lea Seed feeder Alternative host, Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson pepper tree wattle applicable (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) under investigation et al. 2009, 2011
Australia Acacia longifolia (Andr.) Willd. Substantial Bruchophagus orarius Neser & Seed feeder Shelved Australia Impson et al. 2009, 2011 long-leaved wattle Prinsloo (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae)
Australia Melanterius ventralis Lea (Coleoptera: Seed feeder Released 1985, Extensive Australia Dennill & Donnelly 1991; Curculionidae) established Dennill et al. 1999; Impson et al. 2009, 2011 Rayieria sp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) Leaf sucker Rejected Impson et al. 2009
Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Bud galler Released 1982, Extensive Australia Dennill & Donnelly 1991; (Froggatt) (Hymenoptera: established Dennill et al. 1999; Impson Pteromalidae) et al. 2009
Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Substantial Asphondylia sp. (Diptera: Flower or pod Shelved Australia Adair 2004; Adair et al. black wattle Cecidomyiidae) galler 2009
Australia
Ceratocystis albofundus M.J.Wingf., Gummosis Not released, occurs Moderate, Morris et al. 1999 De Beer & M.J.Morris (Microascales: pathogen locally; shelved localised Ceratocystidaceae)
Cylindrobasidium laeve (Pers.) Early succession Not released, occurs Extensive when Morris et al. 1999 Chamuris (Polyporales: wood rot locally; developed applied according Physalacriaceae) pathogen, as cut stump to label prevents inoculant instructions coppice growth "Stumpout" Dasineura rubiformis Kolesik (Diptera: Flower galler Present before Extensive in WC, Australia Adair 2004; Impson et al. Cecidomyiidae) release, established Moderate EC, 2008, 2009, 2011 Trivial MP & KZN Melanterius maculatus Lea Seed feeder Released 1993- Moderate NSW, ACT, Dennill et al. 1999; Impson (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1996, established Australia et al. 2009, 2011
Acacia melanoxylon R.Br. Substantial Melanterius acaciae Lea (Coleoptera: Seed feeder Released 1986, Extensive Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson Australian blackwood Curculionidae) established et al. 2009, 2011
Australia Acacia podalyriifolia A.Cunn. ex Negligible Bruchophagus acaciae (Cameron) Seed feeder Alternative host, Australia Impson et al. 2009, 2011 G.Don. (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) under investigation pearl acacia Melanterius maculatus Lea Seed feeder Alternative host, Moderate but QLD, Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson Australia (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 2008, localised et al. 2009, 2011 established Acacia pycnantha Benth. Substantial Cylindrobasidium laeve (Pers.) Early succession Alternative host; not Extensive when Morris et al. 1999 golden wattle Chamuris (Polyporales: wood rot fungus released, occurs applied according Physalacriaceae) locally; developed to label Australia as cut stump instructions inoculant "Stumpout", but never used Melanterius maculatus Lea Seed feeder Alternative host, Moderate SA, Vic, Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) released 2005-2007, et al. 2009, 2011 established Trichilogaster signiventris (Girault) Bud galler Released 1987 & Considerable/ Australia Hoffmann et al. 2002; (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) 1992, established Extensive Impson et al. 2009, 2011
Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L.Wendl. Substantial Melanterius compactus Lea Seed feeder Released 2001 & Considerable WA, Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson Port Jackson willow (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 2003, established et al. 2009, 2011
Australia Uromycladium morrisii Doungsa-ard, Gall former Released 1987, Extensive WA, Australia Morris 1987, 1991, 1997, McTaggart, Geering & R.G. Shivas established 1999; Wood & Morris 2007 (Pucciniales: Pileolariaceae)
Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Negligible Acrocercops hyphantica Meyrick Leaf miner Rejected India Coetzer & Neser 1999; Alston (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) Byrne et al. 2011 Mauritius thorn Lacera noctilio (Fabricius) Leaf feeder Rejected Coetzer & Neser 1999 Asia (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Spermophagus sp. (Coleoptera: Seed feeder Rejected Coetzer & Neser 1999 Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae)
Sulcobruchus subsuturalis (Pic) Seed feeder Released 1999, Trivial India Coetzer & Neser 1999; (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Coetzer 2000; Byrne et al. Bruchinae) 2011
Gleditsia triacanthos L. Not Megabruchidius tonkineus (Pic) Seed feeder Not released, occurs Unknown honey locust determined (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: locally Bruchinae) North America Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Negligible Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus Seed feeder Released 1999, Trivial Mexico Shoba & Olckers 2010; Wit (Schaeffer) (Coeloptera: established Olckers 2011a; Sharratt & leucaena Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) Olckers 2012
Tropical America
Paraserianthes lophantha (Willd.) Substantial Melanterius servulus Pascoe Seed feeder Released 1989, Considerable Australia Dennill et al. 1999; Impson Nielsen (formerly Albizia lophantha (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established et al. 2009, 2011 Willd.) stink bean Uromycladium woodii Doungsa-ard, Gall former Released 2016, Unknown WA, Australia Australia McTaggart, Geering & R.G. Shivas established (Pucciniales: Pileolariaceae)
Prosopis L. species Negligible Algarobius bottimeri Kingsolver Seed feeder Released 1990, not South-western USA Impson et al. 1999 mesquite, prosopis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Bruchinae) North and Central America Algarobius prosopis (LeConte) Seed feeder Released 1987, Considerable Arizona, USA Hoffmann et al.1993; (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Impson et al. 1999; Bruchinae) Roberts 2006; Van Klinken et al. 2009; Zachariades et al. 2011a Asphondylia prosopidisCockerell Flower-bud Shelved South-western USA Park 2010; Zachariades et (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) galler al. 2011a
Coelocephalapion gandolfoi Kissinger Seed feeder Under investigation Argentina Mc Kay & Gandolfo 2007; (Coleoptera: Brentidae: Apioninae) Zachariades et al. 2011a
Evippe sp. #1 (Lepidoptera: Leaf miner + tier Under investigation Argentina, via Gelechiidae) & feeder Australia
Mimosestes amicus (Horn) Seed feeder Rejected Central America Impson et al. 1999 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae)
Mimosestes protractus (Horn) Seed feeder Rejected Central and North Impson et al. 1999 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: America Bruchinae)
Neltumius arizonensis (Schaeffer) Seed feeder Released 1993, Unknown Arizona, USA Coetzer & Hoffmann 1997; (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Impson et al. 1999; Bruchinae) Strathie 1995
Oncideres rhodosticta Bates Stem borer Under investigation South-western USA (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Prosopidicola mexicana Crous & C.L. Pod pathogen Shelved Mexico and Lennox et al. 2004 Lennox (Diaporthales: Valsaceae) Southern USA
Sesbania punicea (Cav.) Benth. Complete Eudiagogus episcopalis (Gyllenhal) Root feeder Rejected Argentina (Buenos Hoffmann & Moran 1991 red sesbania (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Aires Prov)
South America Neodiplogrammus quadrivittatus Stem borer Released 1984, Extensive Argentina (Buenos Hoffmann & Moran 1999 (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established Aires Prov); Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) Rhyssomatus marginatus Fåhraeus Seed feeder Released 1984, Extensive Argentina (Buenos Hoffmann & Moran 1999 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established Aires Prov)
Trichapion lativentre (Béguin- Flower-bud Released 1970s, Extensive Argentina (Buenos Hoffmann & Moran 1999 Billecocq) (Coleoptera: Brentidae: feeder established, present Aires Prov) Apioninae) before release
Spartium junceum L. Not Aceria spartii (Canestrini) (Acari: Stem galler Shelved Craemer et al.1996 Spanish broom applicable Trombidiformes: Eriophyidae)
Europe HALORAGACEAE Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Complete Listronotus marginicollis (Hustache) Stem borer Shelved Argentina Cordo & DeLoach 1982; Verdc. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Oberholzer et al. 2007; parrot's feather Coetzee et al. 2011b Lysathia sp. (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Released 1994, Extensive Brazil Cilliers 1999; Coetzee et South America Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) established al. 2011b
Xanthomonas campestris (Pammel) Bacterial wilt Not released, occurs Considerable, Morris et al. 1999 Dawson (?) (Proteobacteria: locally; rejected localised, not Xanthomonadales: persistent Xanthomonadaceae)
Myriophyllum spicatum L. Not Euhrychiopsis lecontei Dietz. Stem borer Shelved USA Coetzee et al. 2011a spiked water-milfoil applicable (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Europe, Asia, North Africa HYDROCHARITACEAE Egeria densa Planch. Not Hydrellia egeriae Rodrigues (Diptera: Leaf miner Release application Albany, California, Coetzee et al. 2011a Brazilian waterweed applicable Ephydridae) submitted ex. Buenos Aires, Argentina South America Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Substantial Bagous hydrillae O'Brien (Coleoptera: Stem miner Shelved Australia Buckingham & Balciunas hydrilla Curculionidae) 1994; Balciunas et al. 1996; Coetzee et al. Old World 2011a Hydrellia pakistanae Deonier (Diptera: Leaf miner Shelved India and Pakistan Buckingham et al. 1989; Ephydridae) via USA Wheeler & Center 1996, 2001; Center et al. 1997; Coetzee et al. 2011a; Bownes 2015 Hydrellia purcelli Deeming (Diptera: Leaf miner Release permit Singapore Coetzee et al. 2011a; Ephydridae) issued, shelved Bownes 2014, 2015; Bownes & Deeming 2016 Parapoynx diminutalis Snellen Leaf cutter Not released, occurs Extensive Asia Bownes, 2010, 2018 (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) locally
IRIDACEAE Iris pseudacorus L. Not Aphthona nonstriata (Goeze) Leaf feeder Under investigation Belgium yellow flag iris applicable (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Europe MELIACEAE Melia azedarach L. Not Araecerus fasciculatus (DeGeer) Fruit pulp borer Rejected seringa applicable (Coleoptera: Anthribidae)
Asia to Australia
MYRTACEAE Leptospermum laevigatum (Gaertn.) Negligible Aristaea thalassias (Meyrick) [formerly Leaf feeder Released 1996, Trivial Australia Gordon 1999b, Gordon F.Muell. in Parectopa] (Lepidoptera: established 2011 Australian myrtle Gracillariidae)
Australia Callococcus leptospermi (Maskell) Stem galler, sap Under investigation Australia Gordon 2011 (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae) sucker
Dasineura strobila Dorchin (Diptera: Bud galler Released 1994, Trivial Australia Gordon 1999b; Dorchin & Cecidomyiidae) established, present Adair 2011; Gordon 2011 before release Dasineura tomentosa Dorchin Shoot & flower- Under investigation Australia Dorchin & Adair 2011 (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) bud galler
Doratifera sp. (Lepidoptera: Leaf feeder Rejected Australia Limacodidae)
Fergusonina sp. (Diptera: Flower-bud Shelved Australia Gordon 1999b Fergusoninidae) galler
PAPAVERACEAE Argemone ochroleuca Sweet and A. Not Conotracheluscf. leucophaeatus Stem borer Shelved Mexico Van der Westhuizen & mexicana L. applicable Fåhraeus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Mpedi 2011 Mexican poppy Sirocalodes cf. wickhami (Champion) Seed feeder Shelved Mexico Van der Westhuizen & Central America (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Mpedi 2011
PINACEAE Pinus pinaster Aiton Not Pissodes validirostris Gyllenhal Cone borer Under investigation Portugal Lennox et al. 2009; cluster pine applicable (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Hoffmann et al. 2011
Mediterranean Pinus L. spp. Not Trisetacus sp. (Acari: Trombidiformes: Causes abortion Shelved pines applicable Eriophyidae) of immature cones Europe POACEAE Arundo donax L. Negligible Rhizaspidiotus donacis Leonardi Rhizome, leaf Under investigation Spain, Greece Moran & Goolsby (2010); giant reed (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and stem feeder Goolsby et al. (2010)
Mediterranean, Europe and Asia Tetramesa romana Walker Stem galler Present without Trivial Marshall et al. 2018 (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) - South being released African biotype
Tetramesa romana Walker Stem galler Under investigation Spain (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) - Granada biotype
Tetramesa romana Walker Stem galler Under investigation France Goolsby & Moran (2009); (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) - French Moran & Goolsby (2009) biotype
PONTEDERIACEAE Eichhornia crassipes (C.Mart.) Substantial Acremonium zonatum (Sawada) Leaf pathogen Not released, occurs Trivial but can be Morris et al. 1999 Solms W.Gams (anamorphic fungus; locally considerable in water hyacinth Hypocreales) presence of insect agents South America Alternaria eichhorniae Nag-Raj & Leaf pathogen Not released, occurs Trivial but can be Morris et al. 1999 Ponnappa (anamorphic fungus; locally; shelved considerable in Pleosporales: Pleosporaceae) presence of insect agents Bellura densa (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Petiole borer Rejected USA Center & Hill 2002 Noctuidae)
Cercospora piaropi Tharp. Leaf pathogen Not released, occurs Unknown, cannot Morris et al. 1999 (anamorphic fungus; locally be distinguished Mycosphaerellales: from C. rodmanii Mycosphaerellaceae) in the field
Cercospora rodmanii Conway Leaf pathogen Released 1992, Considerable USA Hill & Cilliers 1999; Morris (anamorphic fungus; established et al. 1999 Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Cornops aquaticum (Brüner) Leaf feeder Released 2011, Amazonas, Brazil Hill & Cilliers 1999; (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Leptysminae) establishment Bownes 2009, Bownes et unconfirmed al. 2010a,b; Coetzee et al. 2011b; Bownes et al. 2013a,b Dyscinetus dubius (Olivier) Crown borer Rejected Amazonas, Brazil (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae)
Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) Leaf sucker Released 1996, Considerable Santa Catarina, Hill & Cilliers 1999; (Hemiptera: Miridae) established Brazil; and Loreto, Coetzee et al. 2005, 2007, Peru 2011b Eccritotarsus eichhorniae Henry Leaf sucker Released 2007, Considerable Loreto, Peru Paterson et al. 2016; (Hemiptera: Miridae) established Henry 2017
Megamelus scutellaris Berg Leaf sucker Released 2013, Unknown Argentina via USA Coetzee et al. 2011b (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) established
Neochetina bruchi Hustache Stem borer Released 1990 & Considerable Argentina via Hill & Cilliers 1999; (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1996, established Zimbabwe Coetzee et al. 2011b
Neochetina eichhorniae Warner Stem borer Released 1974 & Considerable Argentina Hill & Cilliers 1999; (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1985, established Coetzee et al. 2011b
Niphograpta albiguttalis Warren Petiole borer Released 1990, Considerable Argentina via USA Hill & Cilliers 1999; (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) established Coetzee et al. 2011b
Orthogalumna terebrantis Wallwork Leaf miner Released 1989, Considerable Argentina Hill & Cilliers 1999; (Acari: Sarcoptiformes: Galumnidae) established Coetzee et al. 2011b
Taosa longula Remes Lenicov Leaf sucker Shelved Argentina Coetzee et al. 2011b (Hemiptera: Dictyopharidae)
Thrypticus circularis Bickel & Petiole miner Shelved Argentina Coetzee et al. 2011b Hernández (Diptera: Dolichopodidae)
Uredo eichhorniae Gonz. Frag. & Cif. Leaf pathogen Shelved Brazil Morris et al. 1999 (anamorphic fungus: Pucciniales)
Xubida infusellus (Walker) Petiole borer Shelved Argentina Coetzee et al. 2009 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
PROTEACEAE Hakea gibbosa (Sm.) Cav. Negligible Aphanasium australe (Boisduval) Stem borer Alternative host, Unknown Australia (NSW) Gordon 1999a, 2003; rock hakea (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) released 2001, Gordon & Fourie 2011 established Australia Erytenna consputa Pascoe Green-fruit Alternative host, Trivial Australia (SA) Gordon 1999a; Gordon & (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeder released 1975, Fourie 2011 established Hakea sericea Schrad. & J.C.Wendl. Substantial Aphanasium australe (Boisduval) Stem borer Released 2001, Unknown Australia (NSW) Gordon 1999a, 2003; silky hakea (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) established Gordon & Fourie 2011
Australia Bortesia sp. (Hymenoptera: Bud galler Shelved Australia Kluge & Neser 1991 Torymidae)
Carposina autologa Meyrick Seed feeder Released 1970 & Trivial Australia (South Gordon 1999a; Gordon & (Lepidoptera: Carposinidae) 1982, established East & South West) Fourie 2011
Colletotrichum acutatum J.H. Stem gummosis Not released, occurs Extensive South Africa Morris 1991; Morris et al. Simmonds (Glomerellales: disease locally; developed 1999; Lubbe et al. 2004; Glomerellaceae) as mycoherbicide Gordon & Fourie 2011 "Hakatak" Cydmaea binotata Lea (Coleoptera: Leaf & shoot Released 1979, Trivial Australia Gordon 1999a; Gordon & Curculionidae) borer established Fourie 2011
Dicomada rufa Blackburn (Coleoptera: Flower-bud Released 2006, Unknown Australia Gordon 1999a; Gordon & Curculionidae) feeder established Fourie 2011
Dixoncis pictus Oke (Coleoptera: Old-fruit borer Shelved Australia Kluge & Neser 1991 Curculionidae)
Erytenna consputa Pascoe Green-seed Released 1970 & Extensive Australia (SA) Gordon 1999a; Gordon & (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeder 1974, established Fourie 2011
Sangarius paradoxus Stål Seed sucker Rejected Australia Kluge & Neser 1991 (Hemiptera: Acanthosomatidae)
Hakea drupacea (C.F.Gaertn.) Not Aphanosperma occidentalis Britton Mature-fruit Shelved Roem. & Schult. (formerly Hakea applicable (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) borer suaveolensR.Br.) sweet hakea Australia
ROSACEAE Rubus cuneifolius Pursh Not Gymnoconia nitens (Schwein.) F.Kern Systemic stem Shelved USA Morris et al. 1999 American bramble applicable & Thurst. (Pucciniales: pathogen Phragmidiaceae) North America Rubus fruticosus L. agg. Not Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz) G. Leaf pathogen Shelved Europe blackberry applicable Winter (Pucciniales: Phragmidiaceae)
Europe SALVINIACEAE Salvinia molesta D.S.Mitch. Complete Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder & Stem borer Released 1985, Extensive Brazil via Australia Cilliers et al. 2003; water fern Sands (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established via Namibia Coetzee et al. 2011b
South America Paulinia acuminata (De Geer) Frond feeder Shelved Trinidad via Namibia Julien et al. 2009 (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Pauliniinae)
Salvinia minima Baker Not Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder & Stem borer Under investigation USA common salvinia applicable Sands, Florida strain (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) South America SAPINDACEAE Cardiospermum grandiflorum Sw. Under Apocera zographica (Dyar) Leaf tier Shelved Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; balloon vine evaluation (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Simelane et al. 2011a
South America Chlorostrymon simaethis sarita Seed feeder Rejected Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; (Skinner) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) Simelane et al. 2011a
Cissoanthonomus tuberculipennis Seed feeder Released 2013, Extensive Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; Hustache (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) established Simelane et al. 2011a
Contarinia sp.(Diptera: Flower galler Shelved Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; Cecidomyiidae) Simelane et al. 2011a
Gargaphia sp. (Hemiptera: Tingidae) Leaf sucker Rejected Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; Simelane et al. 2011a Lisseurytomella flava (Ashmead) Seed feeder Shelved Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) Simelane et al. 2011a
Moodnopsis sp. nr. perangusta Dyar Seed feeder Shelved Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Simelane et al. 2011a
Phyllachora rimulosa Speg. Tar spot Shelved Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; (Phyllachorales: Phyllachoraceae) pathogen Simelane et al. 2011a
Platynota xylophaea (Meyrick) Leaf tier Shelved Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Simelane et al. 2011a
Puccinia arechavaletae Speg. Leaf pathogen Under investigation Argentina Mc Kay et al. 2010; (Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae) Simelane et al. 2011a
SOLANACEAE Cestrum laevigatum Schltdl. Not Uromyces cestriBertero ex Mont. Rust pathogen Rejected Argentina Fourie 2011 inkberry applicable (Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae)
South America Cestrum parqui L'Hér. Not ?Acallepitrix sp. (Coleoptera: Leaf miner Under investigation Chilean cestrum applicable Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae)
South America Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav Substantial Arvelius albopunctatus (De Geer) Seed sucker Rejected Argentina Olckers & Zimmermann silverleaf nightshade, satansbos Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) 1991
North, Central and South America Conotrachelus bisignatus Boheman Seed feeder Rejected Argentina Olckers & Zimmermann (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1991
Ditylenchus phyllobius (Thorne) Leaf galler Shelved Texas, USA Olckers & Zimmermann (Nematoda: Tylenchida: Anguinidae) 1991
Frumenta nephelomicta (Meyrick) Fruit galler Released 1979 & Mexico Olckers et al. 1999 (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) 1985, not established Frumenta sp. (Lepidoptera: Stem & fruit Released 1989, not Texas, USA Olckers 1995; Adamski & Gelechiidae) galler established Brown 2002
Gratiana lutescens (Boheman) Leaf feeder Rejected Argentina Hill 1999; Olckers et al. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: 1999 Cassidinae)
Leptinotarsa defecta (Stål) Leaf feeder Released 1992, Moderate Texas, USA Olckers & Hulley 1994; (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Olckers et al. 1995; Chrysomelinae) Hoffmann et al. 1998
Leptinotarsa texana (Schaeffer) Leaf feeder Released 1992, Extensive Texas, USA Olckers & Hulley 1994; (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Olckers et al. 1995; Chrysomelinae) Hoffmann et al. 1998
Pseudocercospora egenula (Syd.) U. Leaf spot Rejected Braun & Crous (anamorphic fungus; pathogen Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Solanum mauritianum Scop. Negligible Acallepitrix sp. (Coleoptera: Leaf miner Rejected Argentina, Brazil Olckers 2004 bugweed Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae)
South America Acrolepia xylophragma (Meyrick) Leaf miner Rejected Argentina Olckers 1999, 2009 (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)
Adesmus hemispilus (Germar) Stem borer Shelved Argentina, Brazil Olckers 1999, 2009 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Anthonomus morticinus Clark Flower-bud Shelved Argentina, Brazil Olckers 1999, 2009 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeder
Anthonomus santacruzi Hustache Flower-bud Released 2008, Trivial Argentina Olckers 2003, 2008, (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeder established 2011b; Cowie et al. 2016a, 2017; Singh & Olckers 2017; Cowie et al. 2018; English & Olckers 2018 Aponychus schultzi Blanchard (Acari: Leaf sucker Shelved Brazil Pedrosa-Macedo et al. Tetranychidae) 2003
Collabismus notulatus Boheman Shoot galler Shelved Argentina, Brazil Olckers 1999, 2009 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Conotrachelus squalidus Boheman Stem borer Shelved Argentina, Paraguay Olckers 1999, 2009 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Corythaica cyathicollis (Costa) Leaf sucker Rejected Argentina Olckers 1999, 2009 (Hemiptera: Tingidae)
Gargaphia decoris Drake (Hemiptera: Leaf sucker Released 1999, Trivial, occasional Argentina, Brazil Olckers 2000a, 2011b; Tingidae) established outbreaks Olckers & Lotter 2004; Olckers & Borea 2009; Cowie et al. 2016b, 2018 Mycovellosiella brachycarpa (Syd.) Leaf spot Rejected Brazil Deighton (anamorphic fungus; pathogen Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Nealcidion bicristatum (Bates) Stem borer Rejected Argentina, Brazil Olckers 1999, 2009 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Platyphora biforis (Germar) Leaf feeder Rejected Brazil Olckers 2000b (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae)
Platyphora conviva (Stål) (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Rejected Brazil Olckers 2000b Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae)
Platyphora nigronotata (Stål) Leaf feeder Rejected Brazil Olckers 2000b (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae)
Platyphora paraguana (Jacoby) Leaf feeder Rejected Argentina Olckers 2000b (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae)
Platyphora semiviridis (Jacoby) Leaf feeder Rejected Brazil Olckers 1998 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae)
Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam. Substantial Gratiana spadicea (Klug) (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Released 1994, Extensive Argentina, southern Hill & Hulley 1995; Byrne wild tomato, dense-thorned bitter Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) established Paraguay and Brazil et al. 2002; King et al. apple 2011a Metriona elatior (Klug) (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Rejected Argentina Hill & Hulley 1996 South America Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae)
TAMARICACEAE Tamarix chinensis Lour., T. Not Diorhabda carinulata (Debrochers) Leaf feeder Rejected Fukang, China via DeLoach et al 2003; Tracy ramosissima Ledeb. and their applicable (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) Colorado, USA & Robbins 2009; Herr et al hybrids 2014; Marlin et al. 2017 Chinese tamarisk pink tamarisk Eurasia VERBENACEAE Lantana camara L. (sensu lato) Negligible Aceria lantanae (Cook) (Acari: Flower galler Released 2007, Extensive, on Florida, USA; Cuba Urban et al. 2001, 2011a; lantana (Highveld) Trombidiformes: Eriophyidae) established certain varieties in Mukwevho et al. 2017 to some areas Central and South America substantial Aceria 'lantanae' (Cook) (Acari: Leaf galler Rejected Argentina, Brazil (coastal & Trombidiformes: Eriophyidae) Lowveld) Aconophora compressa Walker Stem sucker Rejected Mexico, via Australia Heystek & Baars 2005 (Hemiptera: Membracidae)
Aerenicopsis championi Bates Stem borer Shelved Guatemala Day et al. 2003 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Aerenicopsis irumuara Martins & Stem borer Shelved Guatemala Martins & Galileo 2004 Galileo (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Alagoasa decemguttata (Fabricius) Leaf feeder Rejected Brazil Baars & Neser 1999, (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Urban et al. 2011b Galerucinae)
Alagoasa extrema (Harold) Leaf feeder Rejected Mexico Williams 2005, 2006, (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Urban et al. 2011b Galerucinae)
Alagoasa parana Samuelson Leaf feeder Released 1985, not Brazil via Australia Cilliers & Neser 1991 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Galerucinae)
Asphondylia camarae Mohn (Diptera: Flower galler Shelved Mexico, Guatemala Urban et al. 2011b Cecidomyiidae)
Autoplusia illustrata (Guenée) Leaf feeder Released 1978 & Colombia via Cilliers & Neser 1991 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 1984, not Australia established Barela parvisaccata Young Leaf sucker Rejected Mexico Phenye & Simelane 2005 (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)
Calycomyza lantanae (Frick) (Diptera: Leaf miner Released 1982, Moderate Trinidad via Baars & Neser 1999 Agromyzidae) established Australia; Later also Florida, USA Charidotis pygmaea (Klug) Leaf feeder Rejected Colombia via Williams 2004 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Australia Cassidinae)
Coelocephalapion camarae Kissinger Petiole galler Released 2007, Moderate but Mexico Baars et al. 2006 (Coleoptera: Brentidae: Apioninae) established localized
Crocidosema lantana Busck [formerly Flower & Present before Trivial Mexico via Hawaii, Baars 2003 in Epinotia] (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) receptacle miner release; released USA 1984, established Eutreta xanthochaeta Aldrich (Diptera: Shoot galler Released 1983, not Hawaii, USA Mabuda 2005 Tephritidae) established; rejected
Falconia intermedia (Distant) Leaf sucker Released 1999, Moderate, Jamaica Baars et al. 2003 (Hemiptera: Miridae) established localized
Hypena laceratalis Walker Leaf feeder Not released, native Moderate Native Baars 2003 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (Walker) Flower miner Present before Trivial Mexico via Hawaii, Baars 2003 (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae) release; released USA 1984, not established Leptobyrsa decora Drake (Hemiptera: Leaf sucker Released 1972- Colombia, Peru via Cilliers & Neser 1991 Tingidae) 1984, not Australia established Longitarsus bethae Savini & Escalona Root feeder Released 2007, Moderate, Mexico Simelane 2005, 2010 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established localised Galerucinae)
Longitarsus columbicus Root feeder Shelved Venezuela Baars 2001 columbicusHarold (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae)
Longitarsus howdeni (Blake) Root feeder Shelved Jamaica Baars & Neser 1999 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae)
Longitarsus sp. (Coleoptera: Root feeder Shelved Mexico Baars & Neser 1999 Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae)
Macugonalia geographica (Signoret) Stem sucker Rejected Brazil Urban et al. 2011b (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)
Neogalia sunia (Guenée) Leaf feeder Released 1962 & California, USA via Cilliers & Neser 1991 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 1969, not Hawaii via Australia established Octotoma championi Baly Leaf miner Released 1978, Costa Rica via Cilliers & Neser 1991 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: 1995, not Australia Cassidinae) established
Octotoma scabripennis Guèrin- Leaf miner Released 1971- Considerable Mexico, via Hawaii, Cilliers 1987 Mèneville (Coleoptera: 1975, established via Australia Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae)
Omophoita albicollis (Fabricius) Leaf feeder Rejected Jamaica Baars & Neser 1999 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae)
Ophiomyia camarae Spencer Leaf miner Released 2001, Considerable Florida, USA Simelane 2002; Simelane (Diptera: Agromyzidae) established & Phenye 2005
Ophiomyia lantanae (Froggatt) Fruit miner Present before Moderate Mexico via Hawaii, Cilliers 1987 (Diptera: Agromyzidae) release; released USA 1961 Orthonama ignifera (Warren) [formerly Leaf feeder Release permit Florida, USA; Williams & Madire 2008 in Leptostales] (Lepidoptera: issued Mexico Geometridae)
Orthonama sp. B (Lepidoptera: Leaf feeder Shelved Geometridae)
Passalora lantanae (Chupp) U.Braun Leaf pathogen Released 2002, not Florida, USA Den Breeÿen 2003; Den & Crous var. lantanae [formerly in established Breeÿen & Morris 2003; Mycovellosiella] (anamorphic fungus; Retief 2010a Mycosphaerellales: Mycospheraellaceae)
Phenacoccus madeirensis Green Leaf & shoot Shelved Brazil Day et al. 2003; Urban et (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) sucker al. 2011b
Plagiohammus spinipennis (Thomson) Stem borer Released 1973, not Mexico via Hawaii, Cilliers & Neser 1991 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) established USA via Australia
Prospodium tuberculatum (Speg.) Leaf rust Rejected Brazil Thomas et al. 2006; Retief Arthur (Pucciniales: Uropyxidaceae) pathogen 2010b
Pseudanthonomus canescens Faust Flower miner Rejected Guatemala Urban et al. 2011b (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Pseudanthonomus griseipilis Flower miner Rejected Guatemala Urban et al. 2011b Champion (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Puccinia lantanae Farl. (Pucciniales: Leaf and stem Release permit Peru Renteria et al. 2004 Pucciniaceae) rust pathogen issued; imported
Salbia haemorrhoidalis (Guenée) Leaf feeder Released 1962, Trivial Cuba via Hawaii, Baars 2003 (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) established USA
Septoria sp. (anamorphic fungus; Leaf spot Rejected Hawaii, USA Trujillo 1995 Mycosphaerellales: pathogen Mycosphaerellaceae)
Teleonemia elata Drake (Hemiptera: Leaf sucker Released 1972, not Brazil via Australia Cilliers & Neser 1991 Tingidae) established
Teleonemia scrupulosa Stål Leaf & flower Released 1961, Considerable Mexico via Hawaii Baars & Neser 1999 (Hemiptera: Tingidae) sucker 1972, 1984, (1961); C & S established America via Australia (1972); via Mauritius (1984) Teleonema vulgata Drake & Leaf sucker Shelved Brazil Baars 2002 Hambleton (Hemiptera: Tingidae)
Uroplata fulvopustulata Baly Leaf miner Released 1978, not Costa Rica via Day et al. 2003 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Australia Cassidinae)
Uroplata girardi Pic (Coleoptera: Leaf miner Released 1974, Considerable, Brazil via Hawaii, Baars & Neser 1999 Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) 1983, established coastal USA via Australia (1974); Argentina via Australia (1983) Uroplata lantanae Buzzi & Winder Leaf miner Released 1984, not Brazil via Australia Cilliers & Neser 1991 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: established Cassidinae)
Unidentified species (Hemiptera: Leaf sucker Rejected Urban et al. 2011b Tingidae)
For each of the agents that has established successfully, a rating is given for the perceived degree of damage that it inflicts on the target weed. These ratings (Anon. 1999), which have been widely adopted since 1999, and slightly amended in this account, are sometimes based on formal measurements and otherwise on subjective visual assessments, and include the following categories. Extensive: Very high levels of damage, as much as could be expected from the agent. Few plants survive, or growth is arrested, or almost no seeds are produced. Considerable: High levels of damage. Some plants may survive but growth rates are noticeably slower, or seed production is reduced by more than 50%. Moderate: Perceivable damage, but most plants survive. Growth may be slowed to some extent, or seed production is reduced by less than 50%. Trivial: Some damage, but survival, growth and seed production of the plants is almost normal. Unknown: Agent has been too recently released, or has not been evaluated.
For each weed species on which at least one biological control agent has established, the impact of the agent (where only one is established) or combined impact of all agents (where two are more are established) (i.e. the degree of control) (adapted from Anon. 1999) is rated by estimating the degree to which the impact or importance of the target weed species has been reduced by the agent(s). Assessments are based on the degree of reduction in the use of alternative control methods (chemical or mechanical) since the introduction of biological control agents, and include the following categories. Complete: No other control measures are needed to reduce the weed to acceptable levels, at least in areas where the agents are established. Substantial: Other methods are needed to reduce the weed to acceptable levels, but less effort is required (e.g. less frequent herbicide applications or less herbicide needed per unit area). Negligible: In spite of damage inflicted by the agents, control of the weed remains entirely reliant on the implementation of other control measures. Not determined: Either the release of the agents has been too recent for meaningful evaluation, or the programme has not been evaluated. Under evaluation: an active programme is underway to evaluate the impact of biological control agents on the weed, which is expected to result in categorisation as complete, substantial or negligible control.
Adapted from: Klein, H. 2011. A catalogue of the insects, mites and pathogens that have been used or rejected, or are under consideration, for the biological control of invasive alien plants in South Africa. In: Moran, V.C., Hoffmann, J.H. & Hill, M.P. (Eds) Biological Control of Invasive Alien Plants in South Africa (1999-2010). African Entomology (Special Issue) 19(2): 515-549.
Last updated July 2018.
Contact: Costas Zachariades at e-mail: [email protected]