Contrebis 2017 v35 EARLY MEDIEVAL RURAL SETTLEMENT IN NORTH : A REASSESSMENT

David Johnson

Abstract Knowledge of pre-Conquest rural settlement in the North West was limited until Archaeology Group began a major project investigating sites around Ingleborough which were composed of clusters of rectangular buildings with low stone walls. None had previously been recognised as early medieval. All the sites were found to have common elements and all proved from radiocarbon dating to have been occupied during that period, with dates between the late seventh century and the end of the tenth century. Artefacts recovered enable comments to be made about life and work in North Craven before the Norman Conquest.

Introduction A still-current research framework for early medieval archaeology in includes a map of ‘mid-Saxon sites’ (Perring 2002, 97); over 30 sites are marked but there is not a single one in the west of the main watershed. This skewed emphasis is not unique and a range of academic post-Millennium works have drawn attention to the apparent dearth – even absence – of early medieval rural settlement sites away from the eastern lowlands. Prime examples include Moorhouse (2006, 34–5), Newman (2006, 91), Petts and Turner (2011, 4) and Hamerow (2012, 4–9); and the critical point has been made that there is an ‘imperative ... to generate data for the blackholes of knowledge ...’ in the North West for the early medieval period (Thomas 2012, 59). There is no question that this lacuna has dominated the literature for far too long.

This article begins by setting the area in a wider context and reviewing the extent of existing knowledge of early medieval rural settlement here before the results of recent archaeological investigations demanded a thorough reassessment. The paper then examines evidence from (now) isolated sites in two localities for which firm radiocarbon dating results have been obtained in recent years, before moving on to set these sites in regional and cultural contexts.

Locational context The focus of this research lies within North Craven which forms the western part of the modern administrative district of Craven, though Craven has existed as a distinct unit in one form or another since long before the Norman Conquest. North Craven takes in the south-western corner of the Dales National Park, between the Cumbria boundary to the west and the boundary between the former West and North Ridings of Yorkshire (now the boundary between Craven and Districts) in the east, and between the Lancashire boundary to the south and the watershed separating the Ribble and Lune catchments to the north. The excavation element of the research is focused more narrowly on the Ingleborough ‘triangle’, Upper , , and the now known in common parlance as Chapel-le-Dale (Figure 1), though technically, and historically, that is a misnomer (Johnson 2015a, 25). North Craven lies within the modern county of and the former West Riding. Nevertheless, North Craven lies west of the Pennine watershed and two of its main rivers – the Ribble and Lune – discharge into the Irish Sea, so topographically it is in North-West England.

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BP Brows Pasture, CB Clapham Bottoms, CRD Crummack Dale, TCP Top Cow Pasture, UP Upper Pasture

Figure 1 Location of the study area and settlement sites

Physical context Geology has played an enormous role in shaping how communities past and present have been able to manage, exploit and benefit from the land. Land fertility and productivity reflect soil characteristics and potential, as do rock permeability and hydrological processes. Where people have settled in the past and what they were able to glean from the land have been hugely influenced by climate and weather, which directly reflect altitude and topography. The basis of all these variables is rock type and structure: on and around Ingleborough there are significant geological differences (Johnson 2008, 33–59).

When viewed from the north-east or north-west, the dramatic stepped profile of Ingleborough is obvious, as are the marked contrasts in summer ground colour from summit to valley bottom, with dull browns and yellows high up and lush greens below. Equally striking – to the accustomed eye – are the contrasts in archaeological visibility across the area. The bulk of Ingleborough, and of and Pen-y-ghent, above the 400m contour is composed of alternating bands of Carboniferous Yoredale Group sandstone and with occasional shale bands, topped with a thin cap of Millstone Grit. The grits, sandstone and shales are impermeable, meaning that rainwater cannot easily penetrate the surface so the ground is almost permanently wet underfoot.

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Contrebis 2017 v35 Consequently, soils are waterlogged, cold, not well aerated and acidic to very acidic; hence agricultural fertility levels and soil potential are low to very low. Leaving aside the so-called and highly controversial hillfort on the summit, such areas were shunned in the past and signs of permanent or even semi-permanent settlement are understandably minimal.

In the valleys that surround Ingleborough – Ribblesdale, the Wenning valley and the valley of Chapel-le-Dale, usually below the 240–280m contours, pre-Carboniferous Basement strata form the underlying bedrock. These are highly folded, faulted and contorted Silurian and Ordovician sandstone, siltstone and mudstone that are also impermeable but, because of the less hostile climate and gentler topography, soil potential is much greater than on the Yoredales. Much of the valley bottoms has a veneer of fertile silt, deposited by rivers or laid down in shallow, immediately post- glacial lakes, as between Helwith Bridge and Horton-in-Ribblesdale and in Kingsdale. Evidence of past settlement and farming is decidedly more apparent in the valleys.

In between lies the horizontally-bedded Great Scar Limestone that forms the vast expanse of level plateau at ±300m on all sides of Ingleborough. Limestone is permeable thus well drained, soils are thin and slightly acidic, given the prevailing cool wet climate, but they are easily worked and of high potential. It is on this plateau that archaeological visibility is greatest with a plethora of sites spanning several millennia. In recent years a close correlation has also been recognised between past settlement sites on the one hand and localities where deposits of loess – wind-blown ice-margin silts – have survived in sheltered hollows or valleys (Vincent and Lee, 1981; Vincent 2006; Johnson 2008, 57–8). It is on these Great Scar Limestone plateaus where evidence of early medieval settlement is to be found.

Historical Context Historians and archaeologists seem unable to agree on the parameters for defining the various prehistoric and historical periods. The Society for Medieval Archaeology (SMA) encourages the use of the descriptor ‘Early-medieval’ period from the mid-fifth century to the mid-eleventh century and ‘High Medieval’ after that (SMA 2003). Others would prefer the more closely year-defined period AD 410 to 1066; but for Craven and the North this writer prefers to think in terms of the mid-seventh century to 1068, the latter when Norman influences were most heavily felt.

As recently as ten years ago no firmly proven pre-Conquest rural settlement sites had been recorded in the Pennines, west of the main watershed, though there are a few known sites in eastern Cumbria (see for example Dickinson 1985; Lambert 1995; Heawood and Howard-Davis 2002). There is also some substantive evidence to suggest that an Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Scandinavian presence in the Pennines was not totally lacking. There are recognisable cultural and religio-political signatures in Furness, Cartmel and the Lune Valley (Wood 1987; Points 2007; Edmonds 2013); and various archaeological find-spots relate to the pre-Conquest era. For example, caves to the north and west of Settle have produced objects such as an Anglo-Saxon copper-alloy tap fastener from Combs Scar Cave at Helwith Bridge around 1950; two iron knives, probably Anglo-Saxon, found in near Feizor around 1936; and an Anglo-Saxon strap end recovered during excavation in Smearsett Cave also near Feizor in 1900 (Lord 2004, passim); as well as ninth-century coins from Attermire Cave and coeval brown bear and red deer bones found in Greater Kelco and Kinsey Caves (Lord and Howard 2013, 249). Work in Attermire and Victoria Caves has also revealed pre- Conquest bronze belt fittings and a bone comb and a ninth-century, disc-headed silver pin (Swanton 1969).

However, none of these find-spots directly relates to the peopling of the areas or adds anything meaningful to the identification of actual settlement sites, though one site (just outside Craven) is 28

Contrebis 2017 v35 potentially of more value in this respect. Rescue excavation of a site on Old Gayle Lane, , in 1978–9, found a sub-rectangular earthwork consisting of a bank with an external ditch and the internal footings of an oval structure (Turnbull 1986). Material from ditch fill was dated to 850±70 BP (HAR-3748): whether or not this was coeval with the occupation of the enclosure is unknown, so this date is of questionable significance.

One might point to place-names as another source of evidence for pre-Conquest settlement around Ingleborough. Indeed, it has been said that 60 per cent of all place-names between Sedbergh and Settle are of Scandinavian origin (Morris 1981, 71). It is not the intention in this article to explore what can be equated with an academic minefield, so suffice it to say that this writer strongly disputes that statistic.

Recent archaeological work Over the past decade the Ingleborough Archaeology Group (IAG) has been engaged in examining sites in its core area that resemble each other and so might prove to be broadly contemporary. None had been entered on the Historic Environment Record (HER) as early medieval. Based on no firm evidence, the assumption had been that such sites must be either of Romano-British culture (i.e. contemporary with the Roman occupation) or high medieval culture (i.e. after the Norman Conquest). This was because all the sites contain rectangular structures showing above ground as low stone-built walls. That any could relate to the early medieval period was not countenanced, with one prominent exception – Ribblehead.

In the mid 1970s planned expansion of Ribblehead Quarry acted as the catalyst for archaeological investigations in the area under threat and one of these, in Gauber High Pasture, was thoroughly excavated (King 1978a, 1978b, 2004). It consisted of a cluster of three stone-built rectangular buildings with associated field stone-banks. Initial thinking was that the buildings looked like Viking examples known from northern Scotland but the only dating evidence found was in the form of three coins which were clearly identifiable. They had been minted in the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria in c.860, too early and wrongly placed to suggest anything Scandinavian. Yet, despite academics having questioned the assertion (Thomas 2012, 57), this site has entered the annals as the ‘Viking settlement at Ribblehead’: even the excavator made no such claim and it remains an enigma.

IAG has concentrated its efforts on eight discrete nucleations around Ingleborough: one in Clapham Bottoms near Trowgill, one in Upper Pasture south-west of Selside, two in Brows Pasture at Chapel-le-Dale, three in Crummack Dale north of , and one in Top Cow Pasture at Selside (see Figure 1). Between them there are 23 recognisable buildings. There are differences in detail but all contain stone-built ‘dwarf’ walls, all are rectangular in plan, and all but one are associated with a system of field enclosures bounded by stone-cored banks. Fourteen of the buildings across seven of the clusters were examined by excavation, either in small trenches or test pits. Significantly, all the sites provided evidence – charcoal, bone or teeth – that yielded secure radiocarbon dates. Ten of the trenches/test pits contained artefacts that aided interpretation of the sites. Two discrete areas will be considered here. Further details of the excavations can be found in the full project reports referenced in this paper.

Brows Pasture On both sides of the valley at Chapel-le-Dale there is a series of level limestone terraces representing the tops of individual bedding planes; on the lower terrace on the south-facing side, in a field called Brows Pasture, are two of the clusters mentioned above (Johnson 2013; 2014). They are closely associated with a series of stone-cored field banks and lie above another set of banks 29

Contrebis 2017 v35 running down to the valley floor (Figure 2), probably of an Iron Age/Romano-British culture. The terrace containing the two clusters dips from 285m to 270m OD; the lower cluster is on the south- eastern edge of the terrace, above a prominent limestone scar, while the upper cluster nestles at the foot of a natural scree slope below a higher scar.

Figure 2 Brows Pasture, Chapel-le-Dale: survey plan

The lower cluster (henceforth FS1) is composed of two large and parallel buildings with dwarf walls, connected by a broad stone bank to a smaller and less substantial rectangular building on the scar top. A system of field banks spreads eastwards from the cluster. The upper cluster (FS2) has two long stone-built structures set in a line facing south-east, one confined with a large D-shaped enclosure, the other fronted by a rectilinear stone bank. A further large D-shaped enclosure, to the south-west, has no internal structures; two smaller buildings lie adjacent to the entrance to the eastern enclosure and a system of parallel, broad, stone-cored banks divides the terrace into a series of large fields.

One building (FS1A) was investigated by four small trenches, each designed to answer specific questions. One was aimed at determining the morphology of the side and west gable walls and the internal floor surface (Plate 1); another examined the nature of the floor; a third investigated a major magnetic anomaly highlighted by geophysical surveying; and a fourth checked the presence or absence of a dividing wall within the building. The building had a floor of small irregular pieces of limestone laid flat to make a crude but effective paved surface. All three walls in the first trench were double skinned with large blocks of limestone forming the inner and outer sides and the space between them was packed with limestone rubble. The north side wall had an average width of 1.3m, the south wall 1.6m; the inner corners were right-angled but the outer ones were rounded. The same floor surface was found in two of the other trenches. The magnetic signal from the third trench proved to be a hearth set in the north-east corner of the building, and this trench also revealed that the east gable wall was far less substantial than the west gable – much narrower (0.5m) and without massive facing blocks.

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Plate 1 Building FS1A, looking north, showing the dwarf walls. Photo: John Asher

The two large buildings in FS2 were investigated with one trench in each (Plate 2), both designed to compare the dwarf walls and floors with those in FS1A. One trench confirmed that the building within the D-shaped enclosure has the same stone floor and an identical method of wall building, though here maximum wall widths reached 2.1m. Here, too, internal corners were squared and external ones rounded. The second trench in FS2 uncovered another paved floor and the same type and scale of wall. It also investigated a magnetic anomaly which in this case proved to be the iron blade of an angle-backed knife with associated charcoal deposits.

Plate 2 Building FS2A with FS2C beyond, looking north. Photo: John Asher

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Crummack Dale A picture was beginning to emerge at Brows Pasture but it needed testing in other sites and this led to IAG’s focus switching to Crummack Dale on the southern side of Ingleborough (Johnson 2015b). The sites investigated lie at the head of the dale and are visible on the ground as three discrete nucleations each with multiple rectangular structures, associated small paddocks and larger enclosures (Figure 3). Aerial photographs show a complex series of enclosures, bounded by stone- cored field banks, below Beggar’s Stile and surrounding the two more northerly clusters. All the enclosures can probably be safely interpreted – in the absence of firm contradictory evidence – as stock enclosures and, for those attached to buildings, as stock pounds or gardens. In one of the clusters the buildings had been arranged around a flat and completely stone-free area which still has deep deposits of loess.

Figure 3 Crummack Dale: survey plan of Site 3. © IAG and D Johnson

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Taken together, the three nucleations contain nine (possibly ten) rectangular buildings, all having broad dwarf walls made of local limestone. Trenches or test pits were laid out in seven buildings, each designed to answer a particular question. The results were remarkably comparable to those from Brows Pasture in terms of wall morphology, flooring, doorways and dimensions. Where the Crummack Dale sites differed was in the number and range of artefacts recovered which enabled these sites to be fitted into a wider contemporary spatial context and helped informed their status.

Most perplexing of all the artefacts were the four tennis-ball-sized lumps of pure haematite (iron ore) carefully placed within the doorway of one building. One could suggest that this was a deliberate act of closure ritual when the site was abandoned. Petrological examination of the lumps showed that they originated from the iron ore field around Millom (Ixer, personal communication), so this is proof that there were established links between Craven and west Cumbria long before the Norman Conquest. No evidence was found of iron smelting in Crummack Dale but we should remember the adage ‘absence of evidence is not evidence of absence’. Several items did suggest iron smithing – specifically a large pair of smithing tongs and a billet (an iron bar from which tools were made). It would seem illogical to have ore and smithing tools but not the means of turning the ore into metal.

The same site revealed a full set of 15 iron tines from a wool comb, virtually identical to a set found in excavations at Coppergate in York (Leahy 2010, 63) and what was almost certainly an iron weaving sword used for beating the weft upward during the weaving process. These items point to woollen textile processing here. Part of the snaffle bit from a horse harness suggests that the community had at least one horse or pony that was intended for riding; a copper alloy-coated iron bell, 100mm tall, may have hung round the neck of a bellwether, a castrated sheep the flock follow in their grazing (Plate 3). If that were its purpose, this would support the evidence, from botanical surveying across the head of the valley, of woodland species present in an area now almost devoid of trees. Open wood pasture was probably the dominant vegetation in the early medieval period.

Plate 3 Copper alloy-coated bell from Crummack Dale. Drawn by Frank Gordon

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Contrebis 2017 v35 One further artefact was of note. It was a fragment of translucent, light-green glass from a bowl-like drinking vessel which at first sight could have been Roman or Anglo-Saxon but a moulded trail below the rim confirmed it as Anglo-Saxon (Leahy 2010, 106). One can draw one’s own conclusions about how this informs the status of its owners.

Comparanda IAG’s early medieval focus examined by excavation seven discrete sites in four locations (Upper Pasture, Brows Pasture, Crummack Dale and Top Cow Pasture) and a further site by non-invasive ground surveying (Clapham Bottoms). Across these eight sites there are 23 buildings: 13 were subjected to targeted excavation, and scale plans were drawn for all. This provides a sizeable data set from which meaningful conclusions can be drawn and patterns recognised. The following discussion is based on what was confirmed by excavation or observed from earthwork surveys. Where there is doubt, the observations were discounted, which is why totals given here vary.

Thirteen of the structures definitely have squared inner corners and rounded outers making this by far the dominant plan form: it was not possible to be definitive about several less distinct or overgrown buildings. Regardless of the precise period when each site was developed, a common template had been adopted. The preferred stone type for all the buildings is locally-sourced limestone even where sandstone is available at no great distance. Furthermore, 20 of the buildings have double-skinned walls on at least three of their faces (it was not possible to make any comment for the remaining three) though two had one side-wall constructed in a different manner to prevent gravity-induced slippage down slope. This use of an inner and outer face constructed of large limestone blocks with rubble infill was an integral aspect of the common template.

Equally common are average wall widths and heights above internal occupation levels. Widths ranged from 1m to 2.1m with a mean value of 1.4m; heights averaged 0.7m. These dimensions are typical of what are referred to as dwarf walls and it is most probable that they were no higher when in use than they are now; having walls so wide inevitably raises questions about the nature of upper walls and roofing.

There is less commonality in the placing of doorways. Ten buildings either had proven or probable gable-entry points while three or four had probable side entries. It is obvious from ground evidence that four had a step-over threshold, meaning that access was gained by stepping over the wall rather than going through it. In some cases topography or prevailing wind direction determined where the doorway was placed but in others there is no obvious reason for the choice made. Only two (possibly three) buildings have internal divisions; most were single-cell structures.

Dating evidence The ‘blackholes’ and wrong attributions concerning so many archaeological sites, highlighted at the start of this article, have largely arisen because firm dating evidence was not available. Carbon dating prior to the 1990s required large pieces of charcoal (which are rarely found) compared to the miniscule amounts that today’s dating can work with, using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS); or because assumption, or bias, took precedence over fact. For this reason it is particularly fortuitous that all IAG’s sites produced ample dating evidence with a suite of radiocarbon dates for three of the sites (Table 1), mostly obtained from charcoal deposits in secure contexts, that is, deep down in the trench and well sealed by later deposits of soil and displaced walling stone.

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Contrebis 2017 v35 Table 1 Radiocarbon dating results for North Craven sites Site Context Lab code Material Radio- Calibrated Calibrated SUERC- carbon date date age BP cal AD at cal AD at 68% 95.4% UP11 108 floor 35384 Hazel 1295±30 660-780 670-715 Corylus 108 floor 35385 Hawthorn 1300±30 660-780 665-715 Crataegus EK12 404 43771 Blackthorn 1317±30 653-772 659-694 hearth Prunus 305 44506 Alder/hazel 1346±27 642-766 652-681 subsoil Alnus/Corylus 209 43775 Blackthorn 1209±30 694-892 777-870 subsoil Prunus 211 43776 Blackthorn 1201±30 710-937 780-871 occ. level Prunus 705 43777 Alder/hazel 1221±30 692-887 771-870 occ. level Alnus/Corylus CRD13 202 wall 47661 bone collagen 1108±30 881-1014 895-979 tumble 202 47662 tooth collagen 1133±30 782-988 886-971 202 47666 tooth enamel 1151±28 780-972 829-966 407 49208 Hazel 1186±27 730-943 782-884 subsoil Corylus 605 56306 Hazel 1195±39 693-952 775-880 occ. level Corylus 605 56307 Alder/hazel 1167±39 769-974 777-940 Alnus/Corylus TCP14 106 56032 Willow/poplar 876±40 1042-1224 1058-1215 subsoil Salix/Populus 307 56036 Hawthorn 939±40 1020-1184 1033-1153 hearth Crataegus 303 56917 Blackthorn 1001±28 984-1151 992-1115 subsoil Prunus 505 57161 Hawthorn 1107±31 880-1015 895-981 hearth? Crataegus CB08 coring 28315 unknown 1195±40 690-970 770-890 charcoal Yellow- Group 1; red – Group 2; blue – Group 3; White – Group 4.

Sources: UP11 Upper Pasture (Johnson 2012); EK12 Brows Pasture (Johnson 2013); CRD13 Crummack Dale (Johnson 2015b); TCP14 Top Cow Pasture (Johnson 2015c); CB08 Clapham Bottoms (Batty 2010).

The degree of dating congruence within the various sites is remarkable. The number of dates secured is statistically significant and the close similarity in date ranges from one site to another enables a picture of early medieval settlement in North Craven to emerge (Johnson, in preparation). Four groups can be isolated from the data in Table 1. Group 1 (in yellow) is the earliest, dating 35

Contrebis 2017 v35 those sites from the middle of the seventh century to the third quarter of the eighth. In terms of traditional, cultural time-slots for the upland North West, this corresponds to the early Anglo-Saxon period: the Upper Pasture site and the lower farmstead in Brows Pasture fit into this group.

At the broadest range, Group 2 (in red; the upper farmstead in Brows Pasture, the northern nucleations in Crummack Dale and Clapham Bottoms) embraces the eighth, most of the ninth and the first half of the tenth centuries: the mid- to late-Anglo-Saxon period. Group 3 (in blue) extends well into the tenth century placing these sites (two of the sites in Crummack Dale and one building in Top Cow Pasture) in what could be termed the Anglo-Scandinavian period.

Group 4 (in white) is, in a sense, anomalous and is restricted to two buildings in Top Cow Pasture, which should be considered transitional between the early-medieval and post-Conquest periods. One of the drawbacks of radiocarbon dating is the often long time-span particularly at the 95.4 per cent confidence level so, to use SUERC-56032 as an example, it cannot be claimed that the sample relates to the 1042 end of the spectrum any more than to the 1224 end. The non-calibrated radiocarbon age (876±40 BP, i.e. AD 1074±40), however, puts it after the Conquest.

Regardless of the shortcomings of this dating method, what is indisputable is the chronological sequence that has emerged from these sites. They extend isolated rural settlement from the early Anglo-Saxon period (early, that is, for the upland North West) to the interface between Old English and Middle English cultures. A very strong caveat is needed here, though. It would be premature, and quite possibly misguided, to equate any given time period to one particular culture or ethnicity: the level of ethnic, linguistic and cultural mixing remains a matter of considerable debate. Group 1 sites may relate to early Anglian settlers or to a native British population or, indeed, a mix of both. Similarly, Group 3 sites could have been occupied by communities with Scandinavian and/or Anglo-Saxon roots. Trying to match sites to cultures or ethnicities can be, in this writer’s opinion, a self-defeating exercise.

Conclusion As hinted above, structural details and building morphology present common themes across all eight sites north, south and east of Ingleborough, and similar characteristics are evident at other sites known to this writer in the general area and more widely across North Craven. There is every possibility that some of these are also early medieval in origin and the results of IAG’s work emphasise the need to reassess them.

The eight sites have now been convincingly dated but many matters remain unresolved and new questions have been thrown up. Though place-name study can be a minefield, and issues of ethnicity a distraction, nevertheless there is scope for careful consideration of who these people were, what they were doing at the various sites, and what position they occupied on the social scale. The archaeological evidence thus far shows they were not living on the edge, not just subsisting or eking out a lowly existence. There are questions too about the wider links they enjoyed, whether commercial, political, administrative or social. Were they looking east through the Wenning- to that side of the Pennines or west towards Lunesdale, Cartmel and Furness?

Not the least among the unknowns is the radiocarbon dating. With the notable exception of Top Cow Pasture, only one sample post-dates AD 1000 and by only 14 years (at its latest). Assuming it is valid to assert that most of the nucleations under review here had been abandoned before AD 1000, it begs the question why. There is much work still to do but at least received knowledge of early medieval North Craven has already been turned on its head; the lacuna has visibly shrunk.

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Author profile David Johnson initially studied History and Geography, specialising in Historical Geography, the fieldwork focus of which has since been subsumed within Landscape History/Archaeology. His PhD research was in the latter. He has been involved in archaeology for several decades, has led many excavations, was Chairman of Ingleborough Archaeology Group for 12 years, for which he led its long-term project on early medieval sites, and he is a Trustee of the Landscape Research Trust. He has written numerous books and peer-reviewed journal articles on upland landscapes and vernacular land use. His most recent books, both in 2016, are An Improving Prospect? A History of Agricultural Change in Cumbria and Quarrying in the Yorkshire Pennines. Email: [email protected]

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