Garden – Why Not? S Parham and K R Boyfield

GARDEN PERSPECTIVES 1 The International Garden Cities – Why Not? Garden Cities S Parham and K R Boyfield Institute

About the Perspectives Series Contents Acknowledgements 4

Introduction: a curious conundrum 5 This is the first in a series of Through our authors’ arguments Garden City Perspectives: in-depth we intend that the Perspectives Some context 5 research and policy papers being series helps to promote knowledge, published under the auspices of increase understanding, generate A renaissance in the idea of the Garden City 5 the International Garden Cities conversations – and at times What constitutes a Garden City? 6 Institute (IGCI). Through this perhaps challenge assumptions series our intention is to open up – about what Garden Cities are or Why not? 8 opportunities for diverse viewpoints might be. On that basis we ask our to be expressed about the history, authors not just to analyse what is Garden Cities: some key questions 8 contemporary practice and happening now from their different So how do we deliver new Garden Cities now? 12 possible futures for Garden Cities perspectives, but to recommend - and planned settlements more what they think we might do to Unshackling development capacity: overcoming the planning impasse 12 generally where relevant. It is a make planned settlements better chance to look at Garden Cities in in future. The views of authors The Northern Powerhouse initiative and Pink Planning 14 depth with reference to the latest in this series are solely their own The vexed issue of the Green Belt 14 academic and policy perspectives and do not represent the official across a range of themes – policy position of either the IGCI Smart cities and how they link to the Garden City vision 16 housing, place design, health, or its partner organisations. We economics, accessibility, social and hope you find this and subsequent Our conclusions 17 cultural aspects, governance and papers informative, stimulating and Endnotes 20 more. thought provoking. Author Biographies 23

Through our authors’ arguments we intend that the Perspectives series helps to promote knowledge, increase understanding, generate conversations – and at times perhaps challenge assumptions – about what Garden Cities are or might be. Introduction: a curious draw a large number of UK and plagued by myriad problems conundrum international visitors each year to while their green landscapes are study and explore what makes expensive to maintain and manage. Here is a conundrum. Garden these places work so well today. To make matters worse, many Cities are almost universally seen These are not towns ‘pickled in of their houses are no longer fit as a good idea, but we seem to aspic’; rather, they function as for purpose - in energy as well have difficulties creating any new thriving places where people as in other terms. Crucially, these ones. Why is this the case? continue to want to live and symptoms of decline are occurring work and enjoy a range of social all at the same time. That question forms the basis of and physical amenities. Both this paper. and show that it is possible to learn from, rather A renaissance in the idea of the We want to know what is than live in, the past. This success Garden City preventing us from doing so? Why is not just characterised by the is it that we have not managed to way they look – although many Recently there has been some build any real Garden Cities since people favour the Arts and Crafts challenge to what is a generally Letchworth and Welwyn Garden and neo-Georgian architecture negative assessment. For some Cities were established in the early with which these Garden Cities observers, the very economically 20th century? Although some new are associated. Indeed, they are a successful Milton Keynesi remains developments - badged as Garden feature of the houses and public a model for development, and as June 12th 2016 Cities and Garden Towns - are in buildings in both these towns. a recent article in the pipeline, do they deliver the Yet the key measure of their notes, due to its super block grid key elements that conform to and success is linked to how well they layout it has plenty of land that bolster the brand? Why is it that work - socially, economically and could still be developed.ii It works Acknowledgements we seem to be unable to fund environmentally. Especially in the well for those who like to live in a successfully, nor come to that, case of Letchworth, this is also very low-density, car-based town. The authors are grateful to the work of Anthony Downs, Gavin build and govern places that follow about how the town is governed in Perhaps unconsciously influenced Murray and Pablo Fernandez in the Wolfson Prize 2014 entry Garden City principles anymore? such a way as to capture economic by historical associations between How can we work out what is value which, in turn, is then used for technological progress and its (Parham, Downs, Murray and Fernandez, 2014) for a number of stopping us from achieving these the community’s benefit. modernist place shaping, national insights especially in relation to financing new settlements. goals? And how can we overcome government and others see these impediments so that we can On the other hand, it is fairly as a good location start building proper Garden Cities widely accepted that the New for trying out ‘smart city’ ideas. again? Town inheritors of the Garden These are concepts meant to offer City mantle in the post war years technologically based solutions So, in this paper, we ask: Garden have failed to match the Garden to various urban problems, Cities – Why Not? City’s promise, hinging on quality thereby supporting a more vibrant of life. Furthermore, they have economy. demonstrated a markedly variable Some context economic performance. For many It is worth noting that since the years, the Mark One, Two and last phase of New Towns was To understand this conundrum Three New Towns were judged to completed there have been better we need to look back be more failures than successes in other, more recent attempts to briefly at the 20th century history social and design terms, although build successful new settlements of planned settlements. It is an not all concur with that view. Milton and meet housing shortages in evolving story that presents a Keynes, in particular, is seen as a sustainable way. Prominent mixed picture of success and something of a model for technical, examples include the eco-towns of failure. spatial and economic innovation the early 2000s. However, these of which more below. Yet today were judged not only a political On the one hand, Letchworth many New Towns face greater failure, but also a failure by the Garden City and Welwyn Garden challenges, as their housing and communities affected. Significantly, City are beacons of success infrastructure wears out. What hardly any of them have made in Garden City terms. They is more, their town centres are it beyond the ideas stage, with

4 5 the exception of Northstowe in attributes that people most makers and in the community at they term its pastiche traditional Aberdeen, which is currently being Garden City principles. Likewise in Cambridgeshire - rebranded as a value – such as quality design, large often demonstrate confusion design and architecture, ignoring its built, is also shaping up to be an (which is, after all, the 10,000 home ‘Garden City’ pilot gardens, accessible green about what constitutes a Garden well-founded claims to be based excellent example of developing a crucible of Garden Cities) there is project. iii space near homes, access to City. What distinguishes them from on time-tested design principles. whole new place, with jobs, services political support for a new Garden employment, and local amenities other forms of planned settlement The public appears to adopt a and facilities, transport links City in North Herts – which has Against this rather mixed history – can be designed in from the including New Towns? It is evident wholly different viewix In practice, and good quality housing aimed so far avoided becoming stuck in the idea of Garden Cities has once outset.” v there is a good deal of muddle Poundburyx has proved effective across the economic spectrum. the treacle of arguments about the again gained traction politically, surrounding the public debate in spatial design, consultative Its design, again like Poundbury, use of Green Belt for housing by as well as across the media and The Prospectus was confused in the media, political and policy and financial termsxi Poundbury’s is largely traditional, with homes proposing its location outside the among the public. Unlike more on the question of scale. It noted discussion about what constitutes housing has not only been a expressing local vernacular; Green Belt area.xv The paradox is recent examples of planned towns, that the Coalition government a Garden City. Similarly, there is commercial success but the urban walkable, connected streets; and that such places provide successful Garden Cities have demonstrated did not want to define Garden a largely unremarked slippage extension boasts a very high level human-scaled neighbourhoods 21st century urbanism by invoking very few negative connotations and City scale – thus appearing to between the idea of building of affordable housing, at 35% of around mixed-use centres. Coed placemaking traditions sympathetic associations. High profile initiatives, duck the issue - but argued for settlements, and producing what its total stock, managed by the Darcy in South Wales and Newquay to Garden Cities: principles which such as the 2014 Wolfson this crucial factor to be defined are merely dormitory housing Guinness Partnershipxii. It also in Cornwall similarly deserve a were largely abandoned in the post Economics Prize co-ordinated by by local communities ‘according developments that cannot, by has a thriving economy, creating a positive mention, and on a smaller war 20th century. , a think tank based to their own vision’. Later in the definition, become whole cities or substantial number of local jobs.xiii scale, proposals for a new garden in (which focused on how document it said scale should towns. village by Gascoyne Cecil Estates, Figure 1: 20th century versus 21st century urbanism – the latter including Garden Cities: to build a successful contemporary be ‘ambitious’ and it expected The Scottish new settlement of on the edge of Hatfield, are also Diagram reproduced from Wolfson prize entry, Garden City), have helped raise proposals of 15,000 dwellings Paradoxically, other developments Chapelton of Elsickxiv, south of in sympathy with a range of Parham et al (2014) and drawn up by Pablo Fernandez their profile. What is more, the and above to be submitted. It centering on the creation of venerable Town and Country also flagged up advice from the new places in , Wales Planning Association (TCPA), which TCPA on principles for developing and Scotland may actually offer indeed started life in conjunction Garden Cities today. Currently more useful examples of how with ’s vision, has there are some developments to make economically vibrant, continued to advocate developing either branded as Garden Cities, or environmentally advanced, socially Garden Cities and, in the process, seen as similar in some essential successful new settlements offered very clear advice about how qualities, which are in their planning from scratch, even though they to do so. iv or early development stages. do not define themselves as These initiatives include Ebbsfleet Garden Cities. A number of such In April 2014 the then Coalition in Kent, located on the site of a examples are referenced in recent government published a former chalk quarry; Bicester in research from the University of Prospectus inviting bids from Oxfordshire; and, arguably, at a Hertfordshire in the Hertfordshire councils for locally led new Garden more developed stage, Northstowe Guide to Growth – Five Years Cities. In that document, the in Cambridgeshire, which was On. vii From this select list of Government rightly argued that mentioned earlier in this paper, relevant developments already in Garden Cities were far more than since it exhibits some qualities existence or being built, Poundbury solely housing developments: relevant to the concept of a Garden in Dorset stands out as a notable City. For local residents near achievement. viii While located on “Garden Cities provide a unique Northstowe, it has been contended the border of Dorchester, it can opportunity for local areas to that the “long-awaited Northstowe be reasonably placed in the ‘new prevent this [pressure on local development could be a Garden settlement’ basket as it functions services and infrastructure], by City in all but name as a new in a largely self-contained way. taking control of development, residents’ group pushes for it to be Despite generally hostile media integrating planning to a beacon for better building.” vi coverage it is, in reality, proving to decide where best to locate be extremely popular with both the developments and ensuring that new residents and businesses that public services, green spaces What constitutes a Garden have moved there. and amenities are hardwired City? into designs from the beginning. Nevertheless, it is striking to see Development at a large scale More broadly, those responding to the level of antagonistic criticism creates the opportunity to secure new Garden City proposals in the from certain architects and some real and important benefits: media, among politicians, policy in the media who decry what

6 7 Why not? pragmatic strategy for increasing Cities (Bicester and Ebbsfleet).xvii City development will need to land remediation at Ebbsfleet in location. Their original promoter, popularity and making sure the Shaping a Garden City is seen as conform. It was certainly a point Kent, the first of the Garden Cities Ebenezer Howard, envisioned In England and in other parts benefits outweigh the costs.”xvi a very good fit with such health- emphasised in the previous that was announced earlier this settlements of around 32,000 of Britain the question remains In this age of austerity, they driven approaches. Coalition Government’s 2014 year.”xxiv At Ebbsfleet, the BBC residents constituting a series whether Garden Cities can be built must also be largely financed as Prospectus, where the only form of reported recently (November, of satellites around an existing at all? Furthermore, despite a few private initiatives, as was the case 2. Can new places be privately public support listed as possible to 2015) that the Ebbsfleet main city (although one that ‘Garden Cities’ currently being in Howard’s schemes for both financed? Understandably, support new Garden Cities was to Development Commission, set up Howard expected would reduce given the go-ahead, can they be Letchworth and Welwyn, and we following the financial crisis of broker deals with potential private by central government to plan and in size over time). Together, these built on the necessary scale and look at this in more detail below. the late noughties, the political sector funders, rather than offering deliver the new Garden City, “has communities would make up what with an appropriate land use mix? agenda has been characterised direct financing inputs. planning powers over the whole he referred to as a ‘social city’, with How many might be constructed by market driven imperatives to site: it has government funding, most residents living, working and given that the Policy Exchange Garden Cities: some key reduce governmental borrowing, Nevertheless, in practice, initially of £200m, to pay for major spending their recreational time think tank has called for 30 new questions bring down the deficit and pay off government has played a crucial infrastructure and its job is to get within and around each Garden towns to be built between now the National Debt. Consequently, role. Proposals for Bicesterxix, the Garden City built as fast as City settlement. and 2035? Moreover, these Let’s run through each of these governments of all political Ebbsfleetxx and Northstowexxi (the possible”.xxv communities need to be built points in turn. hues have tended to take the last not defined as a Garden City At the time of writing this paper in accessible locations where view that new communities, but sharing a number of common It should be remembered that only two new communities have people can find employment and, 1. Can Garden City-like settlements including Garden Cities, need to principles), are all based on funding government already offers new been formally announced: far crucially, where they want to live. be built? Yes, we built two and be privately-financed. Significantly, structures in which government is developments – spanning a short of the scale required to This means decent infrastructural we have some successful new Ebenezer Howard envisioned a direct financier of the scheme to wide spectrum of housing types meet pent-up housing (and place- support with physical, social and settlements that are currently this being the case in his original a varying, but very considerable, – valuable subsidies along with development) need. However, at recreational amenities. In other being developed or built out. vision for the first Garden Cities. extent. For example, it was reported fiscal incentives (and disincentives) least in scale terms, both Bicester words, somewhere people need to Examples such as Poundbury The examples discussed above by the local authority – Cherwell channelled through the tax system. and Ebbsfleet go further than a be; somewhere which is appealing in Dorset; Newquay in Cornwall; have been developed by largely District Council – that, “Bicester is Crucial to all developments is the mere dormitory town gesture. The to live. and Chapelton of Elsick in private means: direct funding, to receive a multi-million pound public funding of infrastructure former envisages a total of 13,000 Aberdeenshire (among others), or more indirect underwriting award to fund the delivery of provision, including, most notably, housing units with new schools Very negative reactions to either suggest that both substantial by organisations including the 13,000 homes, 21,500 jobs and roads [albeit this has more recently and other social facilities, bolstered proposed or new developments extensions and whole settlements Prince’s Foundation for Building a new motorway junction after been balanced by contributions by better transport infrastructure demonstrate clearly that Garden can indeed be built. Furthermore, Community (one of the IGCI’s being awarded Garden Town from the private sector through (a new motorway junction and Cities need to be supported and this can be done in largely self- founding partners), and these status by the Government”xxii. It the Community Infrastructure Levy improved rail services) supporting championed by communities. financing ways to produce places have developed strategic land may come as little surprise to note (CIL)]. (potentially) up to 21,500 jobs. The This was a point strongly made that are highly valued because investment models to support the that a certain amount of spin was latter is looking to build 15,000 in Parham, Downs, Murray and they offer a broad range of delivery of sustainable urbanism.xviii attached to this announcement: a All of these fiscal, regulatory and new homes (although at the time Fernandez’s entry to the Wolfson housing options, a full range of Crucially, no direct public funding considerable proportion of these policy inputs help decide both the of writing only 65 have so far been Economics Prize 2014 where it infrastructure and services, and has been required in any of the houses were already in Cherwell nature and spatial form of housing builtxxvi), with new commercial was argued that “The advocacy of living and working environments new settlements identified above, District Council’s Local Plan as part development and other property premises and community facilities, champions is a necessary basis that are extremely well designed unlike the New Towns which were of the north-west Bicester eco- investment – retail, commercial inspired by the ‘sustainable urban for delivering any new Garden as walkable, compact, mixed-use, massively dependent on public town.xxiii and the like. Accordingly, eco-town’ of Hammarby, a recently City, to help garner enthusiasm diverse and attractive places. The financing for their establishment statements referring to ‘private developed community adjoining and support among communities, health dimensions of these design and development over many years. In late 2014, the Royal Institute development only’ with respect to Stockholm in Sweden. but this will not be enough. and planning aspects should not of British Architects (RIBA) Garden Cities are misleading. The We advocate very transparent be overlooked given the mooted We ask why so-called ‘pension reported on how these funding reality differs from the rhetoric. Nevertheless, it remains to be seen engagement processes that put public funding crisis that will result fund urbanism’ cannot be more commitments, announced in the whether they will, like the original communities at the centre of from unhealthy places in the UK. substantially deployed to help National Infrastructure Plan, were 3. Can Garden Cities be built on Garden Cities, be planned and things, which start before any It is interesting to note that the fund new Garden Cities given to be employed. RIBA observed: the necessary scale and with an delivered as integrated places to decisions have been made, and recently announced ‘Healthy New these represent long term, low “The Government said a locally-led appropriate land use mix, in the both live and work. The Garden avoid any backroom deals being Towns’ initiative funded through the risk investments? It can be argued plan for a mix of public sector land numbers needed overall, and City brand has remained untainted done that show people’s views NHS to design ten places that work that private financing might and brownfield sites at Bicester will where required and wanted? The in part because of the example of don’t matter...popularity requires to tackle obesity and dementia appear to be both a principle and provide up to 13,000 homes. The small clutch of Garden Cities Letchworth and Welwyn Garden working with communities to includes two of the new Garden a norm to which any new Garden investment here, which will include currently being planned or built Cities; with the former managing decide if, where and how a city a new railway station to serve the fall some way short of meeting to maintain its value capture should be delivered. Starting this “We advocate very transparent engagement processes enlarged town, comes on top of critical Garden City principles model and governance structure, process early is both an ethical and that put communities at the centre of things...” £100m to fund infrastructure and in relation to scale, mix and and the untiring efforts of the

8 9 TCPA, which has remained the building code based approach is a difficult site. According to to call mode shift. This visionary tend to be concerned about the such as joint venture companies, Garden City’s most wholehearted is employed to ensure quality its critics, progress at Ebbsfleet designed-in electric rail to move potential for Garden City style or, for the most demanding proponent and advocate xxvii. It is and sustainability in domestic remains erratic. Thus, the two new both people and goods between settlements to blight the cherished schemes, statutory bodies such therefore especially important architecture while also supporting planned Garden Cities mentioned the Garden City settlements, Green Belt with “sub-standard, as development corporations, as not to squander the goodwill the scaling up of house construction. above are one-off developments in from the countryside and the suburban housing”.xxxvii This is proposed for Ebbsfleet”.xl Yet when brand generates by building ersatz xxxi The pattern book and building locational terms; as with the failed conurbation to which they were hardly surprising given the Green it comes to tapping financial value versions – mere pale imitations of code allows a considerable number eco-towns, they are not necessarily connected. In contrast, today’s Belt is undoubtedly the most for the benefit of new Garden the originals or distorted versions of smaller house building firms in the right places to make best Garden City proposals are in the iconic pillar of post war British Cities it remains curiously mute. sharing the name only.xxviii (often otherwise locked out of use of existing infrastructure, main less enlightened: although planning xxxviii – and very deeply But surely this reluctance to the market) to produce good- notably rail and road transport there is discussion of public valued as a public good. For many explore funding options is likely to While these new initiatives are quality, well-proportioned housing links and nodes. It is worth transport focus and new transport defending the Green Belt against dilute or even undercut any new to be welcomed, in so far as they in sympathy with their location; noting though that the Ebbsfleet infrastructure, unlike Howard’s incursions by new settlement is a development in terms of its ability represent the first attempts in in turn these can guide the rapid development does have the famous diagram of the Garden ‘line in the sand’. Yet its physical to capture economic value for the years to provide significant new production of a substantial number opportunity to make much better City they tend to maintain the form is far more extensive than town and help support long-term housing within a ‘whole place’ of houses. This helps deal with the use of the massive infrastructure dominance of the ‘smoke fiend’ originally envisaged, some of viability and stewardship? approach, they fall a long way short well recognised housing industry investment constituted by the – today that is largely the motor its land area is of questionable of the number of new communities structural problem centring on HS1 stop labelled by Sir Simon vehicle.xxxv environmental value as currently One must not pretend it was all required to meet soaring housing large volume builders being Jenkins as currently ‘nothing configured, and, paradoxically, it is plain sailing for the Garden Cities demand, underpinned by changing unwilling or unable to change their but the ghostly stopping point 5. Can new Garden Cities be connected to sprawl. For example, of Letchworth and Welwyn – both patterns of household formation building practices in an adept and on the high-speed line (HS1) developed in ways that will be commuting journeys across it in towns struggled, particularly with and population growth. It is telling responsive way.xxxii It is often also from St Pancras to ’.xxxiii supported and championed by and out of London are related to respect to a suitable financial to note that Wolfson Prize finalists extremely effective in improving Other mooted investments in the local communities including the environmental damage through air model which supported viable took the view that we need not environmental performance at the new Garden City may also help capture of economic value for pollution as a recent study from housing and other development. just one or two Garden Cities, level of both the individual house improve its viability. Northstowe, the residents? Despite some the Oxford Transport Policy Unit In the post war era, various powers but 30. As Policy Exchange, the and the materials supply chain. another location discussed earlier, vocal opposition, particularly in demonstrates.xxxix were nationalised or siphoned off organiser of the Prize points out, is on a former airbase judged as the (sceptical) national press and, in the early 1960s, Letchworth these new communities “each 4. Can Garden Cities be built redundant to Britain’s defence (with the notable exception of There are two areas where current had to fight off a move to privatise containing between 10,000 and to make best use of existing requirements. While Northstowe The Economist), in our judgement Garden City proposals stumble it. Yet governance arrangements 50,000 homes, should be built infrastructure, land and other cannot be designated as a ‘Garden Garden Cities are likely to achieve dramatically. The first hinges on as they were implemented in over the next 20 years if politicians resources? In theory, yes. In City’, proponents argue that it a far better level of acceptance the Garden City value aimed the Garden City model meant are serious about solving Britain’s practice, the experience is more can reach similar standards of than other schemes – especially at capturing economic wealth that the town’s governors would housing crisis”.xxix Nigel Wilson, CEO patchy. The locations of the development quality, becoming a new dormitory housing estates creation for the community’s control a number of assets, of Legal & General PLC, Britain’s planned new Garden Cities so Garden City in all but name.xxxiv – not least because the Garden benefit. The second focuses on notably buildings, and land on largest shareholder, observes: far discussed are not the best, as City vision is an idea many people ignoring a governance model that which new development might “housing is the archetypal UK asset is evidenced by the reluctance Ebbsfleet is an example of where continue to favour and support as a sees Garden City government occur. This became a distinctive problem. We build 120,000 homes of housebuilders to commit to new development should make way of living a more contented life. largely in the hands of town aspect about Garden Cities and a year, but need twice the number. funding developments on these better use of existing (extremely governors and Trustees who not one where they stand out from There needs to be revolutionary sites. expensive) public transport It is interesting that antagonism only are predominantly drawn conventional development. and disruptive change in how infrastructure. Yet we fear that such towards plans for Garden Cities, from – but also represent – the In the case of Welwyn, these we build houses – with modern, Understandably, given the scale of pragmatic locational decisions are including the scheme at Bicester, Garden City’s own community. governance arrangements, modular construction to the forexxx”. planning constraints in the UK, new more often likely to make it difficult seem to coalesce around practical Most of us would agree with the centred on generating local Garden City settlements are being to be astute about using existing problems which are perceived previous Government’s 2014 value, were discontinued by Advances in modular and lean located at the most pragmatic infrastructure most wisely – and to be linked to an influx of new Prospectus which observed: “As central government in the period building approaches should locations, driven by site availability: to get past the assumption that residents: too many cars, too much complex projects with a life of between 1978-1983. In the case of certainly be in the mix (despite Bicester is a town already car access (driverless or not) is congestion, too much pressure many years, Garden Cities will need Letchworth, after various attempts well-known difficulties in the past anticipating substantial new really the only game in town. In the on educational, health and other robust delivery arrangements” to dismantle it or take over the with system building) but these are housing numbers, while Ebbsfleet area of infrastructure – especially key local services and spaces. xxxvi and this might take a number of Land Trust aspect for private profit, not the only methods for ‘scaling is located on a former chalk quarry in relation to transport – it also Significantly, the concept itself is different forms “from publicly led an Act of Parliament was passed in up’ which are being advocated. site where decades of attempts to reveals the problem of blinkered, not generally dismissed out of arm’s length companies, public 1995 that established an industrial As can be seen at Chapelton build a community have failed to business as usual thinking. It is hand. The high profile national private partnership arrangements and provident society – the of Elsick and on a larger scale win planning permission or funding fascinating to note that Ebenezer bodies, institutional players and for development at Newquay from housebuilders deterred by Howard presciently saw the need interest groups who might be in Cornwall, a pattern book and the expense of building on what to achieve what is now fashionable expected to adopt a negative view For many, defending the Green Belt against incursions by new settlement is a ‘line in the sand’. 10 11 Letchworth Garden City Heritage identifying the likely cost and to good effect to support a new xlv It makes sense to include provide sensible and evidence- to build a stand-alone New Foundation. Today, this reinvests an future stream of revenue that can Garden City, without undermining as criteria locations close or based advice on creating Garden Town or Garden City on the annual sum of around £4 million be realistically anticipated from the need for restraint. Tapered tax easily linked to existing public Cities today. It therefore makes existing rail network which would into the town. This dividend is providing appropriate support relief to encourage a more long- transport infrastructure, hubs and sense to make as much use as accommodate most of the county’s used for such tangible benefits as for a new round of Garden Cities. term approach among developers, interchanges. This might well mean possible of the existing good expected housing growth in the extra health services, facilities and The success of the 20th century the possibility of reanimating former rail links could be reinstated guidance offered through various long term; to build numerous small, resources for all the residents of planned town of Milton Keynes, Enterprise Zones, the use of or existing lines reconfigured. TCPA publications.xlix Similarly, satellite garden villages and to the town and illustrates that local in terms of job creation, patents CIL and other ways to develop Indeed, this is beginning to happen the previously referenced 2014 extend current settlements at the people can glean real benefits registered per 1,000 inhabitants multiplier effects from Garden City in a move to ease congestion, Wolfson Economics Prize which edges in the form of such villages from an ambitious community and new business development, development are all part of the revive certain neighbourhoods set the question, How would you and garden suburbslii as is now development. shines a guiding light on the proposed mix...viability is further or develop new ones, as in the deliver a new Garden City which is proposed for Stanborough Garden potential benefits to be derived supported through appropriate Croxley Rail Link near visionary, economically viable, and Village on the edge of Hatfield.liii from such a policy initiative. governance and management where the Metropolitan Line is popular?, elicited a large number So how do we deliver new approaches, a range of ownership being re-routed and extended. of entries in which there is a great Garden Cities now? While arguing for government models and diversity in housing xlvi The investment ploughed into deal of useful material that goes to support in appropriate types and densities."xlii Such an London Overground’s Eastern link answering the questions this paper So much for problems and barriers; circumstances, it must also be approach would be driven by similarly testifies to the benefits poses.l In the entry co-written by we now want to turn to areas we recognised that private funding – "private sector players including such funding can generate. It one of this paper’s authors, for think may contribute to workable most particularly from institutional landowners, investors, champions, would be no exaggeration to example, it was argued there is a solutions. Some of these points are sources of capital, namely pension and communities themselves, claim that this investment has need to both recognise and pursue Figure 2: Three forms of new 'Garden City' conforming settlements. Diagram reproduced about money; some about land and funds, life insurance companies, but makes best use of leverage transformed the urban geography new settlements conforming to from Wolfson prize entry, Parham et al (2014) planning; while others are about sovereign wealth funds and available through taxation, and of . The year after Garden City principles in at least adapted from original source, The Hertfordshire technology and place design. Guide to Growth (2008), and drawn up by Pablo others – are the key to meeting other financing and ownership the extended Overground opened three forms (as shown in Figure 2): Fernandez unmet housing (and wider place instruments and models, to support in 2010, total peak passenger As discussed above, both the making) need in the south of viability over the short and longer- volumes had increased by a • Stand-alone Garden Cities and previous Coalition and the present England. They will also be critical in term."xliii third on the east London route. villages Conservative majority government supplying the much-needed capital According to Savills, the surveyors, have sought to shift away from the to re-energise the economies the line has exerted a strong • Garden as urban idea that Garden Cities will develop and often archaic infrastructure Unshackling development upward influence on property extensions, and solely through private financial characterising northern capacity: overcoming the prices right along its routexlvii. The funding, although this was at the conurbations, notably Manchester, planning impasse London region’s Crossrail will • Garden /city ‘retrofits’ of core of Ebenezer Howard's original Leeds, Liverpool and Sheffield. demonstrate these impacts on an existing dysfunctional development conception through the First Publicly quoted companies like We believe there is plenty that can even bigger scale. (‘sprawl repair’) Garden City Ltd. For example, in Legal & General have been at the be done on the planning front. his Spending Review and Autumn forefront of the debate on how long Given that government already These suggested urban forms Statement delivered on November term institutional capital can make Government should accelerate makes massive infrastructure owe a debt to some detailed work th 25 , 2015, George Osborne a real contribution; indeed, this the review its own (and quasi- investments nationally, it is logical already done in Hertfordshire committed to investing "over £300 policy thrust is likely to be a major governmental organisations’) to argue that it should invest through the Hertfordshire Guide million in delivering at Ebbsfleet factor in the ongoing debate over land holdings to identify suitable in Garden City locations, which to Growth of 2008.li This was a the first Garden City in nearly a the next decade with regard to how sites for new Garden Cities. This Ministers regularly repeat they county-wide strategic planning xli century." Accordingly, it seems fair we – as a country – seek to fix the would include the considerable want to encourage. What is more, and design process, taking the to expect significant public funds to mounting housing crisis. amount of excess land held by this should form part of the remit form of a ‘charrette’ which centres be used over the short to medium the Ministry of Defence and a of the recently established National on an intensive design based term to help pilot and kick-start a Clearly, there is still considerable diverse range of executive and Infrastructure Commission. workshop. Those who took part new wave of Garden Cities across scope to explore workable private other public agencies. It is good Relevant to this recommendation in the Guide to Growth process the country where demand for financing models and opportunities, to be able to report that the MOD is the fact that it has called looked in detail at the scenario of places to live far outstrips available as was undertaken through the has recently announced the sale for submissions on national building a new stand-alone Garden xliv supply. 2014 Wolfson Economics Prize. of a dozen such sites. It should infrastructure challenges.xlviii Surely, City as well as developing garden In the entry by Parham, Downs, be remembered that ‘certain this is one of them? villages and repairing problematic In this context, we believe it is Murray and Fernandez, the authors publically owned sites are already places by making them into new crucial that H M Treasury, and argued "existing budget allocations, well served by road or railheads Another of the IGCI’s founding garden suburbs. They came to other relevant departments tax regimes and more innovative and arguably offer much of the partners, the TCPA, has been the conclusion that there was within Whitehall, focus on financing models can be employed baseline infrastructure required indefatigable in its efforts to considerable scope in Hertfordshire for establishing a Garden City. 12 The Northern Powerhouse thanks to the generous bequest As Keith Boyfield argued in a future extent of the Green Belt. on cities that try to grow within opportunities to young people initiative and Pink Planning by Lord (Ernest) Simon, who was comment article (2 June 2015) Most recently, Tom Papworth has existing boundaries will eventually and young families by enabling a a Lord Mayor of Manchester and a for The Yorkshire Post, “Policy written a briefing paper for the free become intolerable. Consider, for small level of development that It should also be possible to tie- former chair of the City’s Housing clearance will come from central market Adam Smith Institute with example, that London used to be is sympathetic to local concerns in a new round of Garden Cities Committee. lv government through a permission the catchy title of ‘A garden of one’s admired as a city of houses and and is clearly supported by local to the Northern Powerhouse to apply, thereby encouraging own’, which seeks “to demonstrate gardens, yet existing back and front people”lxvi. initiative. Looking back, the heritage Sheffield is Britain’s greenest investment in development that there is ample land within gardens are widely under threat of model industrial villages is conurbation, thanks to the schemes and offering an element the (London) Metropolitan Green and in new developments gardens In recent years, several sites were an important backdrop to the extensive tree planting undertaken of confidence to potential Belt that would be suitable for have almost disappeared, which is rejected for development on Green development of the Garden City. by our Victorian and Edwardian funders. The distinctive aspects development and could be built directly attributable to the squeeze Belt land, although these locations It is an idea strongly associated forebears. There seem to be a of our recommended Pink upon without undermining the on space to which the city’s Green could not be judged to be of any with the North – just think of Port range of possibilities to develop Planning approach are threefold: overall purpose of Green Belt Belt is a significant contributor. We special quality. Furthermore, if left Sunlight on the Wirral and Saltaire or retrofit Garden Suburbs from firstly, incentives are offered for policy (as defined by the NPPF)lxii”. do not suggest all new housing undeveloped, they represented a in Yorkshire. More recently, garden dysfunctional existing areas as well community cooperation, thereby needs to be low density in nature significant management challenge suburbs have a proud tradition as more ambitious plans for stand- reducing adversarial conflict; Interest in a Green Belt review but we need a ‘polycentric’ and from an environmental perspective, in northern England including alone Garden City or Cities. This is secondly, this approach rewards also comes from other sources sprawl repaired structure (as in the i.e. they required substantial Wavertree in Liverpool and not just a case of wishful thinking; it cooperative development with a and political perspectives. Shelter, Garden City) where substantial funding to reclaim contaminated Wynthenshawe in Manchester. As understands the commercial reality. streamlined procedure; and thirdly, the national homelessness charity, numbers of homes do have their land and/or avoid fly tipping. noted above, part of the ‘palette’ Large scale housing developers, it expands the range of developer’s recently released a report arguing own gardens. Other popular cities Nor should it be overlooked that of garden settlements in future such as Crest Nicholson, have said contributions and involvement for a review of the Green Belt as will face the same problem as the National Planning Policy might well be new garden suburbs they plan to retrofit their existing beyond infrastructure, to include part of work to tackle our housing London. For all these reasons, it is Framework supports some as these offer “the opportunity housing schemes along Garden employment growth and other crisis. As the report authors – the no longer good enough to insist changes to Green Belt boundaries to tap into existing infrastructure City principles.lvi factors that supply residents’ wider consultancy Quod - point out, that Green Belts must, at all costs, in“exceptional circumstances”, as while providing walkable, mixed- needs and make the developed “Parts of the Green Belt are of never change.”lxv the recent case of a development use developments that reflect Planning for new Garden Cities communities good places to live great value and must remain fully proposed by Hunston Properties Garden City principles. It may could well connect to ‘pink’ and work”.lx protected, but the designation Even more significantly, a Ltd near clarified.lxvii be that in locations where a planning ideas, as argued by one does not imply beauty, public consultation paper issued by the stand-alone Garden City is not of the authors of this paper in a access or biodiversity – only a Department of Communities The clamour to review Green Belt the right option for political or series of Pointmakers published The vexed issue of the Green fifth of London’s Green Belt has and Local Government (DCLG) boundaries does not come solely other reasons, Garden Suburb by the Centre for Policy Studieslvii. Belt an environmental status or is in December 2015 has, for the from opinion formers (such as inspired town extensions can The name “Pink Planning” derives accessible to the public as green first time in living memory, raised journalists, public intellectuals, offer significant advantages and from a deregulatory initiative, We cannot avoid the issue of spacelxiii”. the possibility of building on the think tanks and academics) or provide meaningful numbers which was originally promoted the Green Belt in any discussion Green Belt. Indeed it poses the housebuilders and other ‘usual of new houses and economic in Detroit, Michigan, a city that focusing on Garden Cities. Nor Writing recently in , question, Should local communities suspects’; it also emanates from opportunities.”liv has suffered more than most in should we fall into this trap: a Rowan Moore surveys the diverse have the opportunity to allocate the local planning community. terms of but whose rational assessment of the Green directions from which a Green sites for small-scale starter home Some town planners such as Mike We advocate that new Garden central core is now revivinglviii What Belt as it has grown and expanded Belt policy rethink is emerging developments in their Green Belt Kiely, former head of planning at Cities and garden suburbs distinguishes Pink Zones is that over the last half century is long and notes that while there is little through neighbourhood plans? Croydon Borough Council, believe should form part of the Northern they are designed to work from the overdue. Recently, there has been confidence that new development By way of briefing on this issue, local authorities urgently need to Powerhouse vision, currently community upward – not from the a considerable amount of debate in the Green Belt will make its use the consultation paper states, “We address Green Belt issueslxviii and focused on Manchester and the top down, as with the New Towns in the built environment sector, as for housing worthwhile, even so: consider that the current policy a number of councils are already Sheffield conurbations. In this built in the 1940s to the 1960s. well as in the academic sphere, “this gap in trust has to be bridged. can hinder locally-led housing undertaking their own Green Belt context, it is highly significant that Pink Zones could provide a useful about whether the Green Belt The costs of not doing so include development and propose to boundary reviews.lxix The practical the Combined Greater Manchester channel to sidestep the labyrinthine requires a radical reassessment. housing that is more scarce and amend national planning policy change – at least in theory - that Authority is currently reviewing its complexity of planning controls What is more, a raft of proposals expensive than it need be, of worse so that neighbourhood plans seems likely from these kind of housing requirements as well as that have done so much to push have been advanced, for example, quality, and more badly located, can allocate appropriate small- authority by authority reviews, and its Green Belt boundaries – the up house prices in this country. As in relation to London’s Green Belt. such that people have to make scale sites in the Green Belt with the case law somewhat clearer first such review in 30 years – as detailed by Boyfield and Greenberg lxi Not least, a number of think long commutes across Green specifically for starter homes, due to the Hunston decision, is that part of its Spatial Framework. This they can bypass many planning tanks with close links to the current Belts to their nearest cities.”lxiv The with neighbourhood areas having at least some parts of the Green offers an opportunity for some regulations and improve design Government, such as Policy current reality, as Urbed’s David the discretion to determine the Belt would be able to be used for really radical thinking, following standards by employing a Special Exchange and the Adam Smith Rudlin puts it, “is that development scope of a small-scale site. This development where ‘exceptional in the footpath of the creation of Purpose Vehicle (SPV) as the Institute, have also expounded is dribbling out in all the wrong will support local areas in giving circumstance’ can be proven. Wythenshawe in the interwar years delivery mechanism.lix on this controversial issue of the places”. Meanwhile, pressure affordable home ownership lxx Given the fact that, under the

14 15 current Local Plan regime, all local candidates at the door that there is as well as from research councils, narrowly define technological authorities must demonstrate a nowhere affordable for their grown- channelled into research which progress and modernity. Self-evidently, money has a major role to play – both public strategy for meeting future housing up children to livelxxii. supports the so-called internet and private. demand, a proportion of Green of things, disruptive technologies, This is exemplified by the winning Belt will inevitably be affected, not Fortunately, much of what we future cities, and smart city- 2014 Wolfson Prize entry which Especially in Letchworth’s case, quality, low carbon and affordable least because large portions of know about creating, and then region research projects.lxxv in fact embedded smart thinking Ebenezer Howard’s value capture houses, these need to be in places the Home Counties are presently governing and maintaining Garden This enthusiasm is also leading at every stage of the proposed model along with its democratic where people can live and work, designated Green Belt. In short: Cities once built, is already in the to projects like the Catapult Garden City development, noting governance structure has not merely soulless sprawling houses must be built somewhere public domain; the result of long- programme and MK:Smart (co- that “In a modern world where the continued to provide significant dormitory estates. Understandably, within the local authority’s term practice, advocacy by the funded by the Higher Education economy is based on knowledge tangible economic and social there is generally broad and boundaries and that may well Letchworth Garden City Heritage Funding Council for England and and technology rather than the benefits besides the much admired understandable resistance to mean Green Belt land. Foundation, the TCPA and others the Open University), which aims manufacturing that supported Garden City houses, streets and new development because it and the analysis of past success to develop innovative smart city the new towns, then the idea of neighbourhoods. often makes places worse (albeit We believe this is an issue by practitioners and academics. solutions to support economic a [Garden] city is something that attitudes are changing, as reflected which transcends local authority What is more, there is already growth.lxxvi However, as the Centre we should be very interested in.” Part of the ‘why not’ conundrum in the annual British Social boundaries. In some cases strategic a great deal of useful, relevant for Cities points out, as yet there is For instance, Garden Cities can is about how we approached this Attitudes Survey (BSAS)lxxx. sites with Green Belt implications scholarship about the history of no consensus about what actually meld their approach to smart challenge in the 20th century. As will cross these boundaries and Garden Cities. The establishment constitutes a smart city. What city techniques through financial a society, we tried to learn from Now that the idea – and the ‘Duty to Cooperate’ reflects of the new International Garden is more, the market for smart support for community based Garden Cities when developing increasingly Garden City inspired the need for local governments to Cities Institute (IGCI) at Letchworth technologies suffers from a range health systems, which the value a vast range of new places to settlements themselves – are work together on this challenge, as Garden City offers considerable of barriers – financial, technical and capture model we have discussed live in the post war era. Alas, we back on the political, economic a recent Planning Advisory Service scope and opportunity to explore in institutional.lxxvii makes available to all residents. did not achieve this goal. While and community agenda, we need advice note points out.lxxi Moreover, depth the potential contribution of Specifically, this can be achieved many new homes were built, we to work out what will help us seize in our view, the future of the Green Garden Cities, thereby influencing It is also erroneous to believe that by focusing on so-called universal largely missed building them in an this opportunity most effectively. Belt is a crucial topic of national the quality of contemporary there is an inherent disconnect design, which is particularly attractive and sustainable manner With all sorts of different interests scale and importance. Accordingly, practice.lxxiii Through the IGCI we between the resurgence in relevant for ageing populations. as a part of wider places that in an unusually close alignment, it should be considered have the chance to examine and interest in Garden Cities and the Furthermore, there is scope worked. As a result, the record of this coalescence is a remarkable strategically at the national level, demonstrate what works well in UK smart cities agenda: they are for a take up of environmental the New Towns built in the post chance to develop new places to in ways that fully engage with and elsewhere. The good news is in fact complementary, despite technologies from the individual war decades is erratic, in particular live and work. Garden Cities are not communities rather than solely in that politicians and policy makers some efforts to see them as dwelling to town-wide scale. when it comes to living quality. the only kinds of settlements that a piecemeal and partial fashion. are increasingly prepared to listen. polar opposites or, at the very Looking ahead to the future, we While – unusually – among the can make a contribution but we Through a national review of the least, incompatible.lxxviii Garden see this as an area where there is New Towns, Milton Keynes is believe that making use of time- purpose and current extent of Cities have always been ‘smart’: considerable range for developing admired for a range of reasons tested Garden City principles will the Green Belt we could help to Smart cities and how they link meeting various human needs technologically advanced Garden (indeed, it is now a test bed for help meet living requirements in create a rational basis for locational to the Garden City vision in ways that still provide robust Cities. This is a research area we trying out smart city ideas), that the 21st century, whether economic, decisions about new development models for liveability that are of believe the NHS Healthy New kind of post war ‘place-shaping’ social or environmental. There are including Garden Cities, garden Another area for Garden City global interest. As we grapple Towns initiative should explore and has brought with it a myriad of at least six objectives we need to towns and garden villages. Such consideration which we think has with what actually constitutes a which will be a focus for research expensive–to-fix problems. fulfil to make this possible; we have a review is long overdue (in the remained largely unexamined smart city, we have the chance to through the International Garden looked at some of them at length past they used to be referred to is the current preoccupation see how technological innovation Cities Institute. Furthermore, another part of the in this paper. Royal Commissions, a policy tool across government, think tanks, can play out in all sorts of urban ‘why not’ conundrum hinges on the now out of favour). Politicians’ business and academia with the situations, including Garden Cities problems that currently beset life in Here are our conclusions on what reluctance to address the issue idea of so-called ‘smart cities’. through their housing, services, Conclusions contemporary Britain. Globally, we needs to be done. because of perceived public lxxiv This lively debate has tended infrastructure, mobility, economies, confront the challenge of nagging opposition explains the delay, but to overlook or undercut the link food systems and social lives We started this paper by economic uncertainty, mounting 1. Self-evidently, money has a this year’s London Mayoral election with Garden Cities. The intense and spaces. In other words, the expounding a conundrum. If we government debt and consequent major role to play – both public has reflected a new willingness on interest in smart cities is being Garden City might look traditional were able to successfully build fiscal restraint. Meanwhile in the and private. In contrast to the time the part of politicians to engage reflected in substantial tranches of – with housing styles and green two Garden Cities a century UK, we have an overheated south when Ebenezer Howard made his with this policy challenge, not least funding through the government’s spaces people like – but it can ago, why can’t we do so today? and a struggling northlxxix. In the original proposals, we can expect because so many voters are telling Innovation Agency (Innovate UK) be just as smart as the glass and We know that Garden Cities as south-east, in particular, we are government to continue the post steel architecture and movement places encapsulate many values experiencing a mammoth shortage war tradition of directly financing systems that for some, at least, that people still crave in their Moreover, in our view, the future of the Green Belt is a crucial of housing. While we know we and underwriting a new swath of appear to symbolise or even living and working environments. need to provide many more good Garden City type settlements. This topic of national scale and importance. 16 17 is to be welcomed. Clearly, the the future? development. This is particularly demonstrates. locking a generation out of our more adept government is in using the case since they have seen ‘home owning democracy’. Britain the instruments at its disposal – 3. We also think that the ideas little in the recent past to inspire 6. The rising groundswell of needs to get building again: the including the tax system, planning, encapsulated in Pink Planning confidence. In this paper, we have interest in and support for Garden Garden City model offers a well governance capacity, infrastructure should be considered for pointed to real examples of place- Cities should help to address long proven and sustainable path to support and the release of surplus implementation. In this context, making from Wales to Cornwall standing inertia surrounding the providing homes for people of land where appropriate – the the obligation on local authorities to Aberdeenshire that we think financing, design and supply of all ages and backgrounds and, better. Government can help, not to establish how many new are very much in sympathy with materials for new communities. crucially, places where people can hinder; making sure we try to homes should be built under Garden City principles. What is Hitherto, in most cases we have bring up a family and grow older develop in the right places with the the Local Plan will serve as a more, they show that enlightened been saddled with relatively low healthily and happily. right support. In the past, this was catalyst for the creation of new landowners and developers can quality ‘business as usual’ places. not always the case. neighbourhoods and communities. get on with the job of building People want something different. The Pink Planning model, as set new urban extensions, towns Encouragingly, some very large 2. With respect to planning we out by Boyfield and Greenberg, and villages of exceptional players in the housing finance are all for a Green Belt review. incorporating a Special Purpose quality and livability. Furthermore, and construction markets, such In the appraisal given in this Vehicle (SPV) as the delivery there is plenty of opportunity as Legal & General and Hermes, paper we have demonstrated mechanism, provides the means to for developing variations on the the BT pension asset manager, that there is support from a wide deliver ambitious new communities Garden City model, depending are showing interest in the range of parties with respect of between 500 to up to 25,000 on circumstances. Cities, towns, . Particular to a reassessment of the much individual homes. The policy go- villages and reconfigured suburbs landowner-developers and good expanded Green Belt. Indeed, this ahead will need to come from could all be part of the mix. Garden masterplanners are also showing is long overdue. It is conceivable central government, in order to Cities can be created not just on the way forward. In this context, that such a review simply reaffirms give potential funders an element Green Belt and Brownfield sites the message to communicate the current size and extent of the of confidence to come forward but also on existing areas of urban confidently is that a broad Green Belt, no matter how messy with viable schemes, but the onus sprawl that cry out for a ‘retrofit’ spectrum of stakeholders all have and poor quality it is in places. is on a coalition of stakeholders, transformation. a positive role in this reinvigorated Political, i.e. voting considerations, including sources of institutional initiative. These stakeholders will certainly play a crucial part capital, to initiate schemes. 5. Too often when people refer to include funders, notably financial in any such assessment, but Garden City principles, they merely institutions such as life insurance there is a growing clamour to see 4. The private sector has a mean these towns were planned companies, pension providers and radical change, not least from pivotal role to play along with and designed according to a sovereign wealth funds; together campaigning bodies such as the existing communities. Ebenezer particular spatial model. Yet for us, with landowners and designers; housing charity, Shelterlxxxi. However, Howard’s original ideas and the equally important are the ‘process’ as well as employers across the we conclude that a reassessment way they were then designed and elements: the value capture spectrum from small SMEs to of the iconic Green Belt will go subsequently master-planned model and the decentralised major corporations. Materials ahead at a gathering pace, indeed, it have proved an enduring success. governance and management suppliers, utility and infrastructure is already being actively reassessed As well as the various Garden structure, exemplified in the case providers, masterplanners, by many local authorities Cities now in the pipeline, it is no of Letchworth. Looking ahead, we housebuilders, professional throughout England as a direct surprise that two (or, if you count see a new wave of Garden Cities as advisers, housing associations, response to the need to adopt a Northstowe, three) ‘Garden City’ a welcome opportunity to explore green technologists and last, but new Local Plan. We contend that type towns have been identified as the use of financing, governance, by no means least, representatives it is high time to produce a well- part of the NHS funded Healthy building and management from leading charity and civil evidenced, considered national New Towns initiative. Yet the same instruments (notably Community society organisations all have a review which sets out why we have focus on the quality of place is Land Trusts) that emphasise valuable role to play as well. a Green Belt, how it is developed, necessary to ensure this new Ebenezer Howard’s egalitarian This is a timely opportunity to what it encompasses now, and asks constellation of Garden Cities approach. This is not for any create a new constellation of what we want from it? Crucially, comply with their goals and make reasons of nostalgia but because, attractive communities to house this analysis must answer the them acceptable to communities especially in the shorter term, they Britain’s population. Unless action question: why have a Green Belt in understandably wary of new are likely to help with community is taken soon we will face an engagement and support; and, unsustainable situation where Garden Cities can be created not just on Green Belt and Brownfield in the longer term, they will help younger people especially will ensure that such communities are find it difficult to find anywhere sites but also on existing areas of that cry out for a better places to live, as Letchworth reasonable to rent, let alone buy, ‘retrofit’ transformation. 18 19 Endnotes xxxiii http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/mar/17/ebbsfleet-garden-city-george-osborne-homes i Milton Keynes tops the league table for a number of key signs of success, notably job creation and business start-ups, see Cities Outlook 2015, published by the Centre for Cities (update when 2016 volume is published later in January 2016) http://www.centreforcities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/15-01-09-Cities- xxxiv See http://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/Northstowe-garden-city-Government-guidelines-8216/story-22870015-detail/story.html Outlook-2015.pdf xxxv “A campaign group claims no traffic infrastructure plans have been put in place ahead of a project to build 13,000 homes. They are due to be built in Bicester over ii As noted in a recent article in The Economist, August 3rd, 2013 http://www.economist.com/news/britain/21582559-britains-new-towns-illustrate-value-cheap-land- the next 20 to 30 years, under the government’s garden city plans. Bicester Traffic Action Group wants a new bridge to be built over a rail line in the town as part of its and-good-infrastructure-paradise-lost campaign.” (Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-32314389)

iii “A pilot project is already under way at Northstowe, a former RAF base in Cambridgeshire, with the capacity for 10,000 houses. That would make it the largest xxxvi Source: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/bicester-garden-city-what-residents-think-about-plans-for-13000-new-homes-9897038.html planned town since Milton Keynes.” (Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-30287273) xxxvii Source: http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/oct/01/britains-housing-crisis-are-gaden-cities-the-answer-ebbsfleet-kent-green-belt iv See http://www.tcpa.org.uk/pages/creating-garden-cities-and-suburbs-today-a-guide-for-councils.html xxxviii For a discussion of the ramifications of UK greenbelt policy see, for example, Cheshire, P. C (2014), Building on Greenbelt land: so where?, SERC blog, 2014, http:// v Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/locally-led-garden-cities-prospectus spatial-economics.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/building-on-greenbelt-land-so-where.html. And Cheshire, P. C,Nathan, M and Overman, H. G (2014), Urban Economics and Urban Policy: challenging conventional policy wisdom, Edward Elgar, 2014. vi Source: http://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/Northstowe-garden-city-Government-guidelines-8216/story-22870015-detail/story.html xxxix A recent report from Dr Caralampo Focas of the Oxford University Transport Studies Unit found that ‘London beyond its Green Belt displays a trend common to vii See Parham and Hulme (2014) http://www.uh-sustainable.co.uk/docs/HertsGTG_5yearson_aw4_complete_highres.pdf many metropolises, that of sprawling and car-dependent developments...Car travel and associated greenhouse gas emissions per capita in London’s outer region are more than double than the ones of its metropolitan area’. Transport Policy 46 (2016) pp: 82–91 viii As noted in Parham, Downs, Murray and Fernandez’s (2014: 17) Wolfson Prize entry: “To take the example of Poundbury this development is relatively small by the standards of a Garden City, with 2250 homes (a substantial proportion of which are social housing sprinkled through the development) and a population of around xl Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/locally-led-garden-cities-prospectus 4500-5000, but already is providing employment for some 1,660 people in 140 businesses.” See http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/wolfsonprize/item/wolfson- economics-prize-2014 xli Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/chancellor-george-osbornes-spending-review-and-autumn-statement-2015-speech

ix Potts, J (2011) “Poundbury is home”, Dorset Life http://www.dorsetlife.co.uk/2011/01/poundbury-is-home/ xlii Parham, Downs, Murray and Fernandez, 2014: 4 (Source: http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/images/WolfsonPrize2014/20140827%20parham%20wolfson%20 prize%202014%20submission.pdf) x See, for example, http://poundbury.org.uk/ and http://duchyofcornwall.org/poundbury.html xliii We noted: “Government might consider a form of tapered tax relief to encourage developers to increase the rate of house building and to retain a medium to long- xi Rudlin, D., & Falk, N. (2009). Sustainable Urban Neighbourhood: building the 21st century home. Routledge, and Lei, Y. (2014). Urban/village extension-design term interest in the development by way of rental or shared equity schemes. Any initiative of this kind would push developers to reconsider their existing short-term, principles of : the case studies of Poundbury and Upton (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham). sales-based economic and financing model and focus upon sustaining value for the future. This might encourage greater consideration of design and construction quality while also engendering developments with a sense of place – something that is extremely important when it comes to ensuring popularity”. (Parham et al, 2014: xii See http://www.guinnesspartnership.com/find-a-home/developments/poundbury-dorset 17).

xiii See Poundbury factsheet with data on the economy at http://duchyofcornwall.org/poundbury.html xliv https://www.gov.uk/government/news/defence-minister-mark-lancaster-announces-release-of-mod-sites-for-development xlv See Parham et al (2014)

xiv Source: http://chapeltonofelsick.com/ xlvi See http://www.croxleyraillink.com/latest-news.htm and https://tfl.gov.uk/travel-information/improvements-and-projects/metropolitan-line-extension

xv See http://www.thecomet.net/news/mps_back_new_garden_city_as_alternative_to_council_s_north_herts_housing_blueprint_1_3936165 xlvii See ‘In the loop: How one railway line helped change the way Londoners commute’, The Economist, Oct 5th 2013, http://www.economist.com/news/ britain/21587223-how-one-railway-line-helped-change-way-londoners-commute-loop xvi Parham, Downs, Murray and Fernandez, (2014) Wolfson Prize entry http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/wolfsonprize/item/wolfson-economics-prize-2014 xlviii See https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/national-infrastructure-commission xvii See https://www.england.nhs.uk/ourwork/innovation/healthy-new-towns/ xlix See, for example, http://www.tcpa.org.uk/data/files/Creating_Garden_Cities_and_Suburbs_Today_-_a_guide_for_councils.pdf and http://www.tcpa.org.uk/pages/ xviii See the Prince’s Foundations report on such investment models at http://www.princes-foundation.org/sites/default/files/slim_brochure_final2_lo-rez_1_0.pdf garden-cities-re-imagining-garden-cities-for-the-21st-century-166.html

xix Source: http://www.24dash.com/news/housing/2015-06-10-Garden-Town-in-Bicester-gets-1-5m-feasibility-grant l See, for example, the developed version of the winning entry http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/images/WolfsonPrize2014/20140827%20rudlin%20stage%202.pdf and the commended entry co-authored by one of the writers of this paper http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/images/WolfsonPrize2014/20140827%20parham%20 xx Source: http://www.ebbsfleetdc.org.uk wolfson%20prize%202014%20submission.pdf

xxi Based on the site of the former RAF Oakington base and surrounding farmland, Northstowe will be a sustainable new development that is richly steeped in local li See https://www.herts.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/10289/herts-charrette-guide-to-growth_02-12-2008.pdf history, giving it an identity that is entirely unique. Northstowe will have up to 10,000 new homes and an anticipated population of around 24,400 people which is around the same population as Huntingdon to the north, or Broadstairs in Kent (Source: http://www.northstowe.com/vision) lii The Hertfordshire Guide to Growth (2008: 24) document noted “A stand-alone garden city is the only type of Scenario which could accommodate the entirety of the housing allocation and the necessary amenities. The development would require a large, well-drained, relatively uninhabited area of Green Belt, with the potential for, or xxii Source: http://www.cherwell.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=10371 a pre-existing, railway station. There is at least one such site available in the County. While a New Town could not be realistically designed and constructed by the 2021 deadline of the current allocation, it could still provide the best ultimate solution for the continual allocations that will follow the present one. Indeed, a New Town of xxiii “The 13,000 homes will be delivered in two phases. The first phase will be in line with the Local Plan, which outlined the delivery of 10,000 new homes at the north 100,000-140,000 dwellings could absorb the growth of Hertfordshire well into the mid-century. west Bicester eco town, Graven Hill and south west Bicester between 2014 and 2031. The remaining 3,000 homes will then be built after the end of the Local Plan timeframe from 2031 onwards. However if new brownfield sites are identified in the future then this could result in the delivery of additional homes.” (Source: http:// liii See http://www.gascoynececil.com/stanborough-hat1/ www.cherwell.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=10371) liv Parham et al Wolfson Prize entry (2014: 12) xxiv Source: https://www.architecture.com/RIBA/Contactus/NewsAndPress/Membernews/PracticeNews/2014/December2014/4December2014/ Secondgardencityconfirmedinspendingplans.aspx lv Parham et al Wolfson Prize entry (2014: 12)

xxv Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-34680143 xxvi Source: ‘Vision of garden city for 65,000 struggles to take root’, The Guardian, 4 January 2016. lvi http://www.planningresource.co.uk/article/1153712/crest-nicholson-to-embrace-garden-city-principles

xxvii Source: http://www.tcpa.org.uk/data/files/Creating_Garden_Cities_and_Suburbs_Today_-_a_guide_for_councils.pdf lvii See http://www.cps.org.uk/publications/reports/pink-planning-diluting-the-red-tape/ and http://www.cps.org.uk/publications/reports/a-suggestion-for-the- housing-and-planning-minister/.See ‘The Pink Zone; Why Detroit is the New Brooklyn’, by Andres Duany, 30 January 2014, Fortune magazine. xxviii This is an issue addressed in detail in Parham (2013) “Shaping sustainable urbanism: are garden cities the answer?” http://uh-sustainable.co.uk/docs/Shaping_ sustainable_urbanism.pdf lviii This is a point emphasized in the proposed Garden City developments suggested by Wei Yang & Partners and Peter Freeman in collaboration with Buro Happold Consulting Engineers, Shared Intelligence and Gardiner & Theobald. xxix http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/media-centre/press-releases/category/item/40-new-garden-cities-needed-to-meet-housing-demand-say-prize-finalists lix In two studies [http://www.cps.org.uk/publications/reports/pink-planning-diluting-the-red-tape/ andhttp://www.cps.org.uk/publications/reports/a-suggestion-for- xxx Source: ‘We need to invest in assets for the long term, not shareholder gains’, by Nigel Wilson, Daily Telegraph, 4 January 2016. the-housing-and-planning-minister/], authors Keith Boyfield and Daniel Greenberg set out the case for ‘Pink Zones’ employing a special purpose vehicle (SPV) as a delivery mechanism. xxxi See the Pattern Book produced by Adam Architecture for the Newquay Growth Area http://www.adamarchitecture.com/projects/urbanism/newquay-pattern-book. htm and http://www.adamarchitecture.com/images/PDFs/Pattern_book-05.pdf lx See ‘Think pink for the future of housing’, by Keith Boyfield, 2 June 2015. http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/opinion/keith-boyfield-think-pink-for-the-future-of- housing-1-7288796 xxxii See a recent paper by Heffernan, E., Pan, W., Liang, X., & de Wilde, P. (2015). Zero carbon homes: Perceptions from the UK construction industry. Energy Policy, 79, 23-36 in which this inertia and resistance to changing construction methods is discussed. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421515000063 lxi See, for example, a recent report The Green Belt: A Place for Londoners led by SERC at the London School of Economics that concluded “Land in the Green Belt 20 21 covers a range of uses and is of variable quality from beautiful parks to derelict buildings on wasteland. Accordingly, we propose that local planning authorities should Author biographies be encouraged to review their Green Belt and consider how the land within it that is of poor environmental quality, of little or no public benefit and has good connectivity could be re-designated for high-quality, well-designed residential development that incorporates truly accessible public green space” http://londonfirst.co.uk/wp- content/uploads/2015/02/Green-Belt-Report-February-2015.pdf Keith Boyfield is an economist Dr Susan Parham is Head of Susan originally trained as a lxii See ‘A garden of one’s own: suggestions for development in the metropolitan Green Belt’, by Tom Papworth, January 2016, Adam Smith Institute; see also ‘The Green and author of more than 90 Urbanism at the University political economist, has graduate Noose - an analysis of Green Belts and proposals for reform’, by Tom Papworth, Adam Smith Institute, 2015. publications on public policy issues. of Hertfordshire and is the qualifications in town planning and lxiii When brownfield isn’t enough’, report by Quod and Shelter, February 2016, see http://england.shelter.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/1239330/2016_02_29_ He is a Fellow of think tanks the inaugural Academic Director of and undertook her When_Brownfield_isnt_enough.pdf Centre for Policy Studies, the the new International Garden doctoral research at the London lxiv See http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/oct/19/is-it-time-to-rethink-the-green-belt Institute of Economic Affairs, the Cities Institute, as part of a School of Economics’ Cities Adam Smith Institute and the research partnership between Programme. lxv Source: http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/oct/19/is-it-time-to-rethink-the-green-belt European Policy Forum, as well as the University of Hertfordshire lxvi See ‘Consultation on proposed changes to national planning policy ‘, DCLG, December 2015. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ the Kosciuszko Institute in Poland and the Letchworth Garden City attachment_data/file/488276/151207_Consultation_document.pdf, page 20. and the -Gulf Information Heritage Foundation. Through her lxvii This position was supported by a 2013 judgment in the Court of Appeal about a proposed development by Hunston Properties Ltd on the Green Belt near St Centre in Rome. Keith has been Institute role, Susan is working Albans to the effect that ‘Having identified the full objectively assessed [housing] needs figure the decision maker must then consider the impact of the other policies set out in the NPPF. The Green Belt policy is not an outright prohibition on development in the Green Belt. Rather it is a prohibition on inappropriate development in an adviser to the European with a range of founding partners, the absence of very special circumstances. It is entirely circular to argue that there are no very special circumstances based on objectively assessed but unfulfilled Commission and consultant academics and others on a broad need that can justify development in the Green Belt by reference to a figure that has been arrived at under a revoked policy which was arrived at taking account of the need to avoid development in the Green Belt.’ Quoted in PAS Advice Note Planning on The Doorstep (Source: http://www.pas.gov.uk/documents/332612/1099309/ to some of the world's largest array of research into planned Planning+on+Your+Doorstep+-++The+Big+Issues+Green+Belt.pdf/bb5fcd90-fa29-42a0-9dd9-82b27a43f72f). This was rightly described by planning law companies and trade groups settlements: past, present and commentator, Andrew Lainton, as something of a pyrrhic victory for Hunston and we are not sure they will have been assuaged by knowing the appeal outcome was judged among the top 10 planning decisions of 2013. including Aon, the BBC, the British future. Susan previously worked for Private Equity & Venture Capital some years as a consultant urban lxviii As noted at the 2015 National Planning Summit. See http://www.planningresource.co.uk/article/1340059/national-planning-summit-question-green-belt- reviews-will-addressed Association (BVCA), The Crown policy analyst and rapporteur for Estate, KPMG, Mott MacDonald Ltd., the OECD Urban Affairs Division, lxix Examples of Green Belt boundary review at local authority level include Woking, Waverly, Runnymeade, St Albans, , , , Enfield, and among others, while Sheffield City Region, and Buckinghamshire, represent examples of more sub-regional and county-based review approaches. and Thomson Reuters plc. was director for more than twelve years of a sustainability policy lxx http://www.planningresource.co.uk/article/1335322/london-councils-should-carry-green-belt-reviews He has contributed to The consultancy based in the UK and lxxi Planning on the Doorstep: The Big Issues – Green Belt (Brett, P, updated Feb 2015) , The Wall Street chaired the Council for European lxxii Note: one of the co-authors recently attended a briefing with a key member of one of the London Mayoral candidates’ campaign team where the issue of Green Journal, , The Daily Urbanism for more than nine years. Belt and housing need was acknowledged as the prime issue in the election contest. Telegraph, City AM, The Yorkshire Susan was a Trustee and then Vice lxxiii See http://www.gardencitiesinstitute.com/ Post and La Razon in Madrid. He Chair of the board of the charity, is also a frequent commentator Living Streets, for six years. lxxiv See, for example, the Government’s HyperCat initiative https://www.gov.uk/government/news/launch-of-smart-cities-initiative; http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ sponsored/business/smart_cities/; http://www.theguardian.com/cities/smart-cities and http://www.nesta.org.uk/search?search_api_views_fulltext=smart%20 on a range of international cities&gclid=COeJmc-Ou8kCFQITwwod33MI1g broadcast channels including Al At the University of Hertfordshire, lxxv See http://www.telecomstechnews.com/news/2015/jul/14/uk-government-offers-10m-smart-city-project/ Jazeera, the BBC and Radio France Susan leads research partnerships, Internationale (RFI). teaches and supervises post lxxvi For information about the Catapult programme see https://www.catapult.org.uk/ graduate and doctoral students on lxxvii http://www.centreforcities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/14-05-29-Smart-Cities-briefing.pdf With Daniel Greenberg, Keith co- urbanism, planning and heritage lxxviii See, for instance, arguments that Garden Cities are too low density to be made smart: http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/garden-cities- authored Pink Planning (November themes. Recent research includes smart-urban-regeneration-business-case 2014) and two subsequent reports: the Hertfordshire Guide to Growth lxxix See for example, ‘Uneven growth: tackling City decline’, by Andy Pike, Danny MacKinnon, Mike Coombes, Tony Champion, David Bradley, Andrew Cumbers, Liz A Suggestion for the Housing and – Five Years On (with James Robson and Colin Wymer Joseph Rowntree Foundation, February 2016. Planning Minister (May 2015) and Hulme), and People, products and lxxx This shift in attitudes has been striking: whereas in 2010 the BSAS found that 46 per cent of respondents said they would oppose any new homes being built in A Convergence of Interests (May places: Exploring sustainable- their local area, this opposition had fallen to 21 per cent in 2014. Likewise, those supportive of the construction of new homes in their local area climbed from 28 per 2016), published by the Centre for living practices in masterplanned cent in 2010 to 56 per cent in 2014. Opposition even fell noticeably among those living in small cities and market towns – down from 34 to 22 per cent as well as those living in suburbs (32 to 22 per cent). Policy Studies. He also co-edited, communities (with Alasdair Jones with Graham Mather, Britain's and John McCormack). Susan lxxxi ‘When Brownfield isn’t enough’, Quod & Shelter, February 2016. Op cit. Unsolved Housing Dilemma also has a long-term focus on (2001). Keith is a founding partner food, design and place. Her most of the International Garden Cities recent book, Food and Urbanism, Institute (www.gardencitiesinstitute. is published by Bloomsbury (2015) com). He was educated at the and she contributed a chapter, London School of Economics. on food centred ‘retrofitting’ in a new town context, to the book Future Directions for the European Shrinking City (RTPI Library Series, 2016).

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