Examples of Sentences with a Relative Clause
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“The Relative Pronoun” As Has Been the Case in the Last Several Chapters
CHAPTER 17 “Te Relatve Pronoun” As has been te case in te last several chaptrs, tis chaptr realy doesn’t confont te neophyt wit a lot of new grammatcal concepts; it builds on knowledge already mastred. Stl it’s going t take a litle patence, but we’l go slowly. Before we get t te relatve pronoun per se, we’re going t clean up a syntactcal point you’ve already been working wit, but may not have yet a firm conceptual understanding of. Let’s look at what we mean by a “clause”. THE CLAUSE You al remember te junior high school definiton of a sentnce: it’s a complet tought. And by tat we mean a tought which includes a noun, eiter expressed or implied, and a verb, eiter expressed or implied. Tat is, a complet tought must involve someting which is doing someting or which is being held up for descripton: “Te road is blocked”; “Te tee fel down”; and so on. Now, te human mind is a wonderfl ting. It reasons and perceives dozens of different kinds relatonships between events, tings, and ideas. It arranges events and facts logicaly and tmporaly, and in levels of priorit. Tat is t say, it takes two or more tings, tings which are separat ideas, separat visions, and weaves tem tgeter conceptualy and linguistcaly int what we “reasoning”. Te way tis reasoning is expressed in language is caled “syntax”, which litraly means “arranging tgeter”; puting tgeter events and tings and facts. For example, te two separat ideas or visions -- “te road is blocked” and “te tee fel down” -- might have a causal relatonship, which te mind instantly recognizes and expresses linguistcaly wit an appropriat conjuncton: “Te road is blocked because te tee fel down”. -
An Error Analysis of Relative Clauses
Title: Second Language Relative Clause Acquisition: An Examination of Cross-Linguistic Influences Name: Yuh-Fang Chang Affiliation: National Chung Hsing University Abstract English is a Right Branching Direction (RBD) language in which relative clauses appear to the right of the head noun. In contrast, Chinese primarily relies on a Left Branching Direction (LBD) in which relative clauses premodify the head. Many studies have provided evidence that the differences in principal branching directions between the two languages often cause difficulties in acquiring complex syntax (e.g., Flynn, 1984; Flynn and Espinal, 1985). However, most studies concerning the cross-linguistic influences in relative clause acquisition compare English with languages other than Chinese. Little research has been done to investigate the extent to which the relative clauses produced by Chinese learners of English are influenced by the difference in branching direction. The purpose of the present study is to analyze and describe the difficulties that Chinese learners of English encounter in acquiring the relative clauses. A total of 237 English-major freshmen participated in the study. One written composition from each participant was collected. In addition, a 44-item-multiple-choice test on relative clauses was administered. Data were analyzed in terms of: 1) the total number of relative clauses in each pattern, and 2) the number of errors produced in each pattern of relative clauses. Evidence of cross-linguistic influence was found in both areas. Keywords: language transfer, relative clauses, Chinese, English INTRODUCTION The role of the native language in L2 learners’ second language acquisition process has received a great deal of scrutiny among researchers. -
Revisiting the System of English Relative Clauses: Structure, Semantics, Discourse Functionality Francis Cornish
Revisiting the system of English relative clauses: structure, semantics, discourse functionality Francis Cornish To cite this version: Francis Cornish. Revisiting the system of English relative clauses: structure, semantics, discourse functionality. English Language and Linguistics, Cambridge University Press (CUP), 2018, 22, pp.431 - 456. hal-01923355 HAL Id: hal-01923355 https://hal-univ-tlse2.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01923355 Submitted on 15 Nov 2018 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. 1 (Article published in English Language and Linguistics 22(3), pp. 431-456, November 2018) Revisiting the system of English relative clauses: structure, semantics, discourse functionality1 FRANCIS CORNISH CLLE-ERSS UMR 5263 and Université de Toulouse-Jean Jaurès Abstract The goal of this article is to uncover the system underlying three types of English relative clauses, and to characterise their distinctive uses in discourse: NP-integrated ones, namely restrictive and ‘a-restrictive’ relative clauses, and non-integrated ones, represented by non-restrictive relatives. The area at issue is central, since understanding the functioning of these constructions requires reference to the fundamental interface between grammar (language system) and discourse (language use). The discourse functions of the three subtypes of relatives are claimed to be underlain by their intrinsic morphosyntactic and semantic properties. -
On Restrictions on the Use of Non-Restrictive Infinitival Relative Clauses in English
On restrictions on the use of non-restrictive infinitival relative clauses in English Takanobu%Akiyama% Nihon%University% [email protected]% This paper deals with non-restrictive infinitival relative clauses (NIRCs) in English (e.g. An independent review, to be funded by the health authority, has been commissioned). The purpose of this paper is twofold: (i) to give an accurate description of the semantic properties of the NIRC on the basis of the British National Corpus, and (ii) to elucidate restrictions on the use of this construction. My corpus-based approach will clarify four types of shades of meaning expressed by this construction are equal to those expressed by IS TO construction (i.e. plan, necessity or appropriateness, future in the past, and possibility). I will stress that NIRCs are used only when they have one notional category (i.e. notional subject/object), which is highly likely to be a notional subject of the infinitive, and denote one of the shades of meaning rather than causality. Keywords: non-restrictive clauses, infinitival relative clauses, meaning of to-infinitives, the British National Corpus 1. Introduction This paper deals with the non-restrictive infinitival relative clause (henceforth, NIRC) in English (e.g. An independent review, to be funded by Ealing council and Selected Papers from the 44th Conference of the Australian Linguistic Society, 2013 edited by Lauren Gawne and Jill Vaughan! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Selected papers from the 44th ALS conference – 2013 AKIYAMA Ealing health authority, has been commissioned. (BNC: A96 443))1. The discussion of NIRCs has been neglected by linguists, although there have been many publications on restrictive infinitival relative clauses (e.g. -
English Relative Clauses in a Cross-Germanic Perspective
English relative clauses in a cross-Germanic perspective Julia Bacskai-Atkari University of Konstanz Abstract The article examines the distribution of relativising strategies in English in a cross-Germanic perspective, arguing that English is special among Germanic languages both regarding the number of available options and their distribution. The differences from other Germanic languages (both West Germanic and Scandi- navian) are primarily due to the historical changes affecting the case and gender system in English more generally. The loss of case and gender on the original singular neuter relative pronoun facilitated its reanalysis as a complementiser. The effect of the case system can also be observed in properties that are not evidently related to case. Specifically, the choice between the pronoun strategy and the complementiser strategy is known to show differences according to the Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierar- chy. While English shows a subject vs. oblique distinction in this respect, matching its nominative/oblique case system, German dialects show a subject/direct object vs. oblique distinction, matching the nominative /accusative/oblique case setting in the language. The particular setting in English is thus not dependent on e.g. a single parameter but on various factors that are otherwise present in other Germanic languages as well, and it is ultimately the complex interplay of these factors that results in the particular setup. 1. Introduction There are two major types of relative clauses in English,1,2 illustrated in (1) below: (1) a. This is the linguist who has an interesting theory. b. This is the linguist that has an interesting theory. -
Relativization in Qiang∗
LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS 9.4:735-768, 2008 2008-0-009-004-000247-1 Relativization in Qiang∗ Chenglong Huang Chinese Academy of Social Sciences In this paper, we review the strategies of relativization and discuss the different types of relative clauses and morpho-syntactic properties of relative clauses in eight varieties of Qiang. The Qiang language shows six types of relativization in terms of whether there is a head noun or not, and the relative positions of the head noun and relative clause. Double-headed relative clauses are unusual cross-linguistically. Head-internal relative clauses are modified by a demonstrative-(numeral)-classifier/ (in)definite-classifier, which helps readers to identify head-internal relative clause structures as NPs. In Qiang, different nominalizers, the genitive marker, and the definite marking or indefinite marking are used as clues in identifying the clause as relative; the choice of nominalizers or the genitive marker depends on the semantic role of the head in the relative clause. In some varieties of Qiang there are also some relative clauses that are not marked by nominalizers but are marked by person with aspect marking. Similar to English and Mandarin Chinese, almost all NPs, like actor, undergoer, experiencer, destination, instrument, source, location, time, etc., may be relativized on, therefore, there is no restricted neutralization (S/A pivot or S/P pivot) in nominalized relative clauses, while there is restricted neutralization in non- nominalized relative clauses (finite relative clauses), i.e. S/A is the same marking. Key words: Sino-Tibetan, relative clauses, typology 1. Introduction There are 306,072 Qiang people in the Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan (四川阿壩藏族羌族自治州), China (2000 census). -
The Case of English Relative Clause
Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics 17(1), 79-93. The Application of Corpora in Teaching Grammar: The Case of English Relative Clause Rahman Sahragard, Ali Kushki and Ehsan Ansaripour* Shiraz University Sahragard, R., Kushki, A. & Ansaripour, E. (2013). The Application of Corpora in Teaching Grammar: The Case of English Relative Clause. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 79-93. The study was conducted to see if the provision of implementing corpora on English relative clauses would prove useful for Iranian EFL learners or not. Two writing classes were held for the participants of intermediate level. A record of 15 writing samples produced by each participant was kept in the form of a portfolio. Participants’ portfolios in both the experimental and the control groups were analyzed to spot patterned errors. Having diagnosed the errors, both groups were instructed on the use of English relative clauses. The participants in the experimental group were instructed using the corpora as printed materials. The control group, however, were instructed using explicit definition, discussion and exemplification. Then, both group participants’ portfolios were returned and they were asked to self correct their misapplied relative clauses. Interestingly, both groups had improved significantly. Two Chi-square tests on the use of that and which were run before and after classroom procedures on both groups. The first one suggested similar performance for the two groups but the second one favored the experimental group. The study suggests that applying corpora is an effective way to make students aware of their errors which ultimately leads them to self correction. -
Licensing Animacy in Relative Clause Comprehension
Structuring Expectation: Licensing Animacy in Relative Clause Comprehension Matthew W. Wagers and Emily Pendleton 1. Introduction* 1.1. Animacy and the predictive encoding of relative clauses Broadly speaking, subject relative clauses are easier to understand than object relative clauses (Wanner & Maratsos, 1978, Ford, 1983, Holmes & O'Regan, 1981, among many others). This can be demonstrated by a variety of methods that measure the speed and accuracy with which sentences containing relative clauses are processed. As an example, compare (1a), which contains a subject relative clause (SRC), to (1b), which contains an object relative clause (ORC). (1) a. Subject relative clause, The lobbyist [ that ___ quoted the journalist on the radio ] lost her job. b. Object relative clause The lobbyist [ that the journalist quoted ___ on the radio ] lost her job. The SRC advantage is very robust cross-linguistically. Even in cases where non-subject relatives may ultimately be easier to process, the 'fingerprints' of a subject advantage can be detected (Clemens et al., 2015, Borja, Chung & Wagers, 2015). However, the SRC advantage can be neutralized under a variety of conditions. For example, if the subject of an ORC is a quantified expression or a pronoun, then the asymmetry is substantially reduced (Gordon, Hendrick & Johnson, 2001, 2004). Another way to neutralize the SRC advantage is to change the animacy of the relativized argument (Mak, Vonk & Schriefers, 2002, Traxler, Morris & Seely, 2005, Gennari & MacDonald, 2008, among others). (2) illustrates a contrast that should be less severe than (1), because the relativized argument in (2), 'report', is inanimate. (2) a. Subject relative clause, inanimate filler The report [ that ___ quoted the journalist in the introduction ] was not well-known. -
Preposition Stranding Vs. Pied-Piping—The Role of Cognitive Complexity in Grammatical Variation
languages Article Preposition Stranding vs. Pied-Piping—The Role of Cognitive Complexity in Grammatical Variation Christine Günther Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Universität Siegen, 57076 Siegen, Germany; [email protected] Abstract: Grammatical variation has often been said to be determined by cognitive complexity. Whenever they have the choice between two variants, speakers will use that form that is associated with less processing effort on the hearer’s side. The majority of studies putting forth this or similar analyses of grammatical variation are based on corpus data. Analyzing preposition stranding vs. pied-piping in English, this paper sets out to put the processing-based hypotheses to the test. It focuses on discontinuous prepositional phrases as opposed to their continuous counterparts in an online and an offline experiment. While pied-piping, the variant with a continuous PP, facilitates reading at the wh-element in restrictive relative clauses, a stranded preposition facilitates reading at the right boundary of the relative clause. Stranding is the preferred option in the same contexts. The heterogenous results underline the need for research on grammatical variation from various perspectives. Keywords: grammatical variation; complexity; preposition stranding; discontinuous constituents Citation: Günther, Christine. 2021. Preposition Stranding vs. Pied- 1. Introduction Piping—The Role of Cognitive Grammatical variation refers to phenomena where speakers have the choice between Complexity in Grammatical Variation. two (or more) semantically equivalent structural options. Even in English, a language with Languages 6: 89. https://doi.org/ rather rigid word order, some constructions allow for variation, such as the position of a 10.3390/languages6020089 particle, the ordering of post-verbal constituents or the position of a preposition. -
Instruct Practice Prepare
Grammar ® Lexia Lessons PARTS OF SPEECH Pronouns 2 PREPARE CONCEPT Words are categorized as pronouns pronoun can act as the subject of a sentence. The if they take the place of a noun (a person, place, ability to think and talk about pronouns helps thing, or idea) in a sentence. Possessive pronouns students understand and explain texts accurately show ownership. Relative pronouns that, which, and write effectively. who, whom, and whose begin a relative clause. VOCABULARY absolute possessive pronoun, Relative clauses act as adjectival clauses and indefinite pronoun, possessive pronoun, relative answer the question which one. Indefinite clause, relative pronoun pronouns include all, anything, anyone, someone, everyone, many, several, and some. An indefinite MATERIALS Lesson reproducibles, index cards INSTRUCT Tell students they will be learning about other pronouns that replace nouns in a sentence. Provide an overview of the types of pronouns listed on the Anchor Chart, clarifying and discussing previously learned concepts as needed. Instruct students that pronouns can act as the subject or as adjectives in a sentence and answer the question which one. Display the sentence Somebody can drive my car that I just repaired. Underline the pronoun somebody and state that somebody is an indefinite pronoun because it does not refer to a specific person or thing. It acts as the subject of the sentence. Underline my and state that it shows ownership of the car. Finally, underline that and state that it begins a new clause. State the information: All pronouns, including indefinite, possessive, and relative pronouns, replace a noun. A possessive pronoun acts as an adjective and answers which one or whose. -
The Emergence of Relative Clauses in Early Child Language
The emergence of relative clauses in early child language Holger Diessel University of Jena Introduction This paper examines the development of relative clauses in early child language. It is argued that relative clauses constitute a network of related constructions that children acquire in a piecemeal bottom-up way, starting with relative clauses that are only little different from simple sentences which are gradually extended into more complex grammatical patterns. The acquisition process is driven by pragmatic and cognitive factors that are involved in the process of language use. The analysis draws on previous research with Michael Tomasello supplemented by a new corpus investigation of ’ spontaneous relative clauses in English (cf. Diessel and Tomasello 2000, 2005; Diessel 2004, 2008; Brandt, Diessel, and Tomasello 2007). The paper reports the results of three studies. The first study is a corpus investigation of the external properties of ’ early relative clauses; the second study is an experimental study investigating the way children process the internal structure of English and German relative clauses; and the third study is another corpus study examining the meaning of ’ subject and object relative clauses. Study 1 Relative clauses are subordinate clauses that are embedded in complex sentences. The first study investigates the structure and meaning of the sentence in which ’early relative clauses are embedded. In the experimental literature on the acquisition of relative clauses, children are commonly confronted with complex sentences in which the relative clause modifies the subject or object of a transitive main clause including a prototypical agent and an activity verb as in examples (1) and (2) (adopted from Tavakolian 1977). -
Chapter 12 a Typology of Demonstrative Clause Linkers Holger Diessel Friedrich Schiller University Jena Merlijn Breunesse University of Amsterdam
Chapter 12 A typology of demonstrative clause linkers Holger Diessel Friedrich Schiller University Jena Merlijn Breunesse University of Amsterdam Across languages, demonstratives provide a frequent diachronic source for a wide range of grammatical markers, including certain types of clause linkers such as En- glish so, that, thus and therefore. Drawing on data from a sample of 100 languages, this chapter presents a cross-linguistic survey of (grammaticalised) demonstratives that are routinely used to combine clauses or propositions. The study shows that demonstrative clause linkers occur in a large variety of constructions including all major types of subordinate clauses and paratactic sentences. Concentrating on the most frequent types, the chapter considers (grammaticalised) demonstratives functioning as (i) relative pronouns, (ii) linking and nominalising articles, (iii) quo- tative markers, (iv) complementisers, (v) conjunctive adverbs, (vi) adverbial sub- ordinate conjunctions, (vii) correlatives and (viii) topic markers. It is the purpose of the chapter to provide a comprehensive overview of demonstrative clause link- ers from a cross-linguistic perspective and to consider the mechanisms of change that are involved in the grammaticalisation of demonstratives in clause linkage constructions. 1 Introduction Demonstratives are a unique class of expressions that are foundational to so- cial interaction, discourse processing and grammar evolution (Diessel 2006; 2013; 2014). In face-to-face conversation, demonstratives are commonly used with ref- erence to entities in the surrounding speech situation in order to coordinate the Holger Diessel & Merlijn Breunesse. 2020. A typology of demonstrative clause linkers. In Åshild Næss, Anna Margetts & Yvonne Treis (eds.), Demonstratives in discourse, 305–341. Berlin: Language Science Press.