Modeling the Emergence of Complexity: Complex Systems, The
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A A ARTISTS’ ARTICLE - R L T I F Modeling the Emergence E of Complexity: Complex Systems, the Origin of Life and Interactive A B S T R A C T On-Line Art The origin of this paper lies in the fundamental question of how complexity arose in the course of evolution and how one might construct an artistic Christa Sommerer and Laurent Mignonneau interactive system to model and simulate this emergence of complexity. Relying on the idea that interaction and communica- tion between entities of a system drive the emergence of structures that are more com- he Internet seems especially suited to inter- connected web of people who can plex than the mere parts of that T system, the authors propose to actions and transformations of data. Internet users can be con- transmit visual and written infor- apply principles of complex sidered entities or particles who transmit information (e.g. mation over the Internet. As the in- system theory to the creation of written texts or images). As these data or entities are transferred formation is transported from VERBARIUM, an interactive, from location to location they could, in principle, change in location to location, it would be computer-generated and audience-participatory artwork status and value. One could imagine a system that could in- transformed, creating an intercon- on the Internet, and to test crease its internal complexity as more and more users interact nected, open-ended system featur- whether complexity can emerge with its information. Just like a genetic string or “meme” as de- ing phase transitions toward more within this system. scribed by Susan Blackmore and Richard Dawkins [1], these complex structures. Before investi- strings of information would change and mutate as they were gating how our prototype system transmitted by the users; they eventually could create an in- was built, we present a short summary of the theories that terconnected system that, similar to the models presented by ground this research proposal. Stuart Kauffman [2], features a phase transition toward more complex structures. Based on these considerations, we propose in VERBARIUM a prototype system for modeling a complex sys- tem for the Internet; we also introduce its construction prin- Fig. 1. Screenshot of the VERBARIUM web site at the Cartier Founda- ciples and translation mechanisms and analyze how the data it tion in Paris, 1999. (© Christa Sommerer and Laurent Mignonneau) <http://wwww.fondation.cartier.fr/verbarium.html>. produces have changed over time. CONCEPTUAL OBJECTIVE The aim of the research presented here is to construct an Internet-based interactive artwork that applies and tests prin- ciples of complex-system and origin-of-life theories to the cre- ation of a computer-generated and audience-participatory networked system on the Internet. Complex systems theory is a eld of research that studies simple subsystems as they in- crease in complexity. Such increases in complexity can take place as phase transitions, when particles in a network switch one another on or off to catalyze or inhibit one another’s pro- duction. There are various denitions and qualities that char- acterize complex systems, and this paper proposes to test whether some of these principles can be applied to an inter- Christa Sommerer (artist), ATR Media Information Science Laboratories, 2–2 Hikaridai, Seika-cho, Soraku-gun, 6190288 Kyoto, Japan; Institute of Advanced Media Arts and Sciences, 3–95 Ryoke-cho, Ogaki-shi, Gifu 503–0014, Japan. E-mail: <[email protected]>. Laurent Mignonneau (artist), ATR Media Information Science Laboratories, 2–2 Hikaridai, Seika-cho, Soraku-gun, 6190288 Kyoto, Japan; Institute of Advanced Media Arts and Sciences, 3–95 Ryoke-cho, Ogaki-shi, Gifu 503–0014, Japan. E-mail: <[email protected]>. Originally presented at the Seventh International Conference on Articial Life (A-Life VII), 1–6 August 2000, Portland, OR, U.S.A. First published in M.A. Bedau, J.S. McCaskill, N.H. Packard and S. Rasmussen, eds., Articial Life VII: Proceedings of the Seventh Interna- tional Conference (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000). Reprinted by permission. © MIT Press LEONARDO, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 161–169, 2002 161 A A - R L T various patterns of behaviors, evolved; of life was presented in 1986 by Walter I and how with these developments, the Gilbert [17]. F environment and the ecological systems E Although the “RNA world” model changed [11]. seems very convincing, the question of Speculation on how life on Earth where RNA came from in the rst place might have originated has a long history , remains open. Leslie Orgel [18], Chris- perhaps as long as the history of hu- tian Böhler [19] and P.E. Nielsen [20] manity. The widely accepted hypothesis found that a peptide nucleic acid, called that life originated from chemical PNA, could be a precursor form of RNA, processes derives largely from the 1924 because it can act to transcribe its de- work of Russian biochemist Alexander I. tailed genetic information directly to Oparin (translated to English in 1938) RNA; therefore, PNA could have initi- [12]. In the 1930s, Oparin and J.B.S. Hal- ated the RNA world. Another scientist, dane suggested that life on Earth could Hendrik Tiedemann, suggests that the have emerged from an early atmosphere nucleotide bases and sugars needed in lled with such gases as methane, am- RNA could have been built from hydro- monia, hydrogen and water vapor [13]. gen cyanide and formaldehyde, both Oparin and Haldane called this early at- available in the early atmosphere of the mosphere the primordial soup. Accord- Earth. Fig. 2. An example of VERBARIUM’s growth ing to their primordial soup theory, life Completely opposed to the “RNA structures. would have originated in the sea as reac- world” theories on the origin of life is the tions of these chemical gases were trig- dual-origin theory of A.G. Cairns-Smith ORIGIN OF LIFE THEORIES gered by the energy of lightning, [21]. According to Cairns-Smith, the ultraviolet radiation, volcanic heat and starting point in the early crystallization The search for “laws of form” that explain natural radioactivity. of life was not “high-tech” carbon but the patterns of order and complexity seen In the early 1950s, Stanley Miller [14] “low-tech” silicon, a component of clay. in nature has intrigued researchers and of the University of Chicago’s chemistry In this theory, clay has the capacity to philosophers since the Age of Enlighten- department simulated such a primordial grow and reassemble itself by exchang- ment. These researchers have included atmosphere and was able to synthesize ing its ion components through muta- such famous scholars as William Bateson signicant amounts of amino acids, the tion and mechanical imperfections. [3], Richard Owen [4], Hans Driesch [5], main components of all life-forms, from More recent proponents of the mineral D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson [6] and methane, ammonia, water vapor and hy- and early molecular-based theories on Conrad Waddington [7]. Their quest drogen. This experiment gave credence the molecular evolution of metabolism could generally be subsumed under the to the belief that the chemical building subscribe to the “iron-sulphur world” the- term Rational Morphology, a counterpart blocks of life could have been created by ory of Günter Wächtershä user [22], the to the functionalistic approach of the Nat- natural physical processes in the pri - “thioester world” theory of Christian De ural Theology promoted by Charles Dar- mordial environment. Modern propo- Duve [23] and the “inorganic pyrophos- win [8] and Neo-Darwinist Richard nents of the primordial soup theory now phate world” or “PPi world” theor y of Dawkins [9]. While Natural Theology think that the rst living things were ran- Baltscheffsky. Wächtershä user proposes considers form mainly a function of nat- dom replicators that assembled them- a model wherein the early evolution of ural selection and adaptation, Rational selves from components oating around life as a process begins with chemical ne- Morphologists emphasize the creative in the primordial soup. Based on exper - cessity and winds up in genetic exchange. principle of emergence that accounts for iments by Sol Spiegelman [15], who was Somewhat related to the question of the order of structures found in nature. able to create self-replicating RNA strings how life occurred in the rst place, The quest for the laws of form is closely in an environment lled with a primitive whether the rst stages of life were meta- linked to the question of the emergence “seed” virus and a constant supply of bolic or genetic, is the question of how of life. The discussion on how life replicase enzymes, Manfred Eigen went to draw the line between life and non-life. emerged has a long history and basically a step further by omitting the initial While Gilbert, Eigen, Böhler , Nielsen and involves two opposing views: the Aris- “seed” virus. Eigen succeeded in showing Orgel agree that the RNA world is a rst totelian and the Platonic. These two views that self-replicating RNA strands could stage of life, Wächtershä user and others of the natural world have dominated sci- assemble themselves from replicase en- believe that rather primitive entities on ence over the past two millennia, as de- zymes alone. In Eigen’s theory of the ori- mineral surfaces can also be called alive, scribed by Roger Lewin [10]. Herrick gin of life, RNA molecules can evolve although he calls them “two-dimensional Baltscheffsky notes that self-replicating patterns and nally de- life.” On the other hand, John Maynard fundamental to a deeper understanding velop a primitive genetic code. As the Smith and Eörg Szathmár y [24] stress of complex biological functions are ideas molecules specify and take on different that a living organism needs to possess at about how life originated and evolved.