A Thesis Entitled Estimating the Duration of Ancestral Lake Erie

Home , Early Lake Erie, Fort Wayne Moraine, Lake Arkona, Lake Maumee, Lake Saginaw, Lake Warren

A Thesis

entitled

Estimating the Duration of Ancestral Lake Erie Using Varve Analysis At and

Above the Warren Stage in Northwest Ohio

Brad G. Anderson

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Master of Science Degree in Geology

______Dr. Timothy Fisher, Committee Chair

______Dr. David Krantz, Committee Member

______Dr. Richard Becker, Committee Member

______Dr. Patricia R. Komuniecki, Dean College of Graduate Studies

The University of Toledo December 2011

This document is copyrighted material. Under copyright law, no parts of this document may be reproduced without the expressed permission of the author. ii An Abstract of

Estimating the Duration of Ancestral Lake Erie Using Varve Analysis At and

Above the Warren Stage in Northwest Ohio

Brad G. Anderson

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science Degree in Geology

The University of Toledo December 2011

The chronology of ancestral Lake Erie is poorly constrained. As the

Laurentide Ice Sheet began to retreat to the northeast, a large proglacial lake formed named ancestral Lake Erie. Several studies have focused on the geomorphic relationships between lake stages and strandlines of ancestral Lake

Erie, but the lake’s chronology and the sedimentology of its sediment are largely unknown. The objectives of this study is to use analysis of lacustrine sediment to determine the duration of ancestral Lake Erie above the Warren stage, test the existence of a low stand (Lake Ypsilanti), and map strandlines in northwest Ohio north of the Maumee River.

Of the twelve mapped water planes in northwest Ohio using LIDAR data, seven have been mapped previously and five new water planes were found.

Approximately 12 m of lacustrine sediment cores were collected from Stranahan

iii Arboretum, Wildwood Metropark, and Oak Openings Metropark in Lucas

County, Ohio. The glaciolacustrine sediment is rhythmically laminated, consisting of mostly alternating laminae of clay and silt. Of the counted rhythmites at each site, a maximum number of 507 is from Oak Openings

Metropark. Magnetic susceptibility, loss on ignition, grain size analysis, and bioturbation data were used to interpret the rhythmites as varves. The lack of ravinement surfaces, pedogenesis, and/or a broad unconformity is used to negate the existence of the Lake Ypsilanti low stand. An important result of this study is that the ~500 years of sedimentation recorded by varves suggests that ancestral Lake Erie existed over a shorted time period than previous studies that relied on radiocarbon dating.

iv Acknowledgements

There are many people I would like to acknowledge and thank and without whom this project could not be completed. Thanks to my thesis advisor,

Dr. Timothy Fisher, for providing constant guidance and challenges to show me how to become a scientist and a better geologist. I would like to thank my committee members Dr. David Krantz for providing discussions about the project and helping me look at the bigger picture of the project and Dr. Richard

Becker for providing much needed guidance with GIS and Spectral Analysis related questions. Field work could not have been completed without the help of several field assistants. I also want to thank Jason Witter and Butch Berger for their guidance and wealth of knowledge.

I would like to also thank the Metroparks of the Toledo Area for allowing access to the Wildwood and Oak Openings sampling sites and to the Stranahan

Arboretum for allowing access to the pond for core sampling. Financial support was provide from the Department of Environmental Sciences and the National

Science Foundation GK-12 program, grant # DGE-0742395 Graduate Fellows in

Highs School STEM Education: An Environmental Science Community at the

Land-Lake Ecosystem Interface.

v Contents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….iii

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………..v

Contents………………………………………………………………………………....vi

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………….ix

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………....x

1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..1

1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..1

1.2 Study Area………………………………………………………………………3

1.3 Deglaciation and Proglacial Lakes……………………………………………7

1.4 Rhythmites and Varves……………………………………………………….16

1.5 Objectives and Hypothesis…………………………………………………...17

2 Methods……………………………………………………………………………...18

2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………18

2.2 Sediment Core Retrieval……………………………………………………...19

2.2.1 Core Retrieval at Stranahan Arboretum……………………………..19

2.2.2 Core Retrieval at Wildwood and Oak Openings Metroparks……..20

2.3 Core Processing at the Glacial Lake and Sediment Science Lab…………...20

vi 2.3.1 Core Splitting, Core Description, and Digital Photography……….21

2.3.2 Volume Magnetic Susceptibility……………………………………...21

2.3.3 Loss on Ignition………………………………………………………...21

2.3.4 Particle Size Analysis…..………………………………………………23

2.4 Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Dating………………………...24

2.5 Digital Image Processing……………………………………………………..25

2.6 Strandline Mapping…………………………………………………………...26

2.7 Spectral Analysis……………………………………………………………....26

3 Geomorphology…………………………………………………………………….28

3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………28

3.2 Beach Ridge Mapping Results……………………………………………….29

3.3 Discussion……………………………………………………………………...37

4 Glaciolacustrine Sediments………………………………………………………..42

4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………....42

4.2 Magnetic Susceptibility (MS)………………………………………………...42

4.3 Loss on Ignition (LOI)………………………………………………………...43

4.4 Spectral Analysis……………………………………………………………....44

4.5 Particle Size Analysis…………………………………………………...…...... 45

4.6 Stranahan Arboretum Sediment Cores...……………………………………45

4.7 Wildwood Sediment Cores and Outcrop…………………………………...48

4.8 Oak Openings Cores and Outcrop…………………………………………..54

4.9 Interpretations…………………………………………………………………57

vii 5 Discussion and Conclusion………………………………………………………..61

5.1 Discussion……………………………………………………………………...61

5.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...... 64

5.3 Future Work…………………………………………………………………...65

References………………………………………………………………………………66

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………..71

A STAR Grain Size Data…………...……………………………………………..71

B WWMP Grain Size Data…………...…………………………………………...72

C STAR Rhythmite Thickness……………………………………...…………….75

D WWMP Rhythmite Thickness…………………………………...…………….79

E OOMP Rhythmite Thickness………………...………………………………...89

F High Resolution Digital Photographs………………………...……………..100

viii

List of Tables

1.1 Name, order of, and elevations of glacial lakes in the western Lake Erie

basin…………………………………………………………………………………1

1.2 Latitude and Longitude for the three core sampling locations…………..……6

1.3 List of names, elevations, and outlets for lake stages of ancestral Lake

Erie……………………………………………………………………..…………..10

1.4 OSL dates for dunes and beach ridges in northwest Ohio…………………...15

4.1 LOI data for rhythmites taken from the STAR core…………………………...43

4.2 Results for the pebble count conducted on the diamicton at WWMP………50

List of Figures

1-1 Extent of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Late Wisconsinan

glaciation...... 2

1-2 Major lake levels of ancestral Lake Erie……………...………………………..2

1-3 Digital elevation model (DEM) of northwest Ohio…….…………………….4

1-4 DEM of Lucas County, OH, USA……….……………………………………...4

1-5 (A) Portion of the Whitehouse 7.5’ Quadrangle with location of Oak

Openings Metropark sampling site. (B) Portion of the Sylvania 7.5’

Quadrangle with locations of Stranahan Arboretum and Wildwood

Metropark sampling sites……….………………………………………………5

1-6 Exposed sediment in the studied cut bank at Wildwood Metropark….…...6

1-7 Exposed sediment in the studied cut bank at Oak Openings Metropark.…6

1-8 Distribution of main and sub-lobes of the LIS in the Great Lakes region.…7

1-9 Inferred ice positions due to readvances of several lobes during the overall

retreat of the LIS…………………………………………………………………8

1-10 Satellite image of the western basin of Lake Erie showing the locations of

the Blenheim and Pelee Moraines………………………………………….....11

x 2-1 (A) The cleaned exposure of sand. (B) Aluminum tubes hammered into the

cleaned exposure……...... 25

3-1 Map of previously mapped beach ridges in northwest Ohio………………29

3-2 Map showing strandlines, fan, and OOR mapped from a DEM created

from LIDAR data………………………………………………………………..30

3-3 Map of topographic features in Fulton County……………………………...31

3-4 DEM showing the diffuse appearance of strandline K versus the sharp

appearance of strandline G………………………………………………….....33

3-5 Topographic cross-sections from transects along strandline G………….....35

3-6 Map showing strandline G and the locations of transects used to determine

the tilt of the strandline…………………………………………………………36

3-7 Scatter plot of water plane elevations along strandline G…………………..39

3-8 DEM of south-central Michigan and northwest Ohio showing the River

Rasin Channel, Fan Channel, ice margin of the sub-lobes of the Saginaw

Lobe, and inferred fan…………………………………………………………..41

4-1 Multi-taper method spectral analysis of rhythmites from WWMP………..44

4-2 Particle size analysis for 10 grain size samples from STAR………………...46

4-3 Particle size analysis for WWMP……………………………………………...47

4-4 Stranahan Arboretum stratigraphic log………………………………………49

4-5 Wildwood Metropark stratigraphic log………………………………………51

xi 4-6 (A) Photograph showing front and side view of ripple form sets. (B) Side

view of core from (A). (C) Close up and side view of core from (A). (D)

Sharp upper contact of the finer lamina and the diffuse upper contact of the

coarser lamina………………………………………………………………...... 52

4-7 (A) Side view of WWMP core showing coarse lamina included and scoured

down into the fine lamina. (B) Plan view of upper fine lamina contact. (C)

Underside of bottom fine lamina contact. (D) Plan view of coarse lamina

with lighter colored inclusions of coarser sediment…………………………53

4-8 Photograph of Brown Cut at Oak Openings Metropark showing sediment

coring locations………………………………………………………………….55

4-9 Oak Openings Metropark stratigraphic log………………………………….56

xii Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

At the peak of the Wisconsinan glaciation, the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS), a large continental ice sheet, covered almost all of northern North America (Figure

1-1). As climate began to warm, the LIS retreated to the north and northeast in the eastern Great Lakes region. During the retreat several ice dammed, proglacial lakes formed in the Lake Erie basin forming ancestral Lake Erie.

Ancestral Lake Erie is characterized by several major lake levels (Figure 1-2), which will be referred to as “lakes,” “glacial lakes,” or by their specific name

(Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: Names, order of, and elevations of glacial lakes in the western Lake Erie basin (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985; Totten, 1985). Glacial Lake Name Elevation, m.a.s.l. (ft.a.s.l.) Maumee 244–229.5 (800-753) Arkona 217–212 (712-695) Ypsilanti ??? Whittlesey 226–223 (741-732) Warren 209–204 (686-669) Wayne 201 (659)

1 Figure 1-1: Extent of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Late Wisconsinan glaciation. Orange star denotes the location of the study area. Modified after Barnett (1992).

Figure 1-2: Major lake levels of ancestral Lake Erie. Red lines represent elevations for core collection locations. Taken from Campbell (2009) who modified it after Barnett (1985).

2 Few studies have concentrated on the glacial lakes in northwest Ohio, resulting in a poorly understood history of the lakes, in particular the duration and style of lake drainage which are crucial pieces of information for reconstructing the history of ancestral Lake Erie. Information from other areas in the Great Lakes region may aid in reconstructing the history of ancestral Lake

Erie.

1.2 Study Area

The glacial lake plain in northwest Ohio has little topographic relief, and is superimposed with beach ridges, sand dunes, moraines, hummocky topography, and is dissected by fluvial systems (Figure 1-3). The study area is relatively flat, composed mostly of glaciolacustrine sediments overlain with sand. A relatively large sand ridge, the Oak Openings Ridge (OOR), is found in western Lucas County, Ohio. The OOR is the most striking geomorphic landform in the study area and is a Lake Warren barrier spit (Campbell et al.,

2011). The study area consists of three sampling locations, Stranahan Arboretum

(STAR), Wildwood Metropark (WWMP), and Oak Openings Metropark

(OOMP), located in Lucas County, Ohio (Figures 1-4 and 1-5).

The sampling locations at STAR and WWMP are in urban parks in Toledo,

OH, and OOMP is located in a rural park near Swanton, OH (Table 1.2). The general stratigraphy at STAR consists of a basal diamicton overlain by laminated

Figure 1-3: Digital elevation model (DEM) of northwest Ohio. Ice positions of the Huron-Erie lobe are marked by three recessional moraines with retreat from west to east.

Figure 1-4: DEM of Lucas County, OH, USA.

5 Table 1.2: Latitude and Longitude for the three core sampling locations. Site Latitude Longitude STAR 41°41’37”N 83°40’11”W WWMP 41°41’03”W 83°40’19”W OOMP 41°33’27”N 83°51’49”W

mud and capped by sand. The sampling locations at WWMP and OOMP are composed of the same sequence of sediments as at STAR, but due to fluvial incision of a tributary of the Ottawa River and Swan Creek respectively, the stratigraphy is exposed in cut banks (Figures 1-6 and 1-7).

Figure 1-6: Exposed sediment in the studied cut bank at WWMP.

Figure 1-7: Exposed sediment in the studied cut bank at OOMP.

6 It should be noted that the sampling location at OOMP is on the west side of the

OOR and the sampling locations at STAR and WWMP are on the east side of the

OOR (Figure 1-4).

1.3 Deglaciation and Proglacial Lakes

The Wisconsinan glaciation reached its maximum extent in Ohio between

19,000 and 23,500 14C yrs BP (Lowell et al., 1999). As the LIS began to retreat to the north it separated into several lobes controlled by topographic highs and lows (Figure 1-8). The Great Lakes basins acted as funnels concentrating ice flow into lobes (Dreimanis and Goldthwait, 1973).

Figure 1-8: Distribution of main and sub-lobes of the LIS in the Great Lakes region. Bold, hashed black line indicates the maximum extent of the LIS. The arrows indicate the direction of ice flow of the main lobes. Orange star denotes study area. From Dreimanis and Goldthwait (1973).

7 The Huron-Erie lobe covered northwest Ohio and controlled the direction of water movement during deglaciation (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). The Huron-

Erie lobe reached its maximum extent during the Port Bruce Stadial around

15,500 14C yrs BP at the Wabash Moraine (Figure 1-9) (Barnett, 1985).

Figure 1-9: Inferred ice positions due to readvances of several lobes during the overall retreat of the LIS. The Port Bruce and Port Huron positions are labeled. Recession from the Port Bruce margin to the Port Huron margin controlled the glacial lake sequence in the Lake Erie basin. Modified after Larson and Schaetzl (2001) who adapted it from Larson et al. (1994).

Minimum ages for the Wabash moraine are 14,500 ± 150 14C yrs BP and 14,300 ±

50 14C yrs BP (Barnett, 1992). As the LIS retreated from the Fort Wayne Moraine

(Figure 1-3), meltwater from the LIS began to pond between the ice sheet and moraine (Dreimanis and Goldthwait, 1973). With continued retreat of the LIS,

8 several glacial lakes formed in the Lake Erie basin. The chronology of the lakes was initially constrained by relative ages of the geomorphic features associated with each lake (Barnett, 1985).

At least five drainage routes have been found for ancestral Lake Erie. The southern outlet was through the Wabash River at Fort Wayne, Indiana (Leverett and Taylor, 1915; Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). Water flowing through this outlet flowed through the Fort Wayne Moraine and ultimately into the Ohio and

Mississippi Rivers (Bleuer and Moore, 1972). The northern outlets are the Imlay

Channel near Imlay City, Michigan, the Ubly Channel, and the Grand River (of

Michigan), which ultimately routed meltwater to the west through the Grand

River into the Lake Michigan basin (Leverett and Taylor, 1915; Calkin and

Feenstra, 1985). During times when the LIS retreated north of and evacuated the

Erie basin, the lakes drained to the east into a low lake in the Lake Ontario basin which drained into the Mohawk River, Hudson River, and ultimately into the

Atlantic Ocean (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). The outlets for the glacial lakes were controlled by the position of the lobes of the LIS (Kehew et al., 2009).

Fluctuations of lake levels were due to the opening and closing of different outlets due to the retreat of the LIS and isostatic rebound (Lewis et al., 1994).

The traditional history of lake level reconstruction is that as the Huron-

Erie lobe retreated from the Fort Wayne Moraine, Lake Maumee, the first glacial lake in the series, formed and consisted of three stages, Maumee I (highest), II

(lowest), and III (middle) (Figure 1-2 and Table 1.3). Maumee I initially drained

9 to the west towards Fort Wayne, IN and into the Wabash River (Calkin and

Feenstra, 1985). With continued retreat, the Huron-Erie lobe separated into the

Huron and Erie basins and a lower outlet to the north opened through the Ubly channel, abandoning the outlet at Fort Wayne, lowering Maumee I to Maumee II

(Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). Maumee II is believed to be the lowest of the three lake stages of Lake Maumee.

Table 1.3: List of names, elevations, and outlets for lake stages of ancestral Lake Erie (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985; Totten, 1985). Lake Stage Elevation, m.a.s.l. (ft.a.s.l.) Outlet Maumee I 244 (800) Wabash River Maumee II 229.5 (753) Ubly Channel Maumee III 238 (781) Imlay Channel Arkona I 216 (709) Grand River Arkona II 213 (699) Grand River Arkona III 212 (696) Grand River Ypsilanti ??? Mohawk River Whittlesey I 226 (741) Ubly Channel Whittlesey II 223 (732) Ubly Channel Warren I 209 (686) Grand River Warren II 206 (676) Grand River Warren III 204 (669) Grand River Wayne 201 (659) Mohawk River

Evidence for Maumee II being the lowest of the three is that the beach ridges for Maumee II have a “broadened” or “washed look” (Leverett and

Taylor, 1915; Leverett, 1931) suggesting that the beach ridge of Maumee II was submerged by rising waters to the Maumee III level (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985).

The transgression is explained by readvance of the Huron lobe causing lake level to rise to Maumee III with drainage north through the Imlay Channel (Leverett and Taylor, 1915). The ice positions during the Lake Maumee stages II and III

10 are poorly established following retreat from the Defiance Moraine, but a stillstand has been proposed within the Erie basin, at the Blenheim Moraine in southern Ontario, Canada and the Pelee Moraine in the central basin of Lake Erie

(Figure 1-10) (Dreimanis, 1963; Barnett, 1985).

Figure 1-10: Satellite image of the western basin of Lake Erie showing the locations of the Blenheim and Pelee Moraines.

The suggested sequence, presented by (Leverett and Taylor, 1915), for

Lake Maumee, “highest-lowest-middle”, is not fully accepted by all researchers

(Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). Bleuer and Moore (1972) suggested that all three levels could have drained through the outlet at Fort Wayne creating a simpler

11 sequence, “highest-middle-lowest”. They observed no evidence to dispute their version in the Fort Wayne area; however, they did not present any evidence directly challenging the “highest-lowest-middle” sequence of Leverett and

Taylor (1915) (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). Totten (1982, 1985) and Farrand and

Eschman (1974) also support the version present by Bleuer and Moore (1972).

Totten (1982, 1985) argued that a layer of silt would cover any submerged beaches that may have survived the erosion by the Maumee III transgression but this does not occur in northeastern Ohio. Farrand and Eschman (1974) indicated that any evidence to support a submergence of the Lowest Maumee is not present in southeastern Michigan, but they also indicate that beach ridges at 760- foot elevation are not prevalent in Michigan (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). Both versions of the succession of Lake Maumee are supported by geomorphic and stratigraphic evidence, but there is not enough evidence to reject either.

Lake Arkona (Figure 1-2) is the next glacial lake in the series and formed due to lowering of Lake Maumee due to ice retreat to the north (Hough, 1958).

Lake Arkona drained to the north through the Grand River (of Michigan) and consisted of three stages, Arkona I (highest), II (middle), and III (lowest) (Table

1.3) (Totten, 1985). The succession of Lake Arkona is from the highest to the lowest stage. Beach ridges of Lake Arkona are not well developed in northern

Ohio (Eschman and Karrow, 1985). A radiocarbon date of 13,600 ± 500 (W-33)

(Hough, 1958) is assigned to Arkona III by Fullerton (1980), and Dreimanis (1977) assigns it to the Arkona-Whittlesey transition marking the end of Lake Arkona.

12 During the Mackinaw Interstade, a post-Arkona, pre-Whittlesey low- water lake phase, known as Lake Ypsilanti (Figure 1-2) formed due to eastward drainage into the Lake Ontario basin (Kunkle, 1963; Calkin and Feenstra, 1985).

Suggested evidence for Lake Ypsilanti is oxidized shallow-water sediment overlain by thick lacustrine silts and clays, found in the central basin of Lake Erie associated with Lake Whittlesey (Hough, 1958). Other suggested evidence by

Kunkle (1963) is gravel underlying the Huron River near Ann Arbor and

Ypsilanti, Michigan deposited in a river that was graded to the low water phase in the Erie basin. Wall (1968) revealed in sub-bottom seismic reflection surveys in the central basin of Lake Erie a probable channel cut into till that was filled with glaciolacustrine clay. The till is interpreted as the Port Stanley Till deposited during the formation of Maumee II. The channel is at an elevation of about 91 m and the glaciolacustrine clay is suggested to have been deposited in

Lake Whittlesey (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). While few, if any, studies have presented data to dispute the existence of Lake Ypsilanti, the data used for the low stand can be interpreted in different ways.

Advancing ice during the Port Huron Stadial to the Port Huron Moraine closed the eastern outlet causing lake level to rise to Lake Whittlesey (Figure 1-2)

(Hough, 1958; and Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). Lake Whittlesey drained to the north through the Ubly Channel (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985) and consisted of two stages, Whittlesey I and Whittlesey II (Table 1.3) (Totten, 1985). Lake Whittlesey is considered the most well developed lake in the Great Lakes region (Leverett

13 and Taylor, 1915) and may be the best-dated lake in the series of glacial lakes in the Erie basin, with dates closely bracketing the inception of the lake at around

13,000 yrs BP (Goldthwait, 1958; Dreimanis, 1966; Calkin, 1970; Barnett, 1978;

Fullerton, 1980, Totten, 1982).

As the ice retreated from the Port Huron Moraine (Figure 1-9), Lake

Whittlesey drained north into glacial Lake Saginaw and lowered to form Lake

Warren in the Erie basin (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). Lake Warren consisted of three stages, Warren I (highest), II (middle), and III (lowest), and drained to the north. Lake Wayne is a low-water lake phase between Warren II and Warren III that drained to the east (Figure 1-2 and Table 1.3) (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985;

Totten, 1985). Totten (1982) assigned an age of 13,050 ± 100 14C yrs BP (ISGS-473) from wood that was collected beneath the Warren I level and is considered the oldest age for Lake Warren. Several other dates exist to help constrain the duration of Lake Warren: 12,730 ± 220 14C yrs BP (I-3665) (Buckley, 1976; Calkin,

1970), 12,000 ± 500 14C yrs BP (S-30) (Dreimanis, 1966), and 11,400 ± 450 14C yrs

BP (S-29) (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). The previous two dates were taken directly from muck overlying Lake Warren sediment suggesting that Lake

Warren terminated before 11,400 14C yrs BP. Campbell (2009) provide a date of

13,430 ± 90 14C yrs BP (Beta-258945) from the OOR that is interpreted as a maximum age for Lake Warren. Campbell et al. (2011) also provides nine optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates, seven from sand dunes and two from beach ridges (Table 1.4) that are minimum ages for Lake Warren.

14 Lake Warren was the final glacial lake in the series of glacial lakes in the

Lake Erie basin. Once waters were routed east through Niagara River and ultimately into the Mohawk and Hudson Rivers, lake level dropped to the lower levels of Lake Grassmere, Lake Lundy, Early Lake Algonquin, and ultimately to the Early Lake Erie level (Figure 1-2) (Calkin and Feenstra, 1985). Lewis (1969) presented two dates: 12,650 ± 170 14C yrs BP (I-4040) and 11,140 ± 160 14C yrs BP

(I-4041), from organic material taken from the Pelee basin in the western basin of

Lake Erie to indicate that Early Lake Erie had formed by then. Previous research brackets the duration for ancestral Lake Erie between 14,500 ± 150 14C yrs BP

(Barnett, 1992) and 12,650 ± 170 14C yrs BP (Lewis, 1969). The calibrated ages for these dates are 17,434–17,912 cal BP and 14,494–15,211 cal BP respectively

(Stuiver and Reimer, 1993).

Table 1.4: OSL dates for dunes and beach ridges in northwest Ohio (Campbell, 2009). Sample Name Lab Code Age (ka) Geomorphology WHOSL01 UNL 13.03 ± 0.96 Dune WHOSL02 UNL 12.55 ± 1.00 Dune WHOSL03 UNL 9.10 ± 0.68 Dune WHOSL04 UNL 12.11 ± 0.73 Dune MC08-05 UNL 10.2 ± 0.6 Beach Ridge MC08-06 UNL 9.60 ± 0.58 Dune MC08-07 UNL 8.92 ± 0.51 Beach Ridge MC08-08 UNL 12.0 ± 0.7 Dune MC08-10 UNL 0.78 ± 0.06 Dune

The chronology and lake succession of ancestral Lake Erie is poorly understood and has multiple interpretations. Most studies focus on the geomorphic and elevation data to try and reconstruct the history of ancestral 15 Lake Erie with very few stratigraphic studies focusing on the glaciolacustrine sediments. By studying the glaciolacustrine sediments, specifically laminated lacustrine sediments, the past reconstruction of lake levels can be tested and an estimation of duration can be determined.

1.4 Rhythmites and Varves

Glacial lake sediments are often deposited in alternating light and dark colored laminae called rhythmites. The colors of these laminae are associated with the grain size of the sediments; light laminae usually consist of coarser- grained sediments and the dark laminae usually consist of finer-grained sediments. In most glacial lakes, the light colored laminae consist of sand or silt and the dark colored laminae clay. For the rhythmites to be interpreted as varves, (a couplet, one light and one dark colored layer) the sediment must be deposited in annual cycles with the light colored laminae associated with summer (melt season) and the dark colored laminae winter (non-melt season)

(Menzies, 1996).

Along with annual sedimentation, other criteria must be met to confidently interpret the rhythmites as varves. Smith and Ashley (1985) provide some criteria for the classification of rhythmites as varves: 1) the contact between the basal fine lamina (winter) and the upper coarse lamina (summer) should be sharp; 2) the fine lamina (winter) should have a consistent thickness; and, 3) the rhythmites should fine upwards.

16 Varve chronology is widely accepted throughout the scientific community as a reliable method for estimating the duration of glacial lakes and reconstructing paleolake levels. By counting each varve, a relative floating chronology of the sediments can be calculated. When varves counts are anchored with radiocarbon dates or some other dating method, an accurate chronology of the sediments can be established.

1.5 Objectives and Hypothesis

This study will use the analysis of glacial lake sediment interpreted to be varves from sediment cores and outcrop to: 1) determine duration of ancestral

Lake Erie above the Lake Warren stage; 2) use sedimentological and stratigraphic data to test whether there are any observable features (i.e. ravinement surfaces, regional unconformities, and/or pedogenisis) to determine the existence of the

Ypsilanti low water phase; and, 3) map one segment of strandlines of ancestral

Lake Erie using newly available Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) imagery for northwest Ohio north of the Maumee River.

The hypothesis to test is: glacial lake sediments beneath and immediately east of the Warren Beach can: 1) be interpreted as varves; 2) give a minimum chronology of ancestral Lake Erie to the Warren stage; and, 3) record major fluctuations of older lake stages.

Chapter 2

Methods

2.1 Introduction

The objectives of this project are to: 1) determine time elapsed between deglaciation and lowering water level below the Warren stage; 2) use sedimentological and stratigraphic data to test the Ypsilanti low lake level reconstruction; and 3) map strandlines for one segment of western ancestral Lake

Erie and its stages using newly available light detection and ranging (LIDAR) imagery for northwest Ohio. Several procedures were performed to meet the objectives: 1) Lacustrine sediment cores were retrieved using a Livingstone corer, vibracorer, and by a “hand and wire” method; 2) Cores were processed at the

Glacial Lake and Sediment Science (G.L.A.S.S.) Lab at The University of Toledo that involved splitting of cores, core description, digital photography, magnetic susceptibility, loss on ignition, and particle size analysis; 3) Optically Stimulated

Luminescence (OSL) dating to determine absolute age for sand directly above the glaciolacustrine sediment; 4) Digital images of cores were enhanced and analyzed using Adobe Photoshop CS2; 5) Strandlines were mapped using the

18 geographic information systems (GIS) computer program ArcMap version 9.3.1.; and, 6) a spectral analysis procedure was performed on the rhythmites to determine if any periodicities were present.

2.2 Sediment Core Retrieval

Sediment cores were collected from three locations: Stranahan Arboretum,

Wildwood, and Oak Openings Metroparks in the winter, summer, fall of 2010, and spring of 2011 respectively (Figure 1-4).

2.2.1 Core Retrieval at Stranahan Arboretum

Cores taken from Stranahan Arboretum were collected in February and

March of 2010 from the surface of a frozen dug-out pond using a modified

(square-rod) Livingstone coring system (Wright, 1967). Due to the high density of the glacial sediment (till, glaciolacustrine), a unique hydraulic system was used to assist the Livingstone corer. The hydraulic shaft was clamped to the push rods of the corer allowing the coring tube to penetrate the dense glacial sediment and provided acceptable amounts of recovery. Consecutive 2-inch x 1- meter long cores were collected. Once each section was collected, the core was extruded, measured, wrapped in plastic, placed in lengthwise-split 2 inch PVC pipe for transportation, and labeled on site. After packaging, coring continued in the same hole until refusal was met. Upon refusal, a new hole was drilled into the ice ~1m from the first and the coring system was positioned over the new

19 hole. Cores collected in the second hole were one-half meter offset from the first set of cores to retrieve all of the sediment record that may be lost at the breaks in the core sections. Once all cores were collected, cores were placed in a walk-in cooler kept at 4C.

2.2.2 Core Retrieval at Wildwood and Oak Openings Metroparks

Sediment cores were collected at Wildwood and Oak Openings

Metroparks from exposures along riverbanks during the summer and fall of 2010 and Spring 2011. Before core collection could begin, the exposures were made vertical by shoveling away sediment that had slumped from above. Once vertical, cores were collected by cutting into the exposure using a metal wire and placed in 3-inch diameter aluminum tubes spilt lengthwise. Sediment cores were also collected at Oak Openings Metropark using a motorized vibracorer. Cores were collected with 3-inch and 2-inch aluminum irrigation tubing. Once retrieved, the cores were wrapped in plastic wrap, labeled, and transported back to the G.L.A.S.S. Lab. Upon arrival, cores were placed in the same cooler as the cores from Stranahan Arboretum.

2.3 Core Processing at the Glacial Lake and Sediment Science Lab

Several procedures were performed to process the cores at the G.L.A.S.S.

Lab including: splitting of cores, core description, digital photography, magnetic susceptibility, loss on ignition, and particle size analysis.

20 2.3.1 Core Splitting, Core Description, and Digital Photography

The cores were split lengthwise using a metal wire and separated into working and archive halves. Once split, the surfaces of the cores were scrapped smooth using a metal filet knife, described, and photographed with a digital camera.

2.3.2 Volume Magnetic Susceptibility

Volume magnetic susceptibility () (10-5 SI units) was measured at one- half centimeter intervals parallel to bedding using a Bartington MS2E surface- scanning sensor. Magnetic susceptibility (MS) is used as a measure of the concentration and grain size of magnetic minerals, and may be used to correlate between cores (Verosub and Roberts, 1995). Terrigenous sediment that contains iron-bearing minerals will have a high MS value as oppose to carbonates, organic material, and sediment containing silicate minerals that have low MS values. In this study, magnetic susceptibility is used to help correlate overlapping sections of cores and measure the difference in MS values of rhythmites.

2.3.3 Loss on Ignition

Loss on ignition (LOI) was performed on selected sets of rhythmites. For

LOI, samples were initially weighed, placed in clean crucibles of known weights, and placed in a drying oven at 105C for approximately 16 hours. Samples were cooled and weighed to give the initial dry weight of the sample. Once weighed,

21 samples were placed in the muffle furnace at 550C for four hours. This step removes any organic material that may be present in the samples. Samples were cooled and weighed again to calculate the percent of lost organic material.

Samples were then placed in the muffle furnace at 950C for two hours, cooled, and weighed. This step removes any carbonate material that may be present in the samples to calculate the percent carbonate of the dry sample.

LOI was initially performed to determine if additional processing was needed before particle size analysis could be performed. If carbonates or organics are present, but not removed, they may alter the values for the particle size analysis. The samples used in this study contained low amounts of organics but high enough amounts of carbonates that may potentially pose a problem in the particle size analysis. Authigenic minerals such as carbonates or diatoms influence the grain-size spectrum (Vaasma, 2008). This may alter the results of the analysis and produce incorrect data.

Carbonate removal consisted of a multi-step process involving the dissolution of carbonate material in Sodium Acetate (NaC2H3O2) until there was no more reaction. Samples were first air dried overnight to remove any moisture. Once dried, samples were broken up using a ceramic mortar and pestle to a fine powder. The powdered samples were placed in plastic, 50mL centrifuge tubes containing Sodium Acetate and left overnight. The samples were placed in a centrifuge and centrifuged for 15 minutes. After centrifuging, the Sodium Acetate was decanted and fresh Sodium Acetate was placed in the 22 tubes and the samples dissolved for at least one half hour or until the reaction ceased. Samples were then mixed using a Vortex Genie 2 to break up any clumps of sediment that may have settled at the bottom of the tubes. After mixing, the samples were again centrifuged and decanted. After decantation, the tubes were filled with 40mL of deionized water, centrifuged, and decanted. This step was repeated one more time, except the tubes were filled with Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) ([NaPO3]6). The SHMP is to keep the silicate minerals from adhering to one another. The samples are now ready for particle size analysis.

2.3.4 Particle Size Analysis

Particle size analysis was performed using a Malvern Mastersizer 2000 laser diffraction with a Hydro 2000MU sample dispersion accessory. Sample preparation and dispersion generally followed Loope (2006). Samples were collected based on their thickness. The thicker rhythmites provided more material and permitted sampling from only one lamina. Once rhythmites were selected for sampling, they were collected from the core by digging, cutting, or scraping of each rhythmite. Individual laminae within the rhythmites were always sampled directly above or below the previously sampled lamina. Once extracted from the core, samples were placed on weighing paper, weighed, and left to air-dry overnight. Once dried, samples were broken up using a ceramic mortar and pestle to a fine powder. Samples were weighed and placed in

23 centrifuge tubes filled with SHMP. Note that the carbonate removal step performed during LOI was not performed on all samples. A refractive index of

1.57 (Kaolinite) and an absorption value of 0.1 were used for the sample material and a refractive index of 1.33 (water) was used for the dispersant material.

Samples were sonicated briefly before dispersing into the Mastersizer for measuring. Each sample was measured three times. The average of the three measurements per sample was taken to minimize error.

2.4 Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Dating

Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating was used to determine the absolute age of the sand that is directly above glaciolacustrine sediment. OSL is a dating technique used to determine the age when silicate mineral grains were last exposed by sunlight (Aitken, 1998). OSL dating is a good dating method when trying to determine the age of sediments that may not have been exposed to sunlight for prolonged periods of time, >8 hours, before burial (Forman et al.,

2000). Fluvial environments are perfect examples of depositional environments that receive little sunlight exposure and are good sampling locations for OSL samples (Forman et al., 2000). The OSL samples were collected at the Brown Cut in Oak Openings Metropark (Figure 1-7) from sand grains deposited in a nearshore environment (Campbell, 2009). A sample was collected by hammering an 8 inch section of 3 inch diameter aluminum tubing into the cleaned exposure

(Figures 2-1A and 2-1B). The samples were dug out of the exposure and sealed

24 at both ends. The OSL samples were sent to North Dakota State University for analysis by Dr. Kenneth Lepper.

A B

Figure 2-1: (A) The cleaned exposure of sand. (B) Aluminum tubes hammered into the cleaned exposure.

2.5 Digital Image Processing

Digital images of all cores were enhanced and processed using Adobe

Photoshop CS2. Images were cropped to size, color corrected using a photographed color card for reference, and brightness and contrast levels were adjusted to enhance the images further to distinguish between the lighter and darker colored laminae. After initial processing, images were analyzed for sedimentary structures, number of rhythmites, and thickness of rhythmites. To count the number of rhythmites, images were blown up several times larger than

25 their original size and horizontal lines were drawn at the bottom of each dark layer. Each section between two horizontal lines is considered one rhythmite.

The thickness of each rhythmite was measured in centimeters using the ruler tool in Adobe Photoshop.

2.6 Strandline Mapping

Strandlines in northwest Ohio were mapped from digital elevation models (DEM). A DEM is defined as a file or database containing elevation points over a specified area (Jensen, 2007). The elevation information used to create the DEM used in this study was obtained via a technology called light detection and ranging (LIDAR) data. The LIDAR DEM’s were obtained from the

Ohio Geographically Referenced Information Program

(http://ogrip.oit.ohio.gov/) and processed using GIS ArcMap version 9.3.1.

2.7 Spectral Analysis

Spectral analysis, or time series analysis, can be used to determine if any periodicities exist in naturally occurring data. Spectral analysis was performed only for rhythmites from cores collected at Wildwood Metropark. The Singular

Spectrum Analysis – Multi-Taper Method (SSA-MTM) Toolkit is a computer program, created by the Theoretical Climate Dynamics Group at the University of California, Los Angeles, which is mostly used to analyze short, noisy time

26 series (Dettinger et al., 1995; Ghil et al., 2002). This method assumes that the data analyzed is evenly spaced through time.

27 Chapter 3

Geomorphology

3.1 Introduction

Subtle topographic features dominate the geomorphology of northwest

Ohio. Some of the topographic features, such as moraines and hummocky topography, were a result of glaciation. While other topographic features, such as beach ridges, spits, barrier islands, and sand dunes are associated with the formation of glacial lakes that covered the area. Forsyth (1959), Leverett (1902), and Leverett and Taylor (1915) mapped several beach ridges in northwest Ohio

(Figure 3-1). Since the creation of the first beach ridge maps, very few additions or modifications have come forward. With the availability of newly acquired

LIDAR elevation data, a portion of this study attempts to map beach ridges to better understand the evolution of the glacial lake sequence of northwest Ohio by measuring differential rebound along one of the strandlines.

28 3.2 Beach Ridge Mapping Results

Twelve sets of strandlines were mapped ranging in elevation from 795–

645 ft.a.s.l (Figures 3-2 and 3-3). The strandlines were mapped on a 1-m resolution shaded relief DEM created from LIDAR data. The digital elevation model (DEM) consists of six individual DEM’s that were

Figure 3-1: Map of previously mapped beach ridges in northwest Ohio. Taken from Campbell (2009) who modified it after Forsythe (1959).

mosaicked together to create one master DEM. The DEM’s were obtained from the Ohio Geographically Referenced Information Program

(http://ogrip.oit.ohio.gov/). The shaded relief DEM’s were displayed with a hillshade setting of 1.5 in ArcMap version 9.3.1 and the illumination is from the northwest. The mapping area includes parts of six northwest Ohio counties:

31 Williams, Fulton, Lucas, Defiance, Henry, and Wood (Figure 3-2). Only strandlines north of the Maumee River were mapped. Strandlines are best developed in Williams and Fulton counties (Figure 3-2). The traditional names for strandlines in northwest Ohio are not used to allow for greater objectivity because it is not clear whether named strandlines in northwest Ohio can be traced to northeast Ohio. Strandlines are named with letters, with A being the highest strandline and M the lowest strandline.

Fulton County (Figure 3-3) is the most geomorphically diverse of the six counties mapped, containing moraines, beach ridges, spits, sand dunes, and hummocky topography. The highland areas in Fulton County are the Fort

Wayne and Defiance moraines characterized by hummocky topography. Well- developed strandlines are mapped at strandlines A, B, D, F, G, H, I, J, and K with

D, F, and G containing the most prevalent and well-developed ridges (Figure 3-

3).

Strandline G is the best developed and is located east and west of the

Defiance Moraine. Strandline G includes some spits. Strandline K has a diffuse appearance on the DEM (Figure 3-4). Several small strandlines are present in the northeast corner of Fulton County just south of strandlines H and I but were not mapped because they are discontinuous throughout the mapping area. The unmapped strandlines have the same orientation as the mapped strandlines but are not as laterally extensive.

33 Strandlines A, B, C, and G are the most extensive in northwest Ohio.

These strandlines extend from the Michigan/Ohio border southwest to the

Indiana/Ohio border. The strandlines extend into Michigan and Indiana but are not mapped in this study. The strandlines can also be traced south of the

Maumee River (Figures 1-3 and 3-2) but the focus of this study was only to map features north of the Maumee River. There are few well-developed strandlines east of the OOR.

A large subaqueous fan is inferred in southeastern Fulton, southwestern

Lucas, northwestern Wood, and northeastern Henry counties (Figure 3-2). The inference is based on the presence of large dune complexes recording sand transport from the west across an elevation gradient. Because the glacial lake strandlines do not contain much sand, and the few strandlines would not explain the sand found in dune complexes at a variety of elevations, a subaqueous fan is proposed. The fan is dissected by the Maumee River and several smaller rivers or creeks.

Topographic cross-sections (Figure 3-5) were created to assist in assigning a water plane elevation for strandline G. Strandline G was chosen because it is the best-developed strandline in the mapping area. The topographic profiles were created from transects taken from north to south along strandline G (Figure

3-6). The transects crossed dune-capped beach ridges and escarpments; therefore, the highest elevation on the strandline could not accurately record the water plane for strandline G. For dune-capped beach ridges, the dune thickness

36 would overestimate the elevation, so the base of the ridge was chosen, e.g.,

Transect A-A’ (Figure 3-5). For escarpments, the lowest elevation where a break in slope is present was used to assign a water plane elevation (Fisher, 2005).

Another approach was taken to measure the water plane elevation for strandline

G. This approached took into account that strandline G is a beach ridge not capped by sand so the correct water elevation would be the highest along the transects (Figure 3-5).

3.3 Discussion

Several of the beach ridge elevations are similar to those mapped by

Forsyth (1959), Leverett (1902), and Leverett and Taylor (1915) (Table 1.1).

Strandlines A, B, and C are at the same elevation as Maumee I, III, and II ridges respectively. Strandline K is mapped at a similar elevation as beach ridges for

Lake Arkona. Strandline K ridges are discontinuous and appear diffuse on the

DEM (Figure 3-4), similar to Lake Arkona ridges described by Totten (1982), in eastern Ohio as being discontinuous and having a “washed” appearance.

Outcrop description or cores collected from strandline K could aid in the interpretation of this strandline, but the “washed” appearance, implying drowning by a transgression, should not be ruled out.

Strandline G corresponds to the traditionally mapped Lake Whittlesey shorelines at 735’ (Forsythe, 1959). This is expected as Lake Whittlesey’s ridges are the best developed in northwest Ohio. Strandline L corresponds to those of

37 Lake Warren and strandline M may be associated with Lake Lundy ridges

(Forsythe, 1959).

Strandlines mapped at elevations not identified by Forsyth (1959),

Leverett (1902), and Leverett and Taylor (1915) are at D, F, H, I, and J. These strandlines could represent short-lived water planes as water levels transition to a lower or higher level. Another possibility is because the strandlines do not appear on topographic maps, even with 5’ contour interval, they are not very distinctive on the landscape and were missed by previous mapping studies.

However, with the new LIDAR data that has a vertical resolution of ~15 cm, features with little topographic relief are revealed and can be mapped. These strandlines may be small offshore bars developed in the glacial lakes or small recessional moraines of the LIS. Core collection or geophysical investigation of these strandlines may determine what geomorphic features they are.

The water plane elevations determined from the topographic cross- sections were used to calculate the amount of tilt for strandline G. Figure 3-7 shows a plot of the elevations and two linear regressions showing a tilt of 0.06 m/km to the southwest and 0.09 m/km to the northeast. The calculated tilts are associated with the red and blue line elevations taken from Figure 3-5 respectively.

The large inferred fan, that heads in southeastern Fulton County (Figure

3-3), may be a possible sediment source for sand dunes to the east and southeast.

The inferred fan heads at strandline G or a higher strandline and is an expected

38 source of sand deposited into Lake Whittlesey or into a higher glacial lake level.

A possible source for the sediment making up the fan is meltwater from the

Saginaw Lobe of the LIS (Figure 1-8) rather than the Huron-Erie Lobe because

Figure 3-7: Scatter plot of water plane elevations along strandline G. South is to the left and north is to the right along the x-axis. The black linear regression line is associated with elevations taken from the red lines in Figure 3-6. The blue linear regression line is associated with elevations taken from the blue lines in Figure 3-6. The linear regressions show the effect of glacio-isostatic adjustment for elevation.

Saginaw Lobe till is sandy and Huron-Erie Lobe till is fine-grained (silt and clay)

(Anderson, 1957).

The Saginaw lobe was established between the Michigan and Huron-Erie lobes in south-central Michigan ~15,000 14C yrs BP (Monaghan and Larson, 1986;

Fisher et al., 2005), and the landscape of southern Michigan is incised with extensive tunnel channels cut through upland areas (Sjogren et al., 2002; Fisher et

39 al., 2005). A large meltwater spillway, here referred to as the River Rasin

Channel, striking northeast/southwest in south-central Michigan and extends into northwest Ohio (Figure 3-8).

Meltwater could have flowed in the River Rasin Channel from northeast to southwest or from southwest to northeast into an interlobate area between the

Saginaw and Huron-Erie Lobes (Figure 3-8). If meltwater flowed southwest it would encounter a sub-lobe of the Saginaw Lobe positioned at the Defiance

Moraine (Figure 3-8). This meltwater would be diverted to the southeast into a smaller channel referred to as Fan Channel (Figure 3-8).

Meltwater may have also flowed directed from the sub-lobe into Fan

Channel (Figure 3-8). Fan Channel routed meltwater southeast across the

Defiance Moraine and into ancestral Lake Erie, most likely Lake Maumee, and deposited a large amount of sand >30 km across the lake basin. For deposition of this sand to occur, the Huron-Erie Lobe must have retreated east from the

Defiance Moraine but the ice must still have blocked the northern and eastern outlets for ancestral Lake Erie, so lake level is at the Maumee stage. As lake level dropped to successively lower levels, the fan became subaerially exposed and dune formation could be initiated. An explanation for the lack of an obvious channel cut across the Defiance Moraine is once the sand was subaerially exposed; dunes filled and covered the channel.

Figure 3-8: Shaded relief DEM of south-central Michigan and northwest Ohio showing the River Rasin Channel (black outline), Fan Channel (purple outline), ice margin of the sub-lobe of the Saginaw Lobe (white outline), and inferred fan (yellow outline). Meltwater could have flowed into River Rasin Channel and flowed northeast or southwest. Meltwater may have flowed along the ice margin or directly from the sub-lobe into Fan Channel depositing sediment into the glacial lake to build the fan.

41 Chapter 4

Glaciolacustrine Sediments

4.1 Introduction

Sediment cores were collected from three locations: Stranahan Arboretum,

Wildwood, and Oak Openings Metroparks in 2010 and of 2011 (Figure 1-4). The cores were collected using a hydraulically assisted Livingstone sediment corer, motorized vibracorer, and by hand from outcrop. The three cores are adjacent to major west-to-east flowing streams. Laboratory procedures, including magnetic susceptibility (MS), loss on ignition (LOI), spectral analysis, and particle size analysis, were performed on the cores.

4.2 Magnetic Susceptibility (MS)

Magnetic susceptibility was used to determine if the MS resolution was high enough to distinguish between individual lamiae in the cores. MS was measured at 0.5 cm intervals, on three cores from STAR (STAR-2A, STAR-2B, and STAR-3A). It was determined that the resolution was too low to distinguish between individual laminae. The low resolution did not permit correlating 42 between cores used to count rhythmites. The results did show a decrease in MS in the finer grained laminae and an increase in MS in the coarser grained laminae.

4.3 Loss on Ignition (LOI)

Loss on ignition was performed on five sets of rhythmites from the STAR core. The five sets of rhythmites were selected because they were relatively thicker than other rhythmites, making sampling individual lamina more precise.

The LOI results, in Table 4.1, show higher organic content in the finer grained lamina and increased carbonate content in the coarser grained lamina. However,

LOI was not performed on all rhythmites because the method was unable to distinguish between individual lamina with high enough resolution and some rhythmites were too thin to sample accurately with confidence.

Table 4.1: LOI data for rhythmites taken from the STAR core. Sample # Depth of Grain size of % Organic % Carbonate Sample (cm) Lamina Material of Material of Sample Sample 1 19.5-20 Fine 4.929 0.1583 2 20.5-21 Coarse 2.056 0.2329 3 21.5-22 Fine 3.749 0.1831 4 22-22.5 Coarse 3.221 0.1979 5 35.5-36 Fine 3.488 0.1924 6 36-36.5 Coarse 2.5 0.22 7 41.5-42 Fine 3.56 0.1814 8 42-42.5 Coarse 2.976 0.2107 9 49-50 Fine 2.649 0.2121 10 50-51 Coarse 1.872 0.2378

43 4.4 Spectral Analysis

Spectral analysis performed on rhythmites from WWMP. WWMP rhythmites were selected because the record of rhythmites was longer than at the

STAR and OOMP sites at the time the analysis was performed. No long-term periodicities were found above 95% confidence within the sequence of rhythmites, however a strong 3-year periodicity was found above 99% confidence. A quick literature search produced no information about a 3-year periodicity, but it may prove to be an important periodicity. Figure 4-1 shows an example of a multi-taper method plot for the spectral analysis.

Figure 4-1: Multi-taper method spectral analysis of rhythmites from WWMP. Note the strong peak at 0.3. The scale is log-linear.

44 4.5 Particle Size Analysis

Particle size analysis was performed for 46 rhythmites taken from cores from STAR (1.12-1.48 and 1.67-1.88.5 m core depth), shown on Figure 4-2, and for the entire suite of rhythmites for the WWMP core (0.26-3.1 m core depth) in

Figure 4-3. The results show that the dark colored laminae are composed of fine- grained clay (≤3.90 µm) to very fine silt (≤3.90-7.80 µm) particles, and that the lighter colored laminae are composed of coarser particles consisting of medium silt (15.60-31.30 µm) to coarse silt (31.30-62.50 µm).

The results for WWMP also show a higher amount of sand at the base of the WWMP core than at the top (Figure 4-3). There are three large peaks in the clay percentage for WWMP core (Figure 4-3). Overall particle size analysis for rhythmites, taken from WWMP cores, shows a slight increase in grain size up core with an increase in the silt percentage and decrease in the clay and sand percentages (Figure 4-3).

4.6 Stranahan Arboretum Sediment Cores

A 3.3 m core collected from a dug-out pond at Stranahan Arboretum

(Figure 1-5B) consists of a basal diamicton (1.09 m thick) overlain by rhythmically laminated clay (darker colored lamina, 10YR 6/1) and silt (lighter colored lamina, 7.5YR 6/4) (2.21 m thick). The diamicton is massive, clay rich, poorly sorted, and contains pebbles. The rhythmites are mostly horizontal, interrupted by a thin bed of cross-laminated beds silt and sand (0.87–1.07 m core

47 depth). Each rhythmite contains a coarser lamina that grades up into the finer lamina across a diffuse contact. The basal contact of the coarser lamina is sharp.

Rhythmites were counted (n=159) from one sharp contact to the next sharp contact with a total of 159 rhythmites. The average rhythmite thickness is 1.09 cm, and the thickness of individual lamina decreases up core (Figure 4-4).

Rhythmite thickness was measured from a ruler in Adobe Photoshop. A distinct pinkish red clay lamina is present directly above the contact of the rhythmites and diamicton.

The cross-laminated bed is 20 cm thick with alternating laminae of silt and very fine sand. Individual laminae range in size from 0.1-0.2 cm. The upper cross-laminations are draped by clay laminae.

4.7 Wildwood Sediment Cores and Outcrop

A 3.32 m composite core was collected from an exposure at Wildwood

Metropark (Figure 1-5B). The exposure is a cut bank along a small creek that is a tributary of the Ottawa River. The creek has aggressively eroded into the bank due to urbanization of areas upstream (Figures 1-6). The exposure is laterally extensive >10 m along the creek. The exposure consists of a basal diamicton overlain by rhythmically laminated clay (darker colored lamina, 10 YR 6/1PB) and silt (lighter colored lamina, 2.5YR 7/6) and capped by massive sand that is

~2 m thick (Figure 1-6) along the exposure but presumably thickens up into

Figure 4-4: Stranahan Arboretum composite photograph of a section of the core with volume magnetic susceptibility, stratigraphic log with rhythmite thickness, and photograph of cross-laminated silt and sand unit.

49 parabolic dunes on either side of the creek. This sampling location was chosen because three different stratigraphic units are exposed here.

Approximately 0.2 m of the core is diamicton with >3.75 m of diamicton below the ground surface determined from hand augering. The diamicton is massive, clay rich, poorly sorted, and containing grains ranging in size from clay to gravel. The contact between the basal diamicton and rhythmites is undulating, >10 m, where exposed along the creek. A pebble count of the diamicton (n=50) resulted in mostly carbonate pebbles with few crystalline and clastic pebbles (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Results for the pebble count conducted on the diamicton at WWMP. Rock Type Number Percent of total, % Carbonate 32 64 Crystalline 10 20 Clastic 8 16

Approximately 3.12 m of the core consists of rhythmites, of which the basal 1.0 m contains tilted beds of rhythmites (Figure 4-5) that gradually flatten out up core where the rhythmites are mostly horizontal. Several sections of the core contain ripple form sets (at 0.4–0.8, 1.5, 2.5, and 3.1 m core depth) (Figure 4-

6A). Basal contacts of some silty laminae are erosional, in which shallow troughs filled with coarser sediment are scoured into the finer lamina (Figure 4-7A).

Elsewhere, coarser, light colored sediment is mixed in with the finer lamina giving it a speckled appearance (Figure 4-7A). In plan view, horizontal

50 cuts into the fine laminae reveals elongate to circular inclusions of silt into the clay (Figures 4-7B, 4-7C, and 4-7D). In places the silty laminae is wispy, having

Figure 4-5: Wildwood Metropark composite photograph of one section of the core showing the dip of laminae decreasing up core. Light colored laminae are coarse grained and dark laminae are fine-grained. Stratigraphic log with rhythmite thickness.

Figure 4-6: (A) Photograph showing front and side view ripple form sets indicated by white arrows. (B) Side view of core from (A). (C) Close up and side view of core from (A). (D) Sharp upper contact of the finer lamina (white arrow) and the diffuse upper contact of the coarser lamina (orange arrow).

been disturbed, but the disturbance is within the laminae, not cross-cutting laminae. The coarser lamina grades up into the finer lamina of the rhythmite and

53 has a diffuse contact (Figure 4-6B). The contact between the basal finer lamina and upper coarser lamina is sharp (Figure 4-6B).

Rhythmites were counted from one sharp contact to the next sharp contact with a total of 483. The average rhythmite thickness is 0.86 cm, and a significant decrease or increase in thickness from bottom to top of the core was not observed. The average thicknesses of the finer and coarser laminae are 0.36 cm and 0.32 cm respectively. There appears to be no obvious correlation between the rhythmite thickness and rhythmite grain size, i.e. high amounts of clay does not always equal thick rhythmite. However, the bottom half rhythmites’ thicknesses appear to have thicker finer laminae and the upper half rhythmites’ thicknesses appear to have thicker coarser laminae.

4.8 Oak Openings Cores and Outcrop

An approximately 4.73 m composite core was collected from the Brown

Cut (Figure 4-8), a cut bank along Swan Creek at Oak Openings Metropark. The exposure consists of laminated clay (darker colored lamina, 10YR 5/1) and silt

(lighter colored lamina 2.5Y 8/4) overlain by finely laminated planar beds composed of sand and silt, that is overlain by alternating beds of ripple drift and plane lamination, and capped by massive sand to the surface (Figure 4-8)

(Campbell, 2009).

Figure 4-8: Photograph of Brown Cut at Oak Openings Metropark showing sediment coring locations.

Hand augering at the site determined a basal diamicton is present beneath the rhythmites but several efforts to retrieve core samples of the diamicton while vibracoring were not successful. Observation from samples collected by hand augering into the diamicton showed it is massive, clay rich, poorly sorted, and containing grains ranging in size from clay to gravel.

All of the core collected is composed of rhythmites. As similar to the other cores described, the coarser lamina grades up into the finer lamina of the rhythmite across a diffuse contact. The contact between the basal finer lamina observed, similar to the rhythmites at WWMP. Ripple form sets exist throughout the entire core but increase in frequency up core (Figure 4-9). Rhythmites were

Figure 4-9: Oak Openings Metropark stratigraphic log with rhythmite thickness. Photographs showing examples of ripple drift and planar laminae units (upper right). Photograph showing ripple form sets and change from suspension settling to traction sedimentation. Black lines on photograph show how rhythmites were marked for counting. 56 counted from one sharp contact to the next sharp contact with a total of 507 rhythmites (Figure 4-9). Rhythmite thickness appears to be control mostly by the thickness of the coarser laminae (Figure 4-9).

4.9 Interpretations

The basal diamicton found at all three sample locations is interpreted as till deposited by the Huron-Erie Lobe. Composition of the Huron-Erie Lobe is characterized by carbonate rocks supported by a fine-grained matrix (Anderson,

1957). Results from the pebble count at WWMP show that the till is dominated by carbonate rocks supported by a clay matrix.

Results from the examination of the cores, MS, LOI, and particle size analysis indicate the rhythmites are annual deposits. Varves are traditionally defined using this definition from DeGeer (1912) “sedimentary bed, or lamina or sequence of lamina deposits that were laid in a body of still water within one years time. There is normally a lower summer layer consisting of relatively coarse graded light coloured sediments (silt and sand), which grades into a thinner winter layer composed of (often organic) dark sediment”. Using the criteria provided by Smith and Ashley (1985), the observations made from the cores support the interpretation that the rhythmites are varves.

The MS values are higher within the summer laminae and lower within the winter laminae, which is indicative of melt season (summer) sediment that contains increased concentrations of magnetic grains. Suspension settling of

57 non-melt season sediment, mostly non-magnetic grains such as clay, produces lower MS values (Snowball et al., 1999). The LOI data show increased concentrations of carbonate material in the summer laminae and increased concentrations of organic material in the winter laminae, which is indicative of melt-season and non-melt season sediment respectively. Similar results were found by Dell (1973) in Lake Superior, with summer beds containing higher concentrations of carbonate material. The particle size analysis shows fine grained sediment, clay and very fine silt, dominates the winter laminae and relatively coarser grained sediment, medium-silt and coarse-silt, dominate the summer laminae. The results from the MS, LOI, and particle size analysis support a varve interpretation for the rhythmites.

The inclusion and scour and fill of coarser sediment in finer laminae

(Figure 4-7) are a result of bioturbation. The bioturbation occurs at the upper contact of the finer laminae and in the coarser laminae. This shows that biological activity was higher during the warmer or summer periods and biological activity ceased during the colder of winter months. The presence of bioturbation is added support for a varve interpretation.

The thin, cross-laminated silt and sand found in cores from STAR were possibly created by small hyperpycnal flows. Shaw and Archer (1978) provide evidence of winter turbidity currents along the beds of glacial lakes. The beds will become cross-laminated with relatively larger ripples up slope and smaller ripples down slope as the flow loses energy. If the event occurs during the

58 winter the beds will be draped by clay. The disturbed beds found in cores from

STAR are thinly cross-laminated and may have been deposited at the end of the flow when energy was low. Currents along the lakebed may have also scoured into the finer laminae and created the ripple form sets found in WWMP and

OOMP.

The tilted beds found at the base of the WWMP core are interpreted to be a result of sedimentation along the undulating contact between the rhythmites and diamicton. It is possible that the sediment was deposited on top of one of the sloped segments along the contact and as the depression filled, the angle of the beds leveled. The massive sand found at WWMP is interpreted as eolian sand due to the presence of dunes at the surface. The finely laminated planar beds composed of sand and silt overlain by alternating beds of ripple drift and the massive sand at OOMP are interpreted as a nearshore, inner trough environment in Lake Warren and aeolian sand respectively (Campbell, 2009).

Two types of deposition are present in the OOMP core: traction and suspension settling (Figure 4-9). The suspension settling is represented by undisturbed horizontal laminae (Figure 4-9). This sediment was deposited as it fell out of suspension and sank to the bottom of the lake. Sediment deposited by traction is represented by ripple form sets (Figure 4-9). This sediment was deposited by currents carrying sediment along the bed of the lake.

Large spikes in rhythmite thickness are observed in cores from all three sampling sites (Figures 4-4, 4-5, 4-9). Higher amounts of sand, found at STAR

59 and OOMP, are likely due to deposition by local fluvial systems more so than glacial systems. Evidence such as higher energy sedimentary structures (cross- laminations and ripple form sets) and coarsening upwards of the sediment is better supported by deposition from streams as lake levels fall rather than a glacial source which becomes more distant stratigraphically upwards.

Large spikes in clay thickness are observed in the core from WWMP

(Figure 4-5) and has at least two explanations: 1) increasing lake level causing the area to become submerged in deeper water, allowing only very fine-grained sediment (clay) to be deposited farther from the shoreline and into a deeper part of the lake; or, 2) decreasing lake level causing lacustrine mud to become exposed and increasing the gradient of rivers and streams causing more mud to be carried into the lake.

The 507 varves are a minimum estimate of the duration of ancestral Lake

Erie in northwest Ohio. This number is only a minimum because the sites at

STAR and WWMP are presumed to be incomplete because the pond at STAR is dug out and the contact between the lacustrine sediment and sand at WWMP is erosional. This number is also a minimum estimation because recovery of the complete section of rhythmites at OOMP was unsuccessful.

60 Chapter 5

Discussion and Conclusion

5.1 Discussion

Description of glaciolacustrine sediment and mapping of strandlines were the principle methods used for understanding the duration of glacial lakes and their style of lowering in northwest Ohio. Rhythmites were counted from cores collected from three locations in Lucas County, OH with a maximum count of

507 rhythmites. These rhythmites are interpreted to be annual deposits, varves, deposited within ancestral Lake Erie. With that interpretation, there is a minimum of 507 years of deposition of glaciolacustrine sediment in northwest

Ohio. This estimate of duration does differ from the traditionally accepted time frame for ancestral Lake Erie from 14,500 ± 150 14C yrs BP (Barnett, 1992) and

12,650 ± 170 14C yrs BP (Lewis, 1969). The calibrated ages for these dates, using

CALIB v. 6.0 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993), are 17,430–17,910 cal BP and 14,490–

15,210 cal BP respectively.

Sufficient time is required to develop the strandlines found in northwest

61 Ohio. All of the strandlines mapped in this study are at or above the Lake

Warren level, which is approximately 85 percent of ancestral Lake Erie’s history.

The lower lake stages, Wayne, Grassmere, and Lundy, did not create well- developed strandlines in northwest Ohio indicating that their duration was short lived.

This count can only be a minimum age for the duration of ancestral Lake

Erie because the study area was still covered by ice for the earliest history of ancestral Lake Erie. During the early stages of ancestral Lake Erie, the LIS was positioned at the Defiance Moraine and water ponded between the LIS and the

Fort Wayne Moraine (Dreimanis and Goldthwait, 1973). The initial deposition of the glaciolacustrine sediment would have only occurred west of the Defiance

Moraine. Only when the LIS retreated eastward could the varves begin to accumulate.

The observations of the glaciolacustrine sediment cores also provided no observable evidence to support the Ypsilanti low water phase. If the Ypsilanti low water phase had occurred, indicators such as a regional unconformity, pedogenesis, and/or ravinement surface within the lacustrine sediment would be expected. No unconformities, pedogenic horizons, or erosional surfaces were observed within the sediment cores or along the outcrops of lacustrine sediment.

Therefore, no supporting evidence was observed from the study area to support the Ypsilanti low water phase.

62 If the Ypsilanti low water phase did not occur, then there must be alternative explanations for the observations put forward by other authors for it.

Lake Erie stage (Figure 1-2) and as lake level rose was buried by deeper water lacustrine mud. Other suggested evidence by Kunkle (1963) is gravel underlying the Huron River near Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti, Michigan deposited in a river that was graded to the low water phase in the Erie basin. An alternative interpretation for this evidence could be that the gravel was deposited in a pre- existing valley during one of the previous glaciations, or it is a tunnel channel deposit that formed during glaciation and was then covered by lacustrine sediments during deglaciation.

Lastly, there appear to be no obvious transgression-regression cycles found within the cores collected in the study area. The sedimentation of the glaciolacustrine sediment appears to be continuous, and higher energy sedimentary structures, ripple form sets and cross-laminations, increase towards the tops of the cores. There are several spikes in rhythmite thickness that may record major fluctuations in lake level, but determining which stage of ancestral

Lake Erie each spike is associated with could not be determined. The large

63 spikes in rhythmite thickness may also be attributed to influences by local fluvial systems feeding sediment into the lake.

5.2 Conclusion

Glacial stratigraphy from outcrop and lacustrine sediment cores, from

Lucas County, Ohio, indicate that glaciolacustrine deposition occurred in ancestral Lake Erie after the retreat of the LIS from the Defiance Moraine.

Rhythmites, interpreted as varves based on magnetic susceptibility, loss on ignition, and particle size analysis, are present in cores collected from Lucas

County. Observations from outcrop and photographs of the cores show continuous deposition with no observable indicators of major transgression- regression events in lake level.

The first and second parts of the hypothesis are accepted; the rhythmites are interpreted as varves and then can be used to provide a minimum estimation for the duration of ancestral Lake Erie at or above the Warren stage. The third part of the hypothesis is also accepted because no evidence to support major fluctuations of lake levels (e.g., a regional unconformity, pedogenesis, and/or ravinement surface) was found within the cores.

64 5.3 Future Work

In the future, work could focus on collecting more glaciolacustrine rhythmites further west to try and obtain a more complete chronology for ancestral Lake Erie. Obtaining more rhythmites will aid in the understanding of this complex lake history.

Also, future work could focus on studying the strandlines in more detail.

Detailed fieldwork performed could better classify the strandlines and the collection of OSL dates for the strandlines will add valuable chronological information to the history of ancestral Lake Erie.

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70 Appendix A

STAR Grain Size Data

Couplet % Clay % Very % Fine %Medium % Coarse % Very (0.02µm- Fine Silt Silt Silt Silt Fine 3.90µm) (3.90µm- (7.80µm- (15.60µm- (31.30µm- Sand 7.80µm) 15.60µm) 31.30µm) 62.50µm) (62.50µm- 125.00µm) Couplet 1: W 50.904 27.972 17.33 3.724 0.0697 0.000

Couplet 1: S 10.315 4.872 18.765 42.515 22.803 0.731

Couplet 2: W 29.688 22.540 27.575 17.256 2.94 0.000

Couplet 2: S 19.753 13.146 23.506 29.452 13.347 0.795

Couplet 3: W 30.978 23.387 27.211 15.787 2.637 0.000

Couplet 3: S 16.801 10.631 22.085 33.59 16.216 0.676

Couplet 4: W 26.930 17.618 20.889 23.282 10.824 0.456

Couplet 4: S 19.279 13.188 24.522 29.759 12.714 0.539

Couplet 5: W 23.419 17.624 28.606 23.935 5.5034 0.012

Couplet 5: S 9.518 4.947 20.338 43.192 21.432 0.572

Appendix B

WWMP Grain Size Data

Couplet % Clay (≤5.000µm) % Silt (5.00µm-74.00µm) % Sand (≥74.000µm) Couplet 1: W 44.013 55.565 0.423 Couplet 1: S 30.807 66.787 2.407 Couplet 2: W 25.915 66.064 8.022 Couplet 2: S 16.189 58.187 25.624 Couplet 3: W 32.705 44.916 22.379 Couplet 3: S 22.639 76.281 1.080 Couplet 4: W 40.303 56.548 3.149 Couplet 4: S 25.554 72.389 2.057 Couplet 5: W 28.792 67.402 3.806 Couplet 5: S 16.565 78.254 5.181 Couplet 6: W 29.905 66.953 3.142 Couplet 6: S 14.071 84.371 1.558 Couplet 7: W 30.571 63.305 6.125 Couplet 7: S 9.602 85.782 4.616 Couplet 8: W 35.482 59.295 5.223 Couplet 8: S 19.169 77.458 3.372 Couplet 9: W 33.278 66.574 0.148 Couplet 9: S 14.932 84.489 0.579 Couplet 10: W 35.908 63.995 0.097 Couplet 10: S 16.939 81.391 1.670 Couplet 11: W 50.890 49.110 0.000 Couplet 11: S 25.511 73.718 0.771 Couplet 12: W 35.198 63.053 1.749 Couplet 12: S 12.571 86.341 1.089 Couplet 13: W 29.126 70.748 0.127 Couplet 13: S 13.089 86.768 0.144

72 Couplet 14: W 34.337 65.555 0.108 Couplet 14: S 8.730 88.845 2.425 Couplet 15: W 34.791 64.970 0.239 Couplet 15: S 14.447 85.553 0.000 Couplet 16: W 37.988 61.803 0.209 Couplet 16: S 13.157 86.580 0.263 Couplet 17: W 31.944 67.539 0.518 Couplet 17: S 9.077 90.357 0.566 Couplet 18: W 31.577 68.404 0.020 Couplet 18: S 13.254 86.600 0.145 Couplet 19: W 30.522 68.711 0.768 Couplet 19: S 18.245 81.755 0.000 Couplet 20: W 29.776 69.865 0.359 Couplet 20: S 8.319 89.322 2.359 Couplet 21: W 32.845 66.586 0.569 Couplet 21: S 5.946 83.567 10.486 Couplet 22: W 47.581 52.223 0.196 Couplet 22: S 18.330 76.194 5.476 Couplet 23: W 35.34 64.387 0.273 Couplet 23: S 14.746 79.672 5.582 Couplet 24: W 29.789 70.211 0.000 Couplet 24: S 11.252 88.608 0.140 Couplet 25: W 35.529 64.445 0.026 Couplet 25: S 15.613 83.483 0.904 Couplet 26: W 33.873 66.051 0.076 Couplet 26: S 15.915 82.391 1.694 Couplet 27: W 31.827 68.110 0.062 Couplet 27: S 12.992 85.784 1.225 Couplet 28: W 31.782 67.908 0.311 Couplet 28: S 13.209 84.784 2.006 Couplet 29: W 17.937 78.772 3.292 Couplet 29: S 11.420 84.249 4.331 Couplet 30: W 31.791 68.061 0.149 Couplet 30: S 9.867 87.598 2.535 Couplet 31: W 26.010 72.133 1.858 Couplet 31: S 7.300 88.141 4.558 Couplet 32: W 23.242 76.361 0.397 Couplet 32: S 13.725 83.628 2.647 Couplet 33: W 23.278 74.419 2.303 Couplet 33: S 15.347 83.382 1.271 Couplet 34: W 38.770 61.088 0.141 Couplet 34: S 7.337 83.921 8.741 73 Couplet 35: W 34.204 65.151 0.644 Couplet 35: S 13.044 85.036 1.920 Couplet 36: W 32.172 63.445 4.383 Couplet 36: S 16.052 81.133 2.816 Couplet 37: W 27.468 70.754 1.778 Couplet 37: S 7.990 86.834 5.176 Couplet 38: W 27.807 71.787 2.407 Couplet 38: S 7.915 86.064 5.022

Appendix C

STAR Rhythmite Thickness

Rhythmite Total Thickness Winter Lamina Summer Lamina (cm) Thickness (cm) Thickness (cm) 1 0.9 0.1 0.8 2 0.62 0.3 0.32 3 0.44 0.2 0.24 4 0.4 0.15 0.25 5 0.66 0.15 0.51 6 0.4 0.2 0.2 7 0.9 0.29 0.61 8 0.7 0.18 0.52 9 0.22 0.15 0.07 10 0.4 0.19 0.21 11 0.38 0.19 0.19 12 0.8 0.25 0.55 13 0.58 0.2 0.38 14 0.42 0.26 0.16 15 0.8 0.2 0.6 16 0.6 0.2 0.4 17 1.2 0.2 1 18 1.06 0.8 0.26 19 0.24 0.15 0.09 20 0.8 0.3 0.5 21 0.58 0.2 0.38 22 0.46 0.27 0.19 23 0.6 0.2 0.4 24 0.66 0.18 0.48 25 0.4 0.15 0.25 26 0.6 0.2 0.4 27 0.6 0.2 0.4 28 1.4 0.27 1.13 29 1.02 0.3 0.72 30 0.84 0.2 0.64

75 31 0.38 0.2 0.18 32 0.62 0.22 0.4 33 0.84 0.34 0.5 34 0.42 0.2 0.22 35 0.8 0.2 0.6 36 0.8 0.39 0.41 37 0.46 0.19 0.27 38 0.8 0.29 0.51 39 3.04 0.45 2.59 40 0.6 0.2 0.4 41 0.84 0.31 0.53 42 0.8 0.29 0.51 43 0.6 0.22 0.38 44 0.76 0.39 0.37 45 0.62 0.3 0.32 46 0.66 0.4 0.26 47 0.4 0.2 0.2 48 1.2 0.3 0.9 49 1.62 0.28 1.34 50 1.24 0.2 1.04 51 0.6 0.25 0.35 52 0.8 0.2 0.6 53 0.48 0.3 0.1 54 0.4 0.21 0.19 55 0.6 0.2 0.4 56 0.66 0.3 0.36 57 1.4 0.2 1.2 58 1.84 0.22 1.62 59 0.4 0.22 0.18 60 1.2 0.27 0.93 61 0.64 0.3 0.34 62 0.64 0.22 0.42 63 2.6 0.27 2.33 64 1.6 0.4 1.2 65 0.8 0.3 0.5 66 5 0.35 4.65 67 7.7 0.6 7.1 68 0.69 0.37 0.32 69 0.8 0.4 0.4 70 0.44 0.28 0.16 71 0.9 0.4 0.5 72 2.5 0.45 2.05 73 1.2 0.4 0.8 74 0.7 0.2 0.5 75 0.9 0.4 0.5 76 0.4 0.2 0.2 77 1.1 0.2 0.9 78 1.8 0.48 1.32 79 1.2 0.33 0.87 80 1.2 0.4 0.8 76 81 1 0.22 0.78 82 1.4 0.38 1.02 83 1.15 0.31 0.84 84 0.49 0.28 0.21 85 0.67 0.3 0.37 86 1.1 0.4 0.7 87 2.1 0.75 1.35 88 1.1 0.3 0.8 89 2.8 0.7 2.1 90 1.4 0.4 1 91 0.7 0.38 0.32 92 1 0.4 0.6 93 1.5 0.7 0.8 94 1.09 0.51 0.58 95 1.9 0.31 1.59 96 0.83 0.69 0.14 97 0.5 0.2 0.3 98 1.3 0.25 1.05 99 1.8 0.3 1.5 100 3.49 0.7 2.79 101 3.1 0.69 2.41 102 0.7 0.28 0.42 103 1.08 0.39 0.69 104 1.48 0.5 0.98 105 1.4 0.59 0.81 106 1.2 0.69 0.51 107 0.6 0.27 0.33 108 0.4 0.2 0.2 109 0.62 0.3 0.32 110 1.8 0.7 1.1 111 0.6 0.2 0.4 112 1.35 0.4 0.95 113 0.9 0.49 0.41 114 0.9 0.5 0.4 115 1.7 0.38 1.32 116 0.7 0.2 0.5 117 0.43 0.2 0.23 118 2.2 0.38 1.82 119 0.48 0.21 0.27 120 0.63 0.3 0.33 121 0.95 0.5 0.45 122 0.53 0.29 0.24 123 0.61 0.3 0.31 124 0.9 0.5 0.4 125 2.4 1.4 1 126 1.81 0.33 1.48 127 1.09 0.33 0.76 128 1.1 0.22 0.88 129 0.95 0.4 0.55 130 0.9 0.59 0.31 77 131 1.55 0.4 1.15 132 0.62 0.39 0.23 133 0.8 0.22 0.58 134 1.81 0.7 1.11 135 1.9 0.8 1.1 136 1.8 0.8 1 137 1.4 0.9 0.5 138 1.2 0.4 0.8 139 1.5 0.7 0.8 140 1.5 0.5 1 141 0.8 0.49 0.31 142 0.58 0.3 0.28 143 0.6 0.1 0.5 144 0.91 0.33 0.58 145 1.4 0.4 1 146 0.5 0.22 0.28 147 0.61 0.32 0.29 148 0.9 0.4 0.5 149 1.6 0.51 1.09 150 0.4 0.28 0.12 151 1.4 0.5 0.9 152 0.4 0.21 0.19 153 1.19 0.41 0.78 154 0.75 0.5 0.25 155 0.72 0.4 0.32 156 0.43 0.28 0.15 157 0.6 0.23 0.37 158 1.21 0.41 0.8 159 1.09 0.7 0.39

Appendix D

WWMP Rhythmite Thickness

Rhythmite Total Thickness Winter Lamina Summer Lamina (cm) Thickness (cm) Thickness (cm) 1 0.46 0.27 0.19 2 0.53 0.3 0.23 3 0.8 0.4 0.4 4 0.89 0.6 0.29 5 0.49 0.2 0.29 6 1.01 0.5 0.51 7 1.24 0.52 0.72 8 1.2 0.51 0.69 9 1.3 0.6 0.7 10 0.52 0.32 0.2 11 1.12 0.4 0.72 12 0.37 0.27 0.1 13 0.3 0.2 0.1 14 0.53 0.31 0.22 15 0.26 0.16 0.1 16 0.25 0.15 0.1 17 0.9 0.61 0.29 18 0.52 0.2 0.32 19 0.91 0.61 0.3 20 0.73 0.4 0.33 21 0.41 0.25 0.16 22 0.39 0.2 0.19 23 0.25 0.18 0.07 24 0.63 0.4 0.23 25 0.46 0.2 0.26 26 0.39 0.19 0.2 27 0.67 0.18 0.49 28 1.36 0.7 0.66 29 0.5 0.19 0.31 30 0.23 0.13 0.1

79 31 0.9 0.59 0.31 32 0.49 0.2 0.29 33 0.93 0.32 0.61 34 0.53 0.33 0.2 35 0.22 0.12 0.1 36 0.79 0.29 0.5 37 0.71 0.43 0.28 38 0.59 0.19 0.4 39 0.56 0.29 0.27 40 0.31 0.11 0.2 41 0.45 0.15 0.3 42 2.06 0.78 1.28 43 1.6 0.8 0.8 44 0.51 0.11 0.4 45 0.59 0.14 0.45 46 1.98 1.18 0.8 47 1.9 0.8 1.1 48 0.81 0.41 0.4 49 0.98 0.38 0.6 50 1.36 0.6 0.76 51 0.83 0.33 0.5 52 0.74 0.55 0.19 53 1.06 0.49 0.57 54 0.63 0.41 0.22 55 0.68 0.4 0.28 56 0.69 0.2 0.49 57 1.4 1.1 0.3 58 0.42 0.27 0.15 59 0.51 0.28 0.23 60 0.9 0.6 0.3 61 0.5 0.38 0.12 62 0.31 0.11 0.2 63 0.41 0.22 0.19 64 1.18 0.6 0.58 65 0.89 0.7 0.19 66 1.16 0.86 0.3 67 0.59 0.32 0.27 68 0.35 0.2 0.15 69 0.48 0.18 0.3 70 0.54 0.14 0.4 71 0.81 0.43 0.38 72 2.1 1 1.1 73 1.28 0.8 0.48 74 0.84 0.61 0.23 75 0.97 0.25 0.72 76 0.89 0.21 0.68 77 1.46 0.86 0.6 78 0.38 0.18 0.2 79 1 0.77 0.23 80 0.91 0.62 0.29 80 81 0.51 0.33 0.18 82 0.5 0.16 0.34 83 1 0.7 0.3 84 0.51 0.31 0.2 85 0.32 0.12 0.2 86 0.5 0.2 0.3 87 0.59 0.41 0.18 88 0.32 0.12 0.2 89 0.42 0.23 0.19 90 0.79 0.2 0.59 91 0.43 0.23 0.2 92 0.71 0.41 0.3 93 1.07 0.7 0.37 94 0.81 0.61 0.2 95 0.64 0.31 0.33 96 0.52 0.31 0.21 97 1.7 0.81 0.89 98 0.32 0.2 0.12 99 0.57 0.36 0.21 100 0.81 0.3 0.51 101 0.92 0.61 0.31 102 0.71 0.12 0.59 103 0.42 0.14 0.28 104 0.58 0.24 0.34 105 0.6 0.29 0.31 106 0.34 0.1 0.24 107 0.52 0.23 0.29 108 0.27 0.18 0.09 109 0.24 0.1 0.14 110 0.4 0.18 0.22 111 0.82 0.7 0.12 112 0.33 0.21 0.12 113 0.58 0.36 0.22 114 1.7 0.8 0.9 115 1.2 0.4 0.4 116 0.95 0.55 0.55 117 0.45 0.2 0.2 118 0.49 0.19 0.19 119 0.39 0.18 0.18 120 0.51 0.2 0.2 121 1.41 0.41 0.41 122 0.53 0.23 0.23 123 0.35 0.15 0.15 124 0.51 0.13 0.13 125 0.87 0.67 0.67 126 0.42 0.21 0.21 127 0.45 0.2 0.2 128 0.55 0.27 0.27 129 0.42 0.14 0.14 130 0.39 0.19 0.19 81 131 0.5 0.36 0.36 132 0.47 0.27 0.27 133 0.38 0.18 0.18 134 0.27 0.15 0.15 135 0.41 0.28 0.28 136 0.42 0.29 0.29 137 0.79 0.6 0.6 138 0.49 0.19 0.19 139 0.53 0.3 0.3 140 0.71 0.41 0.41 141 0.88 0.3 0.3 142 0.79 0.3 0.3 143 0.26 0.12 0.12 144 0.29 0.19 0.19 145 0.41 0.1 0.1 146 1.05 0.56 0.56 147 0.43 0.28 0.15 148 0.94 0.35 0.59 149 0.58 0.38 0.2 150 0.66 0.41 0.25 151 0.96 0.48 0.48 152 0.93 0.5 0.43 153 0.48 0.26 0.22 154 0.22 0.12 0.1 155 0.41 0.18 0.23 156 0.22 0.12 0.1 157 0.71 0.53 0.18 158 0.79 0.3 0.49 159 0.45 0.21 0.24 160 0.58 0.4 0.18 161 0.51 0.31 0.2 162 0.43 0.15 0.28 163 0.45 0.25 0.2 164 0.43 0.21 0.22 165 0.49 0.19 0.3 166 0.49 0.29 0.2 167 0.4 0.15 0.25 168 0.32 0.17 0.15 169 0.69 0.5 0.19 170 0.41 0.21 0.2 171 0.25 0.12 0.13 172 0.45 0.25 0.2 173 0.3 0.11 0.19 174 0.47 0.17 0.3 175 1.01 0.71 0.3 176 0.3 0.18 0.12 177 0.44 0.23 0.21 178 0.65 0.5 0.15 179 0.32 0.19 0.13 180 0.33 0.21 0.12 82 181 0.71 0.5 0.21 182 0.67 0.23 0.44 183 1.02 0.23 0.79 184 1.3 0.52 0.78 185 0.51 0.3 0.21 186 0.66 0.5 0.16 187 0.6 0.29 0.31 188 0.96 0.48 0.48 189 0.5 0.35 0.15 190 0.49 0.3 0.19 191 0.66 0.3 0.36 192 0.58 0.39 0.19 193 0.32 0.12 0.2 194 0.74 0.35 0.39 195 0.4 0.21 0.19 196 0.6 0.29 0.31 197 0.42 0.29 0.13 198 0.45 0.15 0.3 199 0.37 0.21 0.16 200 0.68 0.31 0.37 201 0.62 0.2 0.42 202 0.47 0.27 0.2 203 0.52 0.21 0.31 204 0.82 0.61 0.21 205 0.43 0.23 0.2 206 0.22 0.1 0.12 207 0.25 0.1 0.15 208 0.75 0.35 0.4 209 0.53 0.39 0.14 210 0.44 0.17 0.27 211 0.48 0.28 0.2 212 0.33 0.2 0.13 213 0.32 0.12 0.2 214 0.81 0.4 0.41 215 0.51 0.29 0.22 216 0.45 0.2 0.25 217 0.51 0.21 0.3 218 0.58 0.28 0.3 219 0.99 0.69 0.3 220 0.7 0.4 0.3 221 1.31 0.49 0.82 222 0.4 0.2 0.2 223 0.34 0.19 0.15 224 0.4 0.21 0.19 225 0.72 0.3 0.42 226 0.48 0.3 0.18 227 0.92 0.32 0.6 228 0.9 0.5 0.4 229 1.49 0.39 1.1 230 1.09 0.7 0.39 83 231 1.08 0.5 0.58 232 2.02 1.1 0.92 233 0.75 0.34 0.41 234 1.01 0.6 0.41 235 0.81 0.52 0.29 236 1.31 0.71 0.6 237 0.5 0.3 0.2 238 1.06 0.5 0.56 239 0.43 0.22 0.21 240 0.39 0.19 0.2 241 0.6 0.29 0.31 242 1.01 0.59 0.42 243 0.52 0.31 0.21 244 1.05 0.76 0.29 245 0.8 0.3 0.5 246 0.42 0.22 0.2 247 0.46 0.26 0.2 248 0.72 0.39 0.33 249 0.72 0.43 0.29 250 0.9 0.3 0.6 251 0.71 0.49 0.22 252 0.85 0.65 0.2 253 0.49 0.2 0.29 254 0.48 0.2 0.28 255 0.83 0.4 0.43 256 0.69 0.3 0.39 257 0.49 0.3 0.19 258 0.41 0.21 0.2 259 0.51 0.3 0.21 260 0.36 0.21 0.15 261 0.56 0.16 0.4 262 0.42 0.32 0.1 263 0.37 0.18 0.19 264 0.64 0.42 0.22 265 1 0.78 0.22 266 0.5 0.3 0.2 267 0.57 0.27 0.3 268 0.82 0.41 0.41 269 1.24 0.8 0.44 270 0.26 0.13 0.13 271 0.44 0.21 0.23 272 0.78 0.39 0.39 273 1.02 0.51 0.51 274 0.38 0.18 0.2 275 0.35 0.19 0.16 276 0.6 0.37 0.23 277 0.41 0.3 0.11 278 0.4 0.13 0.27 279 0.92 0.32 0.6 280 0.79 0.5 0.29 84 281 0.7 0.21 0.49 282 0.68 0.38 0.3 283 0.4 0.21 0.19 284 0.62 0.22 0.4 285 0.96 0.45 0.51 286 0.73 0.5 0.23 287 0.69 0.34 0.35 288 0.84 0.41 0.43 289 0.49 0.22 0.27 290 0.43 0.25 0.21 291 0.4 0.2 0.2 292 1.31 0.51 0.8 293 0.97 0.5 0.47 294 0.83 0.42 0.41 295 0.52 0.23 0.29 296 1.08 0.29 0.79 297 0.41 0.21 0.2 298 0.73 0.4 0.33 299 0.78 0.35 0.43 300 0.5 0.27 0.23 301 0.9 0.22 0.68 302 0.73 0.44 0.29 303 0.6 0.2 0.4 304 0.65 0.28 0.37 305 0.56 0.3 0.26 306 0.85 0.45 0.4 307 0.51 0.29 0.22 308 0.89 0.69 0.2 309 0.38 0.16 0.22 310 0.44 0.25 0.19 311 0.7 0.4 0.3 312 0.32 0.2 0.12 313 1.6 0.91 0.69 314 0.81 0.41 0.4 315 1.87 1.38 0.49 316 0.56 0.3 0.26 317 0.54 0.26 0.28 318 1.06 0.66 0.4 319 0.88 0.5 0.38 320 0.54 0.3 0.24 321 0.37 0.2 0.17 322 0.91 0.61 0.3 323 0.74 0.4 0.34 324 1 0.39 0.61 325 1.2 0.9 0.3 326 0.49 0.28 0.21 327 0.41 0.23 0.18 328 0.35 0.15 0.2 329 0.89 0.69 0.2 330 0.74 0.61 0.13 85 331 0.67 0.31 0.36 332 0.68 0.39 0.29 333 0.47 0.24 0.23 334 0.58 0.2 0.38 335 1.19 0.71 0.48 336 0.62 0.22 0.4 337 1 0.58 0.42 338 0.48 0.28 0.2 339 0.6 0.4 0.2 340 0.67 0.48 0.19 341 0.51 0.31 0.2 342 0.32 0.18 0.14 343 0.59 0.37 0.22 344 0.27 0.13 0.14 345 0.36 0.13 0.23 346 0.52 0.21 0.31 347 0.45 0.25 0.2 348 0.72 0.22 0.5 349 0.65 0.23 0.42 350 1.08 0.28 0.8 351 0.67 0.33 0.34 352 0.67 0.42 0.25 353 0.48 0.28 0.2 354 1.02 0.2 0.82 355 0.7 0.42 0.28 356 0.53 0.31 0.22 357 0.98 0.52 0.46 358 0.7 0.48 0.22 359 0.4 0.18 0.22 360 0.55 0.25 0.3 361 0.56 0.36 0.2 362 0.5 0.3 0.2 363 0.5 0.3 0.2 364 0.74 0.35 0.39 365 0.72 0.52 0.2 366 0.65 0.3 0.35 367 1.24 0.88 0.36 368 0.67 0.4 0.27 369 2.92 2.36 0.56 370 0.62 0.25 0.37 371 0.68 0.3 0.38 372 0.9 0.49 0.41 373 1.15 0.56 0.59 374 1.11 0.6 0.51 375 0.7 0.3 0.4 376 0.52 0.3 0.22 377 0.52 0.41 0.11 378 0.7 0.4 0.3 379 0.31 0.19 0.12 380 0.47 0.3 0.17 86 381 1.05 0.75 0.3 382 0.49 0.22 0.27 383 0.61 0.45 0.16 384 1.24 0.34 0.9 385 0.71 0.35 0.36 386 0.79 0.5 0.29 387 0.71 0.3 0.41 388 0.98 0.59 0.39 389 0.67 0.33 0.34 390 0.8 0.5 0.3 391 0.62 0.41 0.21 392 1.28 1 0.28 393 0.8 0.4 0.4 394 0.98 0.41 0.57 395 1.09 0.29 0.8 396 0.75 0.39 0.36 397 0.46 0.28 0.18 398 0.28 0.13 0.15 399 0.29 0.19 0.1 400 0.37 0.2 0.17 401 0.88 0.31 0.57 402 0.57 0.29 0.28 403 0.42 0.21 0.21 404 0.71 0.4 0.31 405 0.21 0.11 0.1 406 0.51 0.3 0.21 407 0.5 0.28 0.22 408 0.51 0.3 0.21 409 0.83 0.3 0.53 410 0.34 0.22 0.12 411 0.46 0.22 0.24 412 0.49 0.29 0.2 413 0.61 0.21 0.4 414 0.69 0.49 0.2 415 0.39 0.19 0.2 416 0.35 0.21 0.14 417 0.91 0.33 0.58 418 0.53 0.15 0.38 419 0.39 0.22 0.17 420 0.63 0.27 0.36 421 0.58 0.26 0.32 422 0.71 0.52 0.19 423 0.43 0.25 0.18 424 0.42 0.31 0.11 425 1.41 0.9 0.51 426 0.65 0.4 0.25 427 0.5 0.35 0.15 428 0.6 0.31 0.29 429 0.61 0.32 0.29 430 1.03 0.9 0.13 87 431 0.91 0.62 0.29 432 0.61 0.41 0.2 433 0.33 0.21 0.12 434 0.81 0.39 0.42 435 0.8 0.4 0.4 436 0.8 0.4 0.4 437 1.68 1.21 0.47 438 1.1 0.8 0.3 439 0.45 0.3 0.15 440 0.4 0.3 0.1 441 0.52 0.3 0.22 442 0.93 0.52 0.41 443 0.47 0.22 0.25 444 0.36 0.17 0.19 445 0.79 0.32 0.47 446 0.43 0.21 0.22 447 0.9 0.57 0.33 448 0.74 0.42 0.32 449 0.44 0.18 0.26 450 0.78 0.4 0.38 451 0.6 0.3 0.3 452 0.78 0.38 0.4 453 0.6 0.32 0.28 454 0.31 0.21 0.1 455 0.6 0.3 0.3 456 0.54 0.34 0.2 457 0.64 0.44 0.2 458 0.4 0.2 0.2 459 1.29 0.7 0.59 460 1.14 0.74 0.4 461 0.9 0.6 0.3 462 0.58 0.42 0.16 463 0.94 0.55 0.39 464 0.4 0.2 0.2 465 0.4 0.2 0.2 466 0.4 0.22 0.18 467 0.61 0.41 0.2 468 1.42 1.1 0.32 469 1.32 0.78 0.54 470 0.69 0.41 0.28 471 0.53 0.25 0.28 472 0.66 0.27 0.39 473 0.55 0.22 0.33 474 0.55 0.3 0.25 475 0.93 0.35 0.58 476 1.29 0.46 0.83 477 0.53 0.24 0.29 478 0.35 0.22 0.13 479 0.35 0.2 0.15 480 0.43 0.2 0.23 88 481 0.79 0.3 0.49 482 0.58 0.32 0.26 483 1.62 0.8 0.82

Appendix E

OOMP Rhythmite Thickness

Rhythmite Total Thickness Winter Lamina Summer Lamina (cm) Thickness (cm) Thickness (cm) 1 0.35 0.2 0.15 2 1.41 0.9 0.51 3 0.9 0.6 0.3 4 0.5 0.3 0.2 5 0.4 0.2 0.2 6 0.37 0.22 0.15 7 0.65 0.3 0.35 8 0.8 0.4 0.4 9 1 0.8 0.2 10 1.07 0.73 0.34 11 0.55 0.35 0.2 12 0.5 0.21 0.29 13 0.9 0.51 0.39 14 0.92 0.7 0.22 15 7.9 0.4 7.5 16 2 0.5 1.5 17 0.9 0.6 0.3 18 0.9 0.7 0.2 19 0.59 0.39 0.2 20 0.4 0.2 0.2 21 0.6 0.4 0.2 22 1.2 0.8 0.4 23 0.52 0.3 0.22 24 0.55 0.3 0.25 25 0.7 0.4 0.3 26 0.6 0.3 0.3 27 0.5 0.25 0.25 28 0.71 0.39 0.32 29 0.68 0.48 0.2 30 0.49 0.21 0.28

90 31 0.4 0.3 0.1 32 0.7 0.5 0.2 33 0.68 0.45 0.23 34 1.65 1.1 0.55 35 0.9 0.7 0.2 36 0.71 0.31 0.4 37 2.72 0.32 2.4 38 1.5 0.4 1.1 39 0.51 0.3 0.21 40 1.1 0.9 0.2 41 0.69 0.49 0.2 42 1.1 0.7 0.4 43 1.7 1.4 0.3 44 0.69 0.49 0.2 45 0.8 0.52 0.28 46 0.35 0.15 0.2 47 0.48 0.3 0.18 48 0.88 0.5 0.38 49 1.22 1 0.22 50 0.39 0.2 0.19 51 0.4 0.2 0.2 52 0.88 0.7 0.18 53 0.22 0.12 0.1 54 0.2 0.1 0.1 55 0.64 0.42 0.22 56 0.31 0.18 0.13 57 0.7 0.55 0.15 58 0.36 0.21 0.15 59 0.7 0.6 0.1 60 0.41 0.2 0.21 61 1.1 0.4 0.7 62 0.33 0.21 0.12 63 0.3 0.2 0.1 64 0.48 0.28 0.2 65 1.22 0.32 0.9 66 0.4 0.3 0.1 67 0.4 0.2 0.2 68 0.88 0.68 0.2 69 0.6 0.3 0.3 70 0.3 0.2 0.1 71 0.28 0.18 0.1 72 1.4 1.1 0.3 73 0.3 0.2 0.1 74 0.2 0.1 0.1 75 0.43 0.3 0.13 76 0.55 0.35 0.2 77 0.32 0.18 0.14 78 0.5 0.2 0.3 79 0.28 0.18 0.1 80 0.2 0.1 0.1 91 81 1.26 0.76 0.5 82 0.4 0.2 0.2 83 0.61 0.3 0.31 84 0.68 0.4 0.28 85 0.59 0.28 0.31 86 0.3 0.2 0.1 87 0.29 0.11 0.18 88 0.41 0.2 0.21 89 0.7 0.4 0.3 90 0.51 0.3 0.21 91 0.55 0.35 0.2 92 0.52 0.3 0.22 93 0.4 0.2 0.2 94 0.8 0.55 0.25 95 0.49 0.3 0.19 96 0.35 0.2 0.15 97 0.51 0.2 0.31 98 0.68 0.3 0.38 99 0.76 0.45 0.31 100 0.67 0.52 0.15 101 0.5 0.15 0.35 102 1.4 1.1 0.3 103 4.2 0.4 3.8 104 1.3 0.9 0.4 105 0.65 0.45 0.2 106 0.55 0.3 0.25 107 1.16 0.75 0.41 108 1.64 0.9 0.74 109 0.7 0.4 0.3 110 0.5 0.3 0.2 111 0.45 0.25 0.2 112 0.6 0.2 0.4 113 0.53 0.38 0.15 114 0.77 0.47 0.3 115 0.45 0.25 0.2 116 0.39 0.21 0.18 117 0.2 0.1 0.1 118 0.24 0.12 0.12 119 0.7 0.4 0.3 120 0.4 0.2 0.2 121 0.49 0.19 0.3 122 0.3 0.2 0.1 123 0.5 0.3 0.2 124 0.7 0.4 0.3 125 0.56 0.46 0.1 126 0.33 0.15 0.18 127 1.8 0.3 1.5 128 1.59 1.08 0.51 129 0.49 0.29 0.2 130 0.51 0.31 0.2 92 131 0.7 0.3 0.4 132 0.5 0.29 0.21 133 0.55 0.3 0.25 134 0.3 0.2 0.1 135 0.64 0.43 0.21 136 0.57 0.23 0.34 137 1.5 0.4 1.1 138 0.5 0.3 0.2 139 0.47 0.19 0.28 140 0.67 0.35 0.32 141 1.09 0.42 0.67 142 0.3 0.2 0.1 143 1.05 0.8 0.25 144 0.27 0.17 0.1 145 0.62 0.42 0.2 146 0.71 0.36 0.35 147 0.31 0.21 0.1 148 0.32 0.2 0.12 149 0.79 0.37 0.42 150 0.48 0.28 0.2 151 0.44 0.29 0.15 152 0.3 0.2 0.1 153 0.22 0.12 0.1 154 0.36 0.16 0.2 155 1.09 0.3 0.79 156 0.75 0.5 0.25 157 0.24 0.14 0.1 158 0.23 0.12 0.11 159 0.6 0.1 0.5 160 0.61 0.31 0.3 161 0.22 0.12 0.1 162 0.1 0.05 0.05 163 0.2 0.1 0.1 164 0.67 0.21 0.46 165 0.38 0.28 0.1 166 0.35 0.15 0.2 167 0.81 0.4 0.41 168 0.29 0.2 0.09 169 0.1 0.05 0.05 170 0.45 0.21 0.24 171 0.4 0.2 0.2 172 0.1 0.05 0.05 173 0.4 0.3 0.1 174 0.51 0.3 0.21 175 0.5 0.3 0.2 176 0.4 0.1 0.3 177 0.72 0.6 0.12 178 0.35 0.2 0.15 179 0.23 0.1 0.13 180 0.9 0.4 0.5 93 181 0.4 0.3 0.1 182 0.9 0.5 0.4 183 0.28 0.18 0.1 184 0.49 0.29 0.2 185 0.89 0.6 0.29 186 0.61 0.4 0.21 187 0.3 0.2 0.1 188 0.3 0.16 0.14 189 0.34 0.19 0.15 190 0.36 0.25 0.11 191 0.89 0.2 0.69 192 1.43 1.1 0.33 193 0.22 0.12 0.1 194 0.31 0.11 0.2 195 0.24 0.14 0.1 196 0.33 0.1 0.23 197 0.44 0.3 0.14 198 0.32 0.2 0.12 199 0.2 0.1 0.1 200 2.95 0.45 2.5 201 5.4 0.4 5 202 1.02 0.9 0.12 203 0.36 0.23 0.13 204 0.41 0.21 0.2 205 1.81 0.51 1.3 206 0.71 0.5 0.21 207 0.8 0.4 0.4 208 0.6 0.4 0.2 209 0.44 0.29 0.15 210 0.43 0.22 0.21 211 0.68 0.53 0.15 212 0.48 0.2 0.28 213 0.37 0.21 0.16 214 0.2 0.1 0.1 215 0.63 0.5 0.13 216 0.22 0.12 0.1 217 0.24 0.1 0.14 218 0.42 0.15 0.27 219 0.74 0.32 0.42 220 0.53 0.39 0.14 221 0.46 0.23 0.23 222 0.72 0.3 0.42 223 0.63 0.38 0.25 224 0.45 0.3 0.15 225 0.6 0.3 0.3 226 0.25 0.1 0.15 227 0.3 0.1 0.2 228 0.4 0.15 0.25 229 0.57 0.4 0.17 230 0.48 0.28 0.2 94 231 0.77 0.52 0.25 232 0.51 0.18 0.33 233 0.43 0.25 0.18 234 1.05 0.25 0.8 235 0.36 0.23 0.13 236 0.58 0.4 0.18 237 0.61 0.4 0.21 238 0.67 0.41 0.26 239 0.62 0.29 0.33 240 0.64 0.29 0.35 241 0.43 0.23 0.2 242 0.52 0.21 0.31 243 0.38 0.21 0.17 244 0.27 0.15 0.12 245 0.44 0.19 0.25 246 0.6 0.31 0.29 247 0.25 0.15 0.1 248 0.3 0.11 0.19 249 0.32 0.2 0.12 250 0.32 0.12 0.2 251 0.2 0.1 0.1 252 0.39 0.19 0.2 253 0.63 0.33 0.3 254 0.55 0.28 0.27 255 0.34 0.2 0.14 256 0.4 0.2 0.2 257 0.89 0.5 0.39 258 0.33 0.2 0.13 259 0.3 0.1 0.2 260 0.3 0.15 0.2 261 1.25 0.45 0.8 262 0.2 0.1 0.1 263 0.2 0.1 0.1 264 0.59 0.4 0.19 265 0.4 0.2 0.2 266 0.81 0.51 0.3 267 0.4 0.2 0.2 268 0.3 0.15 0.15 269 0.54 0.29 0.25 270 0.65 0.45 0.2 271 0.77 0.6 0.17 272 0.5 0.2 0.3 273 0.5 0.32 0.18 274 0.57 0.23 0.34 275 0.45 0.25 0.2 276 1.45 0.6 0.85 277 1.43 0.72 0.71 278 1.01 0.6 0.41 279 1 0.68 0.32 280 0.61 0.31 0.3 95 281 0.67 0.27 0.4 282 1 0.5 0.5 283 0.65 0.4 0.25 284 0.81 0.41 0.4 285 0.8 0.4 0.4 286 0.47 0.25 0.22 287 0.26 0.15 0.11 288 0.4 0.22 0.18 289 0.7 0.4 0.3 290 0.55 0.25 0.3 291 0.58 0.28 0.3 292 0.5 0.21 0.29 293 0.27 0.15 0.12 294 0.57 0.25 0.32 295 0.4 0.2 0.2 296 0.33 0.23 0.1 297 0.67 0.22 0.45 298 0.51 0.2 0.31 299 0.33 0.15 0.18 300 0.21 0.11 0.1 301 0.24 0.14 0.1 302 0.31 0.13 0.18 303 0.22 0.12 0.1 304 0.25 0.1 0.15 305 0.31 0.2 0.11 306 0.21 0.11 0.1 307 0.6 0.2 0.4 308 0.48 0.18 0.3 309 0.29 0.11 0.18 310 0.39 0.2 0.19 311 0.34 0.14 0.2 312 0.27 0.15 0.12 313 0.42 0.2 0.22 314 0.38 0.2 0.18 315 0.42 0.22 0.2 316 0.39 0.19 0.2 317 0.44 0.25 0.19 318 0.61 0.3 0.31 319 0.3 0.12 0.18 320 0.48 0.25 0.23 321 0.37 0.22 0.15 322 0.41 0.16 0.25 323 0.2 0.1 0.1 324 0.38 0.18 0.2 325 0.25 0.1 0.15 326 0.3 0.15 0.15 327 0.32 0.2 0.12 328 0.35 0.15 0.2 329 0.95 0.35 0.6 330 1.15 0.8 0.35 96 331 0.62 0.39 0.23 332 0.98 0.48 0.5 333 0.5 0.3 0.2 334 0.4 0.21 0.19 335 0.45 0.23 0.22 336 0.56 0.26 0.3 337 0.81 0.5 0.31 338 0.72 0.45 0.27 339 0.94 0.62 0.32 340 0.63 0.33 0.3 341 0.58 0.3 0.28 342 0.75 0.35 0.4 343 0.8 0.3 0.5 344 0.8 0.4 0.4 345 0.59 0.37 0.22 346 0.59 0.29 0.3 347 0.93 0.33 0.6 348 0.95 0.35 0.6 349 0.58 0.28 0.3 350 0.75 0.4 0.35 351 0.5 0.25 0.25 352 0.52 0.27 0.25 353 0.7 0.3 0.4 354 0.95 0.45 0.5 355 0.61 0.3 0.31 356 1 0.6 0.4 357 0.51 0.3 0.21 358 0.67 0.27 0.4 359 1.1 0.69 0.41 360 0.89 0.51 0.38 361 0.87 0.45 0.42 362 0.64 0.31 0.33 363 1.01 0.52 0.49 364 0.8 0.44 0.36 365 0.64 0.31 0.33 366 0.57 0.3 0.27 367 0.53 0.23 0.3 368 0.51 0.2 0.31 369 0.48 0.3 0.18 370 0.43 0.23 0.2 371 0.45 0.23 0.22 372 0.44 0.2 0.24 373 0.22 0.1 0.12 374 0.21 0.11 0.1 375 1.89 0.69 1.2 376 0.7 0.4 0.3 377 0.5 0.2 0.3 378 0.61 0.29 0.32 379 0.7 0.39 0.31 380 0.72 0.35 0.37 97 381 0.5 0.3 0.2 382 0.35 0.2 0.15 383 0.28 0.15 0.13 384 0.34 0.16 0.18 385 0.39 0.2 0.19 386 0.41 0.21 0.2 387 0.5 0.2 0.3 388 0.51 0.4 0.11 389 0.2 0.1 0.1 390 0.29 0.15 0.14 391 0.6 0.42 0.18 392 0.49 0.19 0.3 393 0.6 0.45 0.15 394 0.61 0.45 0.16 395 0.48 0.3 0.18 396 0.91 0.51 0.4 397 0.6 0.4 0.2 398 0.34 0.15 0.19 399 0.28 0.16 0.12 400 0.2 0.1 0.1 401 0.2 0.15 0.15 402 2.75 0.45 2.3 403 0.55 0.3 0.25 404 0.78 0.33 0.45 405 0.61 0.31 0.3 406 0.68 0.42 0.26 407 0.8 0.4 0.4 408 0.74 0.32 0.42 409 0.8 0.3 0.5 410 1.09 0.6 0.49 411 0.64 0.31 0.33 412 0.69 0.35 0.34 413 0.88 0.49 0.39 414 1.06 0.7 0.36 415 0.64 0.21 0.43 416 0.5 0.2 0.3 417 0.61 0.33 0.28 418 0.6 0.35 0.25 419 0.41 0.21 0.2 420 0.41 0.2 0.21 421 0.56 0.26 0.3 422 0.36 0.21 0.15 423 1.9 1 0.9 424 0.25 0.12 0.13 425 0.71 0.39 0.32 426 0.9 0.4 0.5 427 0.51 0.3 0.21 428 0.21 0.1 0.11 429 0.89 0.31 0.58 430 0.33 0.2 0.13 98 431 0.29 0.13 0.16 432 0.2 0.1 0.1 433 0.3 0.1 0.2 434 0.49 0.29 0.2 435 0.4 0.24 0.16 436 0.35 0.17 0.18 437 0.5 0.29 0.21 438 0.38 0.21 0.17 439 0.39 0.2 0.19 440 0.39 0.19 0.2 441 0.46 0.22 0.24 442 1.74 0.34 1.4 443 0.47 0.26 0.21 444 0.41 0.21 0.2 445 0.75 0.4 0.35 446 0.4 0.21 0.19 447 0.51 0.22 0.29 448 0.4 0.21 0.19 449 0.41 0.21 0.2 450 0.49 0.26 0.23 451 0.4 0.2 0.2 452 0.3 0.14 0.16 453 0.37 0.19 0.18 454 0.45 0.2 0.25 455 0.35 0.15 0.2 456 0.45 0.21 0.24 457 0.41 0.22 0.19 458 0.37 0.17 0.2 459 0.61 0.31 0.3 460 2.08 0.48 1.6 461 0.33 0.19 0.14 462 0.52 0.29 0.23 463 0.9 0.49 0.41 464 0.73 0.43 0.3 465 0.35 0.2 0.15 466 0.33 0.15 0.18 467 0.4 0.2 0.2 468 0.41 0.23 0.18 469 0.3 0.2 0.1 470 0.2 0.1 0.1 471 0.43 0.25 0.18 472 0.58 0.35 0.23 473 0.79 0.49 0.3 474 0.64 0.45 0.19 475 0.69 0.39 0.3 476 1 0.8 0.2 477 0.79 0.45 0.34 478 0.71 0.31 0.4 479 1.19 0.5 0.69 480 0.63 0.3 0.33 99 481 0.58 0.24 0.34 482 0.39 0.19 0.2 483 0.5 0.2 0.3 484 0.47 0.27 0.2 485 0.34 0.24 0.1 486 0.47 0.22 0.25 487 0.68 0.4 0.28 488 0.6 0.4 0.2 489 0.6 0.4 0.2 490 0.4 0.2 0.2 491 0.92 0.5 0.42 492 0.69 0.4 0.29 493 0.39 0.23 0.16 494 0.61 0.39 0.22 495 0.58 0.34 0.24 496 0.55 0.3 0.25 497 0.75 0.45 0.3 498 0.82 0.6 0.22 499 0.74 0.5 0.24 500 2.1 0.4 1.7 501 1.1 0.8 0.3 502 1.1 0.6 0.5 503 1.2 0.2 1 504 0.9 0.6 0.3 505 0.7 0.4 0.3 506 0.55 0.3 0.25 507 1.8 0.6 1.2

100

Appendix F

High-Resolution Digital Photographs

High-resolution digital photographs of the cores collected from STAR,

WWMP, and OOMP are stored on a computer disk that can be found in the

Department of Environment Sciences office at The University of Toledo.

101