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MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ARTS

Department of Ancient History: First Semester 2011

AHIS 342: The Roman Eastern Frontier 226-363 AD

This course undertakes an in-depth study of the Roman eastern frontier during the early period of the Sasanian Persian Empire (AD 226-363). The main focus is a survey of literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence for political, military and cultural developments on the Roman eastern frontier during this period. Topics will cover not only accounts of campaigns and expeditions but also strategic thinking and influence of commerce and of the spread of religions - especially and Manichaeism in the frontier regions. There will be opportunity for detailed study of major Near Eastern cities including Dura Europos, Palmyra and .

The unit is worth 3 credit points and it is co-badged with AHIS 242: The Roman Eastern Frontier and AHPG 837: The Roman Eastern Frontier.

Staff

The Lecturer for First Semester 2011 will be Dr Peter Edwell (Rm. 516, W6A, e-mail address: peter.edwell.mq.edu.au).

Tutorial staff and contact details to be advised.

Lecture and Tutorial times

Unit / Period / Activity Class Day Time Location Half / Offering

AHIS 342 Lecture_1 * Class_01 Mon 13 E7B 100 Lecture_2 * Class_01 Wed 15 W5C320 Tutorial_1 * Class_01 Mon 14 E6A 109 * Class_02 Wed 16 W6B345 * Class_03 Wed 17 W6B345

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Important dates

Semester Commences: Monday, 21 February Semester Break: Monday, 11 April to Friday, 22 April Semester recommences: Tuesday, 26 April – Friday, 3 June Examinations commence: Monday, 6 June

Lecture Schedule

Week 1 Lecture 1 Monday, 21 February Introduction & welcome Lecture 2 Wednesday, 23 February Geography of the Eastern Frontier No tutorials

Week 2 Lecture 3 Monday, 28 February Historical Background 1 (Rome) Lecture 4 Wednesday, 2 March Historical Background 2 () Tutorial 1 Introduction

Week 3 Lecture 5 Monday, 7 March The Sasanian “revolution” Lecture 6 Wednesday, 9 March Rome’s early wars with the Sasanians – Severus Alexander & Gordian III Tutorial 2 The Early Sasanians

Week 4 Lecture 7 Monday, 14 March The invasions of Lecture 8 Wednesday, 16 March The siege and capture of Dura Europos Tutorial 3 Different traditions - Roman/Byzantine sources and the SKZ

Week 5 Lecture 9 Monday, 21 March Palmyra – 1 st & 2 nd centuries AD Lecture 10 Wednesday, 23 March Palmyra – 3 rd century and after. Tutorial 4 The portrayal of in ancient sources

Week 6 Lecture 11 Monday, 28 March The Persian Wars of and Galerius Lecture 12 Wednesday, 30 March The Strata Diocletiana Tutorial 5 Sources on the wars of Diocletian and Galerius 3

Week 7 Lecture 13 Monday, 4 April Frontier theory and the Eastern Frontier Lecture 14 Wednesday, 6 April Christianity & the Eastern Frontier

Tutorial 6 Christianity and Manichaeism on the Eastern Frontier

Semester Break Monday, 11 April – Friday, 22 April

Week 8 No lectures or tutorials – Major Essay due Noon, Monday, 2 May

Week 9 Lecture 15 Monday, 2 May Manichaeism & the Eastern Frontier. Lecture 16 Wednesday, 4 May Constantine & Persia Tutorial 7 Constantine and the Christians of Persia

Week 10 Lecture 17 Monday, 9 May The Persian wars of Constantius II (I) Lecture 18 Wednesday, 11 May The Persian Wars of Constantius II (II) Tutorial 8 The eastern frontier under Constantius II

Week 11 No lectures or tutorials

Week 12 Lecture 19 Monday, 23 May The Persian campaign of Lecture 20 Wednesday, 25 May Unit summary Tutorial 9 Sources on the Persian invasion of Julian

Week 13 No lectures or tutorials

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Unit website

You will have access to the website in the first week of semester which will give you access to i-lectures and accompanying powerpoint presentations. To access the website go to http://learn.mq.edu.au and follow the login prompts.

Learning outcomes and graduate capabilities

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, we hope that you will be able to: 1. Analyse and express your judgement about the history of the Roman Eastern Frontier from the 3 rd -4th centuries AD in oral and written form; 2. Interpret written and archaeological evidence with appreciation and understanding of their context and modern interpretations of them; 3. Work with and respond to the views of staff and other students in the unit in both oral and written form; 4. Plan, revise and submit written work according to schedule; 5. Draw together and judge pre-selected and self-located evidence to provide an analysis of an important aspect of the history of the Roman eastern frontier; 6. Demonstrate both specific and overall knowledge of the history of the Roman Eastern Frontier under exam conditions.

Graduate capabilities

1. Discipline Specific Knowledge and Skills Our graduates will take with them the intellectual development, depth and breadth of knowledge, scholarly understanding, and specific subject content in their chosen fields to make them competent and confident in their subject or profession. They will be able to demonstrate,where relevant, professional technical competence and meet professional standards. They will be able to articulate the structure of knowledge of their discipline, be able to adapt discipline-specific knowledge to novel situations, and be able to contribute from their discipline to inter-disciplinary solutions to problems.

2. Critical, Analytical and Integrative Thinking We want our graduates to be capable of reasoning, questioning and analysing, and to integrate and synthesise learning and knowledge from a range of sources and environments; to be able to critique constraints, assumptions and limitations; to be able to think independently and systemically in relation to scholarly activity, in the workplace, and in the world. We want them to have a level of scientific and information technology literacy.

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3. Problem Solving and Research Capability Our graduates should be capable of researching; of analysing, and interpreting and assessing data and information in various forms; of drawing connections across fields of knowledge; and they should be able to relate their knowledge to complex situations at work or in the world, in order to diagnose and solve problems. We want them to have the confidence to take the initiative in doing so, within an awareness of their own limitations.

4. Creative and Innovative Our graduates will also be capable of creative thinking and of creating knowledge. They will be imaginative and open to experience and capable of innovation at work and in the community. We want them to be engaged in applying their critical, creative thinking.

5. Effective Communication We want to develop in our students the ability to communicate and convey their views in forms effective with different audiences. We want our graduates to take with them the capability to read, listen, question, gather and evaluate information resources in a variety of formats, assess, write clearly, speak effectively, and to use visual communication and communication technologies as appropriate.

6. Engaged and Ethical Local and Global citizens As local citizens our graduates will be aware of indigenous perspectives and of the nation's historical context. They will be engaged with the challenges of contemporary society and with knowledge and ideas. We want our graduates to have respect for diversity, to be open-minded, sensitive to others and inclusive, and to be open to other cultures and perspectives: they should have a level of cultural literacy. Our graduates should be aware of disadvantage and social justice, and be willing to participate to help create a wiser and better society.

7. Socially and Environmentally Active and Responsible We want our graduates to be aware of and have respect for self and others; to be able to work with others as a leader and a team player; to have a sense of connectedness with others and country; and to have a sense of mutual obligation. Our graduates should be informed and active participants in moving society towards sustainability.

8. Capable of Professional and Personal Judgement and Initiative We want our graduates to have emotional intelligence and sound interpersonal skills and to demonstrate discernment and common sense in their professional and personal judgement. They will exercise initiative as needed. They will be capable of risk assessment, and be able to handle ambiguity and complexity, enabling them to be adaptable in diverse and changing environments.

9. Commitment to Continuous Learning Our graduates will have enquiring minds and a literate curiosity which will lead them to pursue knowledge for its own sake. They will continue to pursue learning in their careers and as they participate in the world. They will be capable of reflecting on their 6 experiences and relationships with others and the environment, learning from them, and growing - personally, professionally and socially.

Satisfactory completion of unit

In order to complete this unit satisfactorily, you must attempt ALL elements of assessment and achieve an overall passing grade. See the Method of Assessment section below for more details. See also the Grade Descriptors for Student Feedback at the end of the study guide for more detail on what is expected for satisfactory performance in written assessment work.

Late Penalties and extension requests

Requests for extensions MUST be made before the due dates of written assessment items unless you can demonstrate serious misadventure. Late penalties will be applied at the rate of 5% per day of the maximum mark for the assessment including weekends.

Examination

All students are required to undertake a 2 hour examination in the unit. More information about the examination will be provided during the course of the semester.

Policies and Procedures

Macquarie students are expected to read and comply with the University plagiarism policy (located at http://www.student.mq.edu.au/plagiarism/ ). In addition, students can access other relevant policies at Policy Central (http://www.mq.edu.au/policy/ ). Relevant policies include: Assessment policy Unit guide policy Special consideration policy

Feedback and unit evaluation

The Faculty of Arts values student feedback and seeks to continually improve its teaching. At present, the Faculty collects student feedback in two ways: 1. Anonymous evaluation surveys which are disseminated at the completion of each unit. 2. Student feedback meetings which are held twice a year in the Faculty of Arts. These meetings are advertised on campus and all students are encouraged to attend.

Changes based on student feedback Based on feedback obtained from past students, this unit has been adapted in the following way(s): 1) To use interactive and "hands-on" material in tutorials wherever relevant and possible. 2) To make lectures more interactive. 7

Method of Assessment

3 Tutorial papers (900 words each) = 20%.*

1 essay 3,000 words = 40%

1 two hour exam = 30%

Tutorial participation mark (Internal students) = 10%

Discussion posting contributions (External students) = 10%

Students undertaking the unit at 300 level will be expected to be more methodologically sophisticated than those attempting the unit at 200 level. Three hundred level students submit 3 tutorial papers compared with 2 for 200-level students and the essay word limit is 500 words higher for 300-level students. Three hundred level students will be required to answer a separate question in the exam on which more will be said during the semester.

Tutorial papers will normally be marked and returned in the following week’s tutorial. You will receive written feedback on these papers together with a mark and grade.

Major Essays will be returned 3 weeks after submission. You will receive written feedback, a mark, grade and a marker’s sheet indicating your performance against the Grade Descriptors listed at the end of the study guide.

Tutorial participation/discussion posting contributions will be assessed both in terms of attendance/reading other discussion postings and actual contribution.

* Your first paper MUST be submitted in tutorials or to the Centre for Open Education if you are an external student by week 4, ie week beginning 14 March.

You are expected to undertake a minimum of 3 hours of your own work per week per credit point outside of face-to-face lecture and tutorial attendance. This is a 3-credit point unit and the semester includes a 2 week break in which you should also be undertaking work towards assessment. As a rule of thumb, you should undertake 9 hours of your own work per week for 15 weeks in order to do the weekly tutorial readings, write the tutorial papers, the major essay and prepare for the exam. This equals 135 hours for the semester. The time you should spend on the above assessment items as a minimum in order to successfully complete the tasks is as follows:

3 Tut. papers (20%) + Tutorial Participation/Discussion Postings (10% ) = 40 hours

1 essay 3,000 words (40%) = 55 Hours

1 two hour exam(30%) = 40 Hours 8

Course Texts

Essential

** MILLAR, F. G. B. 1993. The Roman Near East, 31BC-337 AD , Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass

**DODGEON, M. H. & LIEU, S. N. C. 1991 (Repr. 1994) The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226-363 , Routledge, London & New York.

**, The Later , translated by W. Hamilton and A. Wallace-Hadrill, Penguin Classics, London.

Books you should consider purchasing

*BALL, W. 2000. Rome in the East , Routledge, London & New York.

*EDWELL, P.M. 2008. Between Rome and Persia: The Middle , and Palmyra under Roman Control , Routledge, London & New York. Available in Paperback from 1 December 2010.

In both of these cases you may find better prices online.

** = very important * = important

Basic bibliography

Week 1 : General Geographical Background

**DODGEON, M. H. & LIEU, S. N. C. 1991 (Repr. 1994) The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226-363 , Routledge, London & New York. **AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, The Later Roman Empire , translated by W. Hamilton and A. Wallace-Hadrill, Penguin Classics, London. BALL, W. 1998. Rome in the East , Routledge, London & New York.

Week 2: General, esp. Historical Background

BELL, G. I.and M. MANGO, 1982. The Churches and Monasteries of the Tur 'Abdin, London. BLOCKLEY, R. C. 1992. East Roman Foreign Policy , Francis Cairns, Liverpool. **MILLAR, F. G. B. 1993. The Roman Near East , 31BC-337 AD, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 9

**BUTCHER, K. 2003. Roman and the Near East , Press, London, pp.32-78. e-reserve CAMPBELL, B. 2005. “The Severan Dynasty”, in The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol XII: The Crisis of Empire – AD193-337 , 2 nd edn., Chapter 1, pp.1-27. EDWELL, P.M. 2008. Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman Control , Routledge, London & New York, Chapter 1. KENNEDY, D.L. 1983. "Syria" in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C - A.D. 69 , 2 nd edn., pp.703-36. e-reserve KENNEDY, D.L. & RILEY, D. 1990. "Historical survey" in Rome's Desert Frontier from the Air , pp.28-46 . e-reserve OATES, D. 1968. "East against West: Rome and Parthia" in Studies in the Ancient History of Northern , pp.67-92. e-reserve OPPENHEIMER, A. 1983. Babylonia Judaica in the Talmudic Period , Beihefte zum TAVO, Nr. 47, Wiesbaden. *POTTER, D.S. 2004. The Roman Empire at Bay , Routledge, London & New York, esp. chapters 6 & 7. SEGAL, J. B. 1970. Edessa the Blessed City , Oxford. *YARSHATER, E., ed., 1983. The Cambridge , Vol. 3, 2 pts., Cambridge.

Week 3: Rise of the Sasanians

FRYE, R. N. 1983. “The political history of Iran under the Sasanians”, in The Cambridge History of Iran 3(1): 116-180. e-reserve FRYE, R.N. 2005. “The Sassanians”, in The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol XII: The Crisis of Empire – AD193-337 , 2 nd edn., Chapter 14, pp.461-80. OATES, D. 1968. "East against West: The Byzantine empire and Sassanid Persia" in Studies in the Ancient History of Northern Iraq , pp.93-117. e-reserve

Week 4: The Roman Wars of Shapur I

EDWELL, P.M. 2008. Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman Control , Routledge, London & New York, Chapters 3-5. EDWELL, P.M. 2010. “The Sources for Rome’s Wars with Shapur I: Eurocentric and Eastern Perspectives”, Ancient West & East 9: 155-79. e-reserve FRYE, R. N. 1984. The History of Ancient Iran , Beck, Munich. *HOPKINS, Clark, 1979. The Rediscovery of Dura-Europos , Yale University Press, New Haven. *POTTER, D. S. 1990. Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire: A Historical Commentary on the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle , Oxford [DG305.P68]

Week 5: The Rise and Fall of Palmyra

BOWERSOCK, G. W. 1983. Roman Arabia, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. EDWELL, P.M. 2008. Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman Control , Routledge, London & New York, Chapter 2 10

*POTTER, D. S. 1990. Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire: A Historical Commentary on the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle , Oxford [DG305.P68] *STONEMAN, R. 1994, Palmyra and its Empire , Michigan University Press, Ann Arbor.

Week 6: The Reforms of Diocletian and the campaigns of Galerius

BARNES, T. D. 1982. The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. PARKER, S. T. 1986. Romans and Saracens: A History of the Arabian Frontier, American School of Oriental Research Dissertation Series 6, Winona Lake. WILLIAMS, S. 1985. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery , Batsford, London.

Week 7: Frontier Defence & the Diffusion of Christianity

Defence

FREEMAN, P. and KENNEDY, D, eds., 1986. The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East , BAR, S297, Oxford. *ISAAC, B. 1990, The Limits of Empire, The Roman Army in the East , Oxford. KENNEDY, D. and RILEY, D. 1990. Rome's Desert Frontier from the Air , Batsford, London. LEE, A. D. 1993. Information and Frontiers, Roman Foreign Relations in , Cambridge. LUTTWAK, E. 1979. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire , Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. OATES, D. 1968. Studies in the Ancient History of Northern Iraq , Oxford. WHITTAKER, C. R. 1994. Frontiers of the Roman Empire - A Social and Economic History, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. WHITTAKER, C.R. 2004. Rome and its Frontiers: Dynamics of Empire , Routledge, London & New York.

Christianity

BROCK, S. P. 1978. “A martyr at the Sasanid Court under Vahran II: Candida”, Analecta Bollandiana 96: 167-81. BROCK, S. P. 1982. “Christians in the : A case of divided loyalties”, in S. Mews, ed., Religion and National Identity, Studies in Church History 18, Oxford: 1- 19. LIEU, S. N. C. 1986. “Captives, Refugees and Exiles: A Study of cross-frontier civilian movements and contacts between Rome and Persia from Valerian to ”, in Freeman and Kennedy, 1986: 475-505. *LIEU, S. N. C. 1992. Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China, A Historical Survey , 2nd edition, Mohr, Tübingen. 11

*LIEU, S. N. C. 1994. Manichaeism in Mesoptamia and the Roman East , Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 118, Brill, Leiden.

Week 8: No lectures or tutorials

Week 9: The Diffusion of Manichaeism/Constantine and Persia

Manichaeism

*LIEU, S. N. C. 1992. Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China, A Historical Survey , 2nd edition, Mohr, Tübingen. *LIEU, S. N. C. 1994. Manichaeism in Mesoptamia and the Roman East , Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 118, Brill, Leiden.

Constantine

BARNES, T. D. 1981. Constantine and Eusebius, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. BARNES, T. D. 1985. Constantine and the Christians of Persia, Journal of Roman Studies 75: 126-36.

Week 10: The Persian Wars of Constantius II

DODGEON, M. H. and LIEU, S. N. C. 1995. Libanius and the Persian Wars of Cosntantius II, War and Peace - Acta Orientalia Belgica (Louvain) 9: 83-109. LIEU, S. N. C. and MONTSERRAT, D. A. S. 1996. From Constantine to Julian , Routledge, London & New York. LIGHTFOOT, C. S. 1988. “Facts and fiction - The Third Siege of Nisibis (A. D. 350)”, Historia 37: 105-125. MATTHEWS, J. F. 1986. “Ammianus and the Eastern Frontier in the Fourth Century”, in Freeman and Kennedy, 1986: 549-564. WARMINGTON, B. H. 1977. Objectives and Strategy in the Persian War of Constantius II, Fitz, J. ed. 1977. Limes. Acts of the XI Limes Congress, 1976, Budapest: 509-520.

Week 11: No lectures or Tutorials

Week 12: The Persian Expedition of Julian

BOWERSOCK, G. W. 1978. Julian the Apostate , Duckworth, London. LIEU, S. N. C. 1986. The Emperor Julian: Panegyric and Polemic (with contributions by M. Morgan and J. M. Lieu), Translated Texts for Historians 2, Liverpool. MATTHEWS, J. F. 1989. The Roman Empire of Ammianus , London.

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Major Essay Questions

The Major Essay is worth 40% of the overall mark and is the largest individual assessment component. It is due by 12 Noon, Monday, 2 May 2011 . The date stamp made by the staff who collect the essays from Level 1, W6A will include the time. Any essays received after this time will be treated as being received 1 day late. There are no lectures or tutorials in the week before the essay is due so as to give you more time to complete it. Basic bibliographies for the essays can be found in the weekly topic lists above. There is a considerable amount of material on e-reserve and you should use the bibliographies in your course texts as well. The word limit for the essay is 3,000 words.

Important: As the essays are closely related to each week’s tutorial topics you may NOT write on a topic on which you have submitted a tutorial paper.

1. Discuss the influence of geography and topography on the development of Rome's Eastern Frontier. 2. How did Rome exercise political and cultural control over the regions and cities on its Eastern Frontier (esp. Syria and Mesopotamia) from Trajan to Julian? 3. How did the new Sasanian dynasty bring about a change in Roman Eastern policy from 226 to 303 A.D.? 4. Either: How reliable are our sources, both literary and epigraphical, on the Roman Wars of Shapur I? Or: How does archaeology help us to discover the date and the manner of the fall of Dura Europos? 5. Account for the rise and fall of Palmyra in the third century. 6. Assess the role of Diocletian and Galerius on the formation of a new defensive policy in the East. 7. What were the main aims of Constantine's policy with regards to Persia and ? 8. Assess the roles of the cities as centres of defence under Constantius II, with special reference to Nisibis, , and Edessa. 9. Assess critically Julian's conduct of his Persian Expedition.

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Tutorial Questions

No Tutorials in First Week.

Tutorial 1 – Week 2: Introduction

Tutorial 2 - Week 3: The Early Sasanians

Read the source extracts in Dodgeon and Lieu, 1994, Chapter 1 – “The Rise of the Sassanians”, pp.9-33. (Don’t forget to read the passage from Tabari in appendix 1, pp. 275-6). Also read the extract from the SKZ inscription (2.1.3) on pp.34-5 in Chapter 2.

Consider the following questions:

1. What differences are notable regarding the lineage of Ardashir in the accounts of Agathias & Syncellus, Tabari and the SKZ? Why do you think differences exist in the sources on the lineage of Ardashir?

2. How informed are the Roman historians Cassius Dio and Herodian on the overthrow of the Parthians by the Sasanians? How might we explain their coverage of events in the Parthian/Persian Empire?

3. Why might two different traditions exist on the outcome of the Persian campaign of Severus Alexander? You will find it helpful to read the brief biographies of each of the relevant authors in the introductory section of Dodgeon and Lieu “Notes on the Sources”, pp.viii-xiv.

You should concentrate on the sources themselves and your own interpretation of them. This is not necessarily an easy exercise but it will help you to analyse the material on your own terms (which is what we want you to do when writing essays!). Don’t be afraid to come up with your own ideas. You may find it helpful to do some more reading on the backgrounds of the various authors. The introductions to the Loeb volumes contain some useful information. You can also consult the Oxford Classical Dictionary (third edition) and the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (DF521.O93/1991 available in the Reference section of the library). On the early Sasanian dynasty you will also find the following useful:

Frye, R. N. 1983. "The political history of Iran under the Sasanians" in The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods , Vol 3(1) Yarshater, E., ed., Cambridge, pp.116-24. 14

Frye, R.N.1984. "The Sasanians: Ardashir and the beginnings" in The History of Ancient Iran , Beck, Munich, pp.291-296.

Both readings are available on e-reserve .

Tutorial 3 - Week 4: Different traditions - Roman/Byzantine sources and the SKZ

Read the source extracts in Dodgeon and Lieu, 1994, Chapters 2 and 3 and consider the following questions:

1. In what ways do the Roman texts differ from the SKZ inscription in reporting the conduct and outcome of Gordian III’s Persian campaign?

2. What do we know of the second and third campaigns of Shapur I against the Roman Empire from the Roman/Byzantine texts? What is the emphasis in the SKZ inscription and Oracula Sibyllina XIII?

3. Why was the capture of Valerian by Shapur I of interest in the fourth century AD and later?

EDWELL, P.M. 2010. “The Sources for Rome’s Wars with Shapur I: Eurocentric and Eastern Perspectives”, Ancient West & East 9: 155-79. e-reserve will be useful reading for this week’s tutorial topic.

A section of the SKZ inscription was initially discovered in 1936 by a team from the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago. A larger section of the inscription was then found in 1939. The inscription is carved on the remains of what is thought to be a Zoroastrian . The fire temple is located at Naqsh-i rustam, not far from ancient Persepolis, in the south of modern Iran. Naqsh-i rustam is the location of some of the tombs of the Achaemenid Persians and a number of carved reliefs have also been found there which depict Sasanian Persian victories over the Parthians and the Romans. The inscription is carved in Parthian, and Greek and, among other things, it describes the victories of Shapur I over the Romans from Gordian III to Valerian. It is a very important document as it provides information on the wars between the Romans and the Persians from a Persian perspective.

Oracula Sibyllina XIII was written in Syria and purports to come from the tradition of the prophecies of the Sibyls in Rome and Italy. An excellent translation and historical commentary on the Oracle was published in 1990 by Potter: Potter, D.S. 1990, Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire: A Historical Commentary on the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle , Oxford. This is available in the reserve section of the library (DG305 .P68/1990) if you wish to read up on the Oracle and its importance as a source for events on the Roman eastern frontier in the middle of the third century AD. 15

Tutorial 4 - Week 5: The portrayal of Zenobia in ancient sources

Read the source extracts in Dodgeon and Lieu, 1994, Chapter 4 and consider the following questions:

1. How is Zenobia portrayed in the various excerpts which refer to her?

2. How does the portrayal of Zenobia contrast with that of Odenathus?

3. How does the portrayal of Zenobia compare with the portrayal of other powerful women in Roman/Byzantine history?

There will be plenty of material in the lecture about Palmyra and the Palmyrenes in the third century but it is worth doing some background reading in preparation for both the lecture and the tutorial. Ball, Rome in the East, pp. 74-87 gives narrative background which focuses mostly on the third century events. There are two useful extracts on e- reserve which I also encourage you to read: "Revolt in the desert" in Stoneman, R. 1992. Palmyra and its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt against Rome , Michigan University Press, Ann Arbor, pp.155-179 and Nakamura, B. 1993. "Palmyra and the Roman East", Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies , 34:2: 133-150. You will also find "From Philip to Zenobia" in Bowersock, G. 1983. Roman Arabia , Cambridge, Mass.,pp.123-137 useful. There are other entries on e-reserve which you will find useful. If you wish to do more work on Palmyra in the third century I encourage you to consult the bibliography in your study guide.

Tutorial 5 - Week 6: Sources on the wars of Diocletian and Galerius

Read the source extracts in Dodgeon and Lieu, 1994, Chapter 5 and consider the following questions:

1. What was the nature of the conflict between Rome and Persia between the death of Shapur I and the war between Galerius and Narses ca. AD 298?

2. To what extent does Diocletian appear to have been responsible for a reversal of Rome’s fortunes on the eastern frontier?

3. What is significant about the treaty struck between Diocletian and Narses in AD 298/9?

Useful reading on the eastern frontier under Diocletian can be found in some of the articles and chapter extracts on e-reserve . These include: Williams, S. 1985. "Victory and consolidation II: Egypt and Persia" in Diocletian and the Roman Recovery , Batsford, London, pp.78-88; Winter, E. 1989. "On the regulation of the Eastern frontier of the Roman empire in 298" in The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at Ankara in September 1988 , French, D. H., Lightfoot, C. S., eds., 16

Oxford, pp.555-571. Millar. F. 1993. The Roman Near East , Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., pp.176-9 and 180-9 is also useful and a copy is available in reserve. For background on Diocletian and the importance of his reign see Williams, S. 1985. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery , Batsford, London of which a copy is also available in reserve. (DG313.W54/1985). You will also find Parker, S.T. 1986. Romans and Saracens: A History of the Arabian Frontier, Winona Lake. (DS56.P33/1986 in reserve) of use in researching this topic.

Tutorial 6 – Week 7 - Christianity and Manichaeism

There are no specific readings from Dodgeon and Lieu on this topic. There is a good selection of scholarship on the subject on e-reserve . I particularly recommend the following:

Brock, S. P. 1982. "Christians in the Sasanian empire: a case of divided loyalties" in Religion and National Identity: Papers Read at the Nineteenth Summer Meeting and the Twentieth Winter Meeting of the Ecclesiastical History Society , Mews, Stuart , pp.1-19.

Brown, P. 1969. "The diffusion of Manichaeism in the Roman Empire" Journal of Roman Studies 59: 92-103.

Lieu, S. N. C., Montserrat, D. 1994. "From Mesopotamia to the Roman East - the diffusion of Manichaeism in the Eastern Roman Empire" in Manichaeism in Mesopotamia and the Roman East , ed. Lieu, S. N. C., Leiden, pp.22-131. Obviously a very long section which you will need to read at your discretion.

Ross, S.K. 2001. Roman Edessa: Politics and Culture on the Eastern Fringes of the Roman Empire, 114-242 CE , Routledge, London & New York, pp.117-138.

Questions:

1. To what extent were Christianity and Manichaeism agents of cultural connection across the Roman/Persian frontier? 2. What similarities were apparent in the diffusion of Christianity compared with Manichaeism in the Persian and Roman Empires? 3. What differences were apparent in the diffusion of Christianity compared with Manichaeism in the Persian and Roman Empires?

Week 8: No Tutorials

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Tutorial 7 - Week 9: Constantine and the Christians of Persia

Read the source extracts in Dodgeon and Lieu, 1994, Chapter 6 and the relevant extracts from the appendices and consider the following questions:

1. What was the nature of the conflict between Rome and Persia from the beginning of the reign of Shapur II to ca. AD 324?

2. In what ways did Christianity come to play a role in the conflict between Rome and Persia during Constantine’s reign?

There are some helpful readings available on e-reserve . These include: Barnes, T. D. 1985. "Constantine and the Christians of Persia", Journal of Roman Studies , 75: 126- 136; Brock, S. P. 1982. "Christians in the Sasanian empire: a case of divided loyalties" in Religion and National Identity: Papers Read at the Nineteenth Summer Meeting and the Twentieth Winter Meeting of the Ecclesiastical History Society , Mews, Stuart , pp.1-19; Brock, S.P. 1978. "A martyr at the Sasanid court under Vahran II : Candida" Analecta Bollandiana , 96: 167-181; Fowden, G. 1994. "The last days of Constantine: oppositional versions and their influence" Journal of Roman Studies , 84: 146-170. Particularly useful for historical background is Millar, F. 1993. "The Tetrarchy and Constantine - extract" in The Roman Near East 31 BC - AD 337 , Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., pp.174-207.

Tutorial 8 - Week 10: The eastern frontier under Constantius II

Read the extracts from Chapters 7 & 8 from Dodgeon and Lieu, 1994 and consider the following questions:

1. Is it possible to identify a long-term strategy in Constantius II’s approach to the eastern frontier?

2. Are criticisms of Constantius warranted and what might be the motives for them?

There is a lot to read in these chapters so you will need to select some of the more substantial and important authors. The readings from Libanius and Julian are important. Ammianus is, of course, crucial. Dodgeon and Lieu does not reproduce Ammianus as his work is readily available in a number of editions. You should consult your penguin copy of Ammianus or the Loeb Classical Library volumes in the library.

There are a number of articles on e-reserve which deal with the Roman eastern frontier during the reign of Constantius II. Please consult the e-reserve listings if you wish to do further research on this topic.

Week 11: No Tutorials 18

Tutorial 9 - Week 12: Sources on the Persian invasion of Julian

The tutorial this week is based on passages from the penguin translation of Ammianus Marcellinus. Read the relevant passages as follows (AM 22.12.1-7 (pp.248-9), 23.2.-23.5 (pp.256-63), 24-25.9 (pp.266-309). Consider the following questions:

1. How credible is Ammianus as an eyewitness of Julian’s campaign in Persia? What does he include? What does he omit?

2. To what extent is Ammianus’ perspective influenced by his admiration for Julian?

There is clearly a lot of reading of the primary text for this week. Your own analysis and interpretation is the most important issue but if you wish to do further reading from the e- reserve collection see the following:

Austin, N. J. E. 1972. "Julian at : a fresh look at Ammianus' account" Athenaeum , 50: 301-9.

Fornara, C.W. 1991. "Julian's Persian expedition in Ammianus and Zosimus", Journal of Hellenic Studies , 111: 1-15.

Matthews, J. F. 1986. "Ammianus and the eastern frontier in the fourth century: a participant's view" in Freeman and Kennedy, 1986, The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at the University of Sheffield in April 1986 ,Oxford, pp.549-64.

Rohrbacher, D. 2002. "Ammianus Marcellinus" in The Historians of Late Antiquity , Routledge, London & New York, pp.14-41.

No tutorials in week 13