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Middle East Policy Council Teaching the Middle East: A Resource Guide for American Educators THE UPRISINGS AND AFTERMATH By Kevin Grisham Chapter Glossary Arab Spring/Uprisings/Revolts: These terms are On December 17, 2010, a young man named often interchangeably used to refer to the 2010-2012 Mohamed Bouazizi lit himself on fire in Sidi period of mass protest and revolt in countries across Bouzid, Tunisia, launching a series of protests the Arab region, particularly in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, against unjust rule that became known as the Syria, and throughout the Gulf countries. Jasmine Revolution. One could not have Green Movement: The peaceful protests (and predicted at the time that people across the subsequent movement) that followed the 2009 Middle East would follow suit with their own contested elections of Ahmadinejad in Iran. The revolts against tyranny and injustice. The color green was used symbolically by this protests unseated long-serving dictators movement. such as Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): Individuals Hosni Mubarak of Egypt, and gave citizens who have fled their homes but not crossed the voice to challenge the political, economic international borders. and social landscape of the Middle East. The Islamic State/ISIS/ISIL/Daesh: A militant group Bouazizi’s act of self-immolation did not of Islamists who have been active since the late provoke the so-called ‘Arab Spring’ on its 1990s but have been particularly aggressive and own, but it was symbolic of the growing successful in taking over territory in today’s Syria dissatisfaction with the unchallenged and Iraq. corruption and repression exhibited by Jasmine Revolution: the 2010-2011 protests in numerous dictators. It also became a symbol Tunisia that led to the ouster of its president. of freedom for those desperate for change in Refugee: A person who has been forced to leave the Middle East. their country due to war, persecution, or natural disaster. Even as the people used non-violent Relative deprivation theory: the idea that social or protests, the regimes in power often political movements result from a shared sense of responded with varying degrees of violence. discontent or deprivation, especially in comparison Technology and social media enabled people to what other societies/groups may have (i.e. wealth, outside of the Middle East to watch as opportunity, etc). governments used aggressive punitive Youth bulge: a momentary increase in the share of measures to silence voices of dissent. Digital the youth that makeup a country’s population. media also gave discontented populations a Uprisings and Aftermath !1 Middle East Policy Council Teaching the Middle East: A Resource Guide for American Educators lens into other people’s experiences across the world, sparking greater awareness among p e o p l e l i v i n g i n o p p re s s i v e p o l i t i c a l environments, and providing glimpses of the opportunities, access, and freedom they had been denied for so long. Educated young people, struggling to find employment, economic stability, and freedom of expression in the Middle East, had grown weary of the status quo. Of course, the events of the Arab uprisings were not the first protests in the modern Middle East, and certainly will not be the last acts of defiance. Several states continue to struggle with lawlessness and war. In most cases, the repression has only redoubled as governments try to reassert their dominance. States like Iran and non-state actors like the Islamic State have contributed to even greater regional instability in their attempts to influence politics or wrest Tunisia Post released stamps control of vulnerable areas. Syria remains the celebrating the victory of the Jasmine most notable, and tragic, example of how the uprisings Revolution, energized by the self failed to live up to the hopes and expectations of the immolation of the martyr Mohamed protestors and supportive onlookers. Nonetheless, this Boauzizi. Tunisia’s authoritarian ruler, momentous period ushered in a new era of consciousness, Zine al Abidin bin Ali, was ultimately overthrown on January 14, 2011. activism and open opposition that is unlikely to be abandoned despite the severe backlash of government Photo by Joseph Morris. officials and non-state actors. In this chapter we will look closer at the emergence and consequences of these collective demands for reform, and offer insight on the Tunisia’s global implications of the uprisings. Constitution https://www.constituteproject.org/ The Uprisings constitution/Tunisia_2014.pdf The massive protests in the streets of Tehran following the 2009 re-election of President Ahmadinejad gave rise to a new, heightened level of social awareness across the Middle East as people began to demand better lives. Whether they took place in the streets of Tehran (Green Movement), the various public squares throughout the Arab world (Arab uprisings), or the green space of Gezi Park in Istanbul, Turkey, the uprisings can be attributed to a variety of factors. They included: the “youth bulge” (explained below); severe economic struggles among the people; a lack of agency in the political system; and an overall desire for more when Uprisings and Aftermath !2 Middle East Policy Council Teaching the Middle East: A Resource Guide for American Educators people compared their lives to the world outside of the Middle East. These factors do not act independently of each other but are very much intertwined and lead to feelings of hopelessness. This interaction is most notable when looking at the demographics of the Middle East and their connection with economic indicators (e.g., unemployment). The shifting age structure of the Middle East has combined with other demographic issues to create an environment in which unemployment, underemployment and lack of job creation In the 1980s, the are extensive. Governments of the region have been unable or unwilling to address these issues. In addition, Middle East had one food and water shortages; rapid urbanization; and the of the fastest insufficient provision of housing, education, and medical care laid the foundation for a massive social movement by population growth the people. rates in the world. In the 1980s, the Middle East had one of the fastest population growth rates in the world. From 1980 to 2010, the world’s annual growth rate was 1.5% and at the same time, the Arab region of the Middle East had a growth rate of 2.4%. These growth rates peaked in 2010 and have since been declining, but thirty years of unexpected growth resulted in a ‘youth bulge’ – a momentary increase in the share of the youth that make up a country’s population. For example, in 2015, 50% of the population in Egypt was between 1 to 24 years of age (33% in the U.S. for comparison). The youth bulge is not an issue by itself. Some countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia have taken advantage of the youth bulge by using it to help to build their economies. But, the governments of the Middle East do not have the infrastructure to use this human resource, leading to high unemployment levels among young people – for example, in 2014, the Gaza Strip had an unemployment rate of 45% and Yemen’s was 27%. These rates are shockingly high in comparison to many countries in Europe and North America where unemployment levels are between 6% and 10%. This region-wide scarcity of opportunity has fueled the growth of a disaffected youth population who hold their government leaders responsible for the situation. These large youth populations also want to have a political voice and to be participants in the governments and politics of their countries. As a result of the protests that began in Iran in 2009, governments of the Middle East have become aware that their youth populations in particular need channels through which they can air their grievances, and, more importantly, play an active role in building their own futures. In fact, vocal complaints about abusive and corrupt systems, and distinct calls for more democratic governance and social justice came as early as 2003. Therefore, contrary to various media reports at the time of the uprisings, people in the Middle East and scholars of Middle East were not necessarily surprised by the uprisings. The greater surprise perhaps is that it took so long for the regional discontent to make its way to the surface in the form of mass demonstrations. The reactions across the Middle East are not exceptional; demands for the justice and freedom afforded to other people are universal. Relative deprivation theory is a concept that helps explain Uprisings and Aftermath !3 Middle East Policy Council Teaching the Middle East: A Resource Guide for American Educators the stressors experienced in the region. Relative deprivation is when an individual feels deprived and is discontented in comparison other groups of people like themselves; in this case, young people decried the lack of opportunities afforded to others across the world. Most social and political movements – including those behind the uprisings in the Middle East develop from these shared feelings of deprivation. A Timeline in Brief There are many potential starting points and important moments that influenced the uprisings. It is important to realize how large a role history plays in contemporary political dynamics. Several of the chapters in this digital book look at the different factors that have contributed to governmental dysfunction and popular frustration and Iran’s Green Movement was born out discontent. Consider the countless empires that shaped of support for Amir Hossain Mousavi cultures; the effects of colonialism; extensive external political for president against Mahmoud maneuvering; wars and invasions; overzealous dictators; Ahmadinejad.