Preface to the PDF version of the Southern New England Christmas Tree Grower's Manual

The Southern New England Christmas Tree Growers ' Manual was originally published in 1992. Much of the information it contains remains useful and valid. However, the manual contained specific recommendations for herbicides and pesticides as well as information pertaining to taxes and business practices that are no longer current.

We are aware that many people consider this manual an invaluable source, so what we have done is blocked out the obsolete information and provide here a pdf version of the manual as a free download. You may notice that some of the page numbers are missing; these are pages for which the entire content was deleted.

For information on herbicides and/or pesticides, we recommend that you consult your state's Cooperative Extension System, department of agriculture or department of environmental protection. Information on business practices is available from the Small Business Administration and tax information from the Internal Revenue Service or your state' s department of revenue services.

Southern New England Christmas Tree Growers' Manual

Edited by

Dr. Mark H. Brand Department of Plant Science The University of Connecticut

Contributing Authors

Dr. John F. Ahrens Valley Laboratory The Connecticut Agricuitural Experiment Station

Dr. Mark H. Brand Department of Plant Science The University of Connecticut

Stephen H. Broderick Cooperative Extension System The University of Connecticut

Dr. Richard A. Jaynes Broken Arrow Nursery Hamden, Connecticut

John Leyden Big John's Christmas Trees West Greenwich, Rhode Island

Thorn J. McEvoy Cooperative Extension Service The University of Vermont

Dr. Donald R. Progulski Department of Wildlife Management The University of Massachusetts

Dr. David B. Schroeder Department of Natural Resources Management and Engineering The University of Connecticut

The authors wish to thank the following individuals for their important contributions to this publication: Martin Cubanski, Philip Jones, Pete Merrill and William Merrill Jr.

Special thanks to Peter Wood Table of Contents

I. Introduction...... I Eriophyid Mites ...... 52 European Pine Shoot Moth ...... 52 II. Selecting a Site ...... 3 Gypsy Moth ...... 53 Soil Characteristics ...... 3 Nantucket Pine Tip Moth ...... 53 Slope and Aspect...... 3 Northern Pine Weevil ...... 54 Air Movement and Drainage ...... 4 Pales Weevil ...... 54 Su nli ght ...... 4 Pine Bark Adelgid ...... 54 Accessibility, ...... , ...... 4 Pine Need le Scale ...... 55 Ill. Laying Out the Site and Site Preparation. .. 5 Pine Root Collar Weevil ...... 55 Site Layout ...... 5 Pine Sawfly ...... •...... 56 Site Preparation ...... , 5 White Pine Aphid ...... 56 Suggestions for Ideal Layout of a Spruce Spider Mite ...... •...... 57 Sma ll Christmas Tree Plantation ...... 6 White Pine Weevil ...... 57 Spruce Twig Midge ...... 58 IV. Choosing the Right Species ...... 7 White Pine...... 8 X. Disease Control ...... 59 Douglas-fir ...... 9 Rhabdocline Needle Cast ...... 59 Co lorado Spruce; Colorado Blue Spruce .... 10 Sw iss Need le Cast ...... 59 Eastern White Pine ...... 11 Lophodermium Needle Cast ...... 60 Scotch (Scots) Pine ...... 12 Cycia neusma (Naemacycius) Need le Cast ... 60 Fraser Fir ...... 13 Sweetfern Rust ...... , .... , .... 60 Balsam Fir ...... 14 Air Pollution Injury ...... 60 Minor Conifers with Potential for Tip Blight ...... , ...... 61 Use in Southern New England ...... 14 Shoestring Root Rot ...... •... .. 61 White Pine Root Decline ...... 61 V. Planting Stock and Planting ...... 19 Types of Planting Stock ...... 19 XI. Animal Damage and Control ...... 63 Obtai ning Planting Stock ...... 20 Vole ...... 63 Growi ng Your Own Seedlings and Woodchuck ...... , .... 65 Transplant Stock ...... 21 White-footed Mouse ...... 64 A Planting Plan ...... 24 Deer ...... 64 Planting ...... 25 Rabbits ...... 66 Bi~...... ~ VI. Permanent Cover Crops ...... 27 Selecting Cover Crops for XII. Shearing and Shaping ...... 67 Christmas Tree Plantings ...... 27 Equipment ...... 67 Establishing Cover Crops in Shaping ...... 67 Christmas Tree Plantings ...... 28 Basal Pruning ...... 70 Tying Leaders .. , ...... • ...... 71 VII. Fertilization and Irrigation ...... 29 Conc lusion ...... 71 So il Testing ...... 29 pH Maintenance ...... 30 XIII. Marketing ...... •...... 73 Fertility Needs and Fertilizer Types ...... 31 Wholesaling ...... 73 Irrigation ...... 34 Retailing ...... 74 Live Balled and Burlapped VIII. Weed Control ...... 35 Christmas Trees ...... 76 Types of Weeds Encountered in Ch ristmas Shops ...... 77 Christmas Tree Plantings ...... 35 Related Products ...... 78 Cultural Methods of Controll ing Weeds .... 36 Chemi ca l Methods of Controlling XlV. Reporting Expenses and Income ...... 79 Weeds (Herbicides) ...... 37 Recordkeeping ...... 79 How to Treat Costs of Growing IX. Insect Control ...... 49 Christmas Trees ...... 79 Pesticide Recommendations ...... 49 Reporting Income from Bagworm ...... 50 Christmas Tree Sales ...... 80 Balsam Twig Aphid ...... 50 Summary ...... 82 Cooley Spruce Gall Adelgid ...... 51 Eastern Spruce Gall Adelgid ...... 52 XV. Christmas Tree Management Calendar .... 83 I. Introduction

planting more and more Christmas per foot (depending on location and trees. The average southern New species) for the most common sized England Christmas tree grower, tree (5' to T tall). The total gross For those who have based on survey responses, has been income that can be expected per acre the land and the in business 13 years and manages an will be anywhere from $15,000 to inclination, Christ­ average of 10 acres of land (1988). $30,000 for a nine-year rotation. In­ mas tree growing Operations of up to 150 acres can be vestments for plants, supplies and can be both a found in southern New England. An labor (not including land or equip­ challenging and average grower plants over 1,400 ment investments) will be a mini­ rewarding occupa­ trees per year and sells nearly 400 mum of $3,000 per acre. tion, whether it is trees annually (1988). The largest done on a part-time or operations plant as many as 20,000 A large percentage (27%) of south­ full-time basis. Christmas trees annually and sell 10,000 trees. ern New England growers have been tree production can be done on as in the Christmas tree business five few as two or three acres, or on as years or less. Since a Christmas tree many as hundreds of acres. generally requires five to seven years of growth before it is sold, these On all but the smallest of scales, how­ farms have sold few, if any, trees, ever, Christmas tree growing is a indicating the possibility of an influx business. Too many landowners in of trees into the market in the next the past have planted Christmas trees several years. with little understanding of the care required to bring them to maturity In the past, the supply of trees was and market. If you decide to grow not able to keep up with demand. Christmas trees, you must plan on a The current situation, however, is considerable investment of time and less lopsided. More southern New money. There will be no return until England growers, more imported your trees mature in at least six or trees and the popularity of artificial seven years. You must be prepared trees have all made the natural to deal with the regular cultural and Christmas tree industry in this protection needs of your plantation, region more competitive. The wise and you should keep careful and grower of the future, therefore, will accurate records from the start. have to produce top-quality trees and Christmas tree production cannot learn to market them successfully. consist of simply planting seedlings in a field and then returning seven Production of Christmas trees in years later with the hope of selling southern New England does have ad­ the plants. vantages that may not be readily real­ ized in other Christmas tree growiI)g In the fall of 1989, The University of regions of North America. Southern Connecticut Cooperative Extension New England is one of the most den­ System and Department of Plant sely populated regions of the United Science, in cooperation with the States and is, perhaps, the largest Massachusetts Cooperative Extension To get an estimate of the productivity single Christmas tree market in the Service and the Rhode Island Depart­ of the Christmas tree industry in world. Demand for these trees can be ment of Environmental Manage­ southern New England, a comparison relied upon, because locally-grown ment, conducted a survey of the Con­ can be made between the number of trees reach the market in fresh, necticut, Massachusetts and Rhode trees sold and the number of acres needle-firm, fire-resistant condition. Island Christmas tree industries. The managed. The average grower's pro­ Growers who produce high-quality results of the survey appear through­ ductivity (1988) was 39 trees sold per trees at a fair price soon develop a out this manual and should help acre managed, per year (the averages regular clientele of repeat customers. prospective growers in estimating for Connecticut, Massachusetts and the resources neeJed to perform Rhode Island growers were 12, 30 Environmental awareness is high various management tasks and "get and 55 trees/acre/year, respectively). in southern New England, and Christ­ a feel" for current trends in the The best growers can consistently mas tree plantations are generally industry. sell 150 trees per acre managed, per viewed in a positive light by the pub­ year. Retail prices in southern New lic because of their conservation Today, more and more people are England are usually about $4 to $6 value. This is a luxury not all seg- ments of the agricultural community in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Tree Growers Associations, with their enjoy. Plantings of Christmas trees Rhode Island. Most growers will find regular newsletters and field meet­ stabilize the soil, provide wildlife that personal contact with other ings, offer excellent opportunities to cover and preserve valuable open growers, foresters and specialists will meet such people and exchange space. provide them with additional useful ideas. Contact your Cooperative information beyond the scope of this Extension office for more informa­ This manual is designed to be a work­ manual. The Connecticut, Massachu ­ tion on southern New England ing tool for Christmas tree growers setts and Rhode Island Christmas Christmas Tree Growers Associations. II. Selecting a Site

Traditionally, Christmas have to be left where the soil is too Christmas trees, but present a num­ tree growing was recom­ shallow or where rock outcrops or ber of problems which ultimately cut mended primarily (or stones occur. iuto profits. Mowing becomes dif­ land which was open, but ficult, if not impossible, and labor Soil moisture is extremely important. submarginal for other costs, in general. tend to increase Tree roots need oxygen as well as agricultural uses because with steepness. Lower branches will moisture to survive, so no Christmas of slope, stoniness or other often develop unevenly, resulting in tree will grow in an area where the factors. Modern Christmas tree longer rotations (i. e., a greater num­ water table is at the surface for more growing, however, emphasizes inten­ ber of years to sale) . Soil erosion can than a few days per year. Soils in low­ sive management and production of also become a problem, particularly good-quality, high-value trees, and lying areas tend to be wettest, but soil moisture is also affected by the on roadways. If you plan to sell trees can be quite competitive with other by the choose-and-cut method, steep presence or absence of a hardpan agricultural land uses. slopes should definitely be avoided, layer and by soil particle size. So­ as they become slippery in winter called "heavy" soils, with a high per­ So me Christmas tree species will and might result in broken bones centage of fine clay and silt particles, grow on virtually any site, except and lawsuits. In general, slopes those which are extremely wet or tend to hold moisture and have low steeper than 30 or 35 percent should oxygen levels. Conversely, sandy soils severely shallow and infertile. By the be avoided. same token, some species may grow allow moisture to pass through much poorly on virtually any site. Matching more Quickly. Soil pH and nutrient tree species to site is important. content are also important and are Aspect (the compass direction toward covered in detail in Chapter VII. which a slope faces) can have a sig­ Site factors affecting a Christmas tree nificant eUect on the microclimate operation are: The Soil Conservation Service has and the growth of Christmas trees. 1. Soil Characteristics; mapped southern New England for Southern- and western-facing slopes 2. Slope and Aspect; soil types and can provide you with tend to be drier, warmer and receive accurate information on your soils more hours of sun, while northern­ 3. Air Movement and Drainage; and their characteristics. This infor­ and eastern-facing slopes tend to be 4. Amount of Sunlight; mation, coup led with that in Chapter cooler and more moist. Trees often 5. Accessibility. IV, will give you a good basis for begin to grow earlier in the spring on matching a tree species to your soil. south-facing: slopes and may be more Chapler IV contains information on susceptible to damage from late specific species of Christmas trees Slope and Aspect spring frosts. Western exposures are and the relative importance of each Steep slopes can be planted with often windy, while eastern exposures of these factors to their growth. Classify each potential planting site according to these characteristics, then use the information in Chapter IV to select one or more species that are best suited to that site. A little time taken in this exercise can go a long way toward ensuring a success­ ful operation. Soil Characteristics The ideal soi l for most Christmas tree species is a deep, moist, but welJ­ drained sandy loam which is high in organic matter and slightly acidic. Soil depth allows moisture to drain and provides room for root systems to develop properly. Unfortunately, many southern New England soils are either shallow or variably deep and shallow, or have large glacially deposited boulders at or near the sur­ face. Such soils can be planted with certain species, but openings will Raised beds allow Irees 10 be grown on imperfectly drained soils.

3 are more protected from prevailing While excessive wind can be a prob­ Accessibility winds. The steeper the slope, the lem, some movement of air through It is important to remember that you more pronounced these characteris­ a plantation is desirable. Needle casts will not just be walking to your tics will be. and other diseases often get their Christmas tree site, but may, at start in areas where moisture clings times, be transporting anything from Christmas trees are affected by aspect to the foliage late into the morning a backpack sprayer to several hun­ in varying ways and degrees, depend­ or after rain, due to a lack of air dred pounds of fertilizer. You must ing on species. White spruce, for movement. Keeping weeds and also be able to harvest and remove example, is susceptible to winter grasses low is important in promot­ the trees when they are mature. For injury from drying winds, and may be ing good air drainage. "Frost pock­ these reasons, good access to all your damaged on exposed west- or north­ ets," valleys where cold air settles on plantations is a must. west-facing slopes. Fraser fir, a shade­ clear, cold nights, should not be tolerant climax species in its natural planted with species such as Douglas The primary factors that limit access habitat, is intolerant of high surface fir and balsam fir which are suscep­ are steepness, stoniness and wetness. temperatures, and may do poorly on tible to late spring frosts. As mentioned earlier, extremely steep dry southern exposures. White pine, slopes should be avoided. Stones are on the other hand, seems to do nearly impossible to avoid in south­ reasonably well on any exposure. ern New England, except in fertile river valleys or previously tilled fields. Some stoniness can be toler­ ated in Christmas tree plantations, but excessive stoniness makes mow­ ing impossible and adds considerably to management expenses. Stones can be removed with heavy equipment, but the cost can be high and may not be worthwhile if the site is infertile. Contact your local Cooperative Exten­ sion educator or your service forester for a recommendation before making a decision to plant in very stony areas. As stated earlier, Christmas trees will not grow where the water table stands at the surface for a portion of the year. Such sites cannot be planted successfully without raising Christmas tree plantations must be laid out so they are readily accessible. beds for planting or employing elaborate efforts to lower the water Air Movement and Drainage Sunlight table. Often encountered are soils Excessive wind can cause a number No Christmas tree species will grow which are fertile and drain well of problems for Christmas trees. Con­ well in shade. Fraser fir and Norway enough to plant successfully but are, ifer needles will transpire a certain spruce are probably the most shade­ nonetheless, wet enough to cause amount of moisture throughout the tolerant of our common Christmas road rutting and get a truck stuck winter months, and, if the ground is tree species, but even these need during the early part of the planting dry or deeply frozen, excessive winds sunlight most of the day or their season. Hardpan soils, which have will dry out the tree, causing winter growth will be slow and spindly, perched water tables at wet times of injury or "winter burn". In extreme resulting in open trees. In fields the year, often cause trouble. These cases, strong winds can break new which are adjacent to tall forests or access problems can usually be leaders in the spring or cause snow buildings, it is a good idea to run a solved by proper placement and con~ loads to build up on branches and road around the field's perimeter. struction of access roads. Again, con­ break them during the winter. This improves access and keeps the sult your Soil Conservation Service Windbreak species, such as eastern trees away from the shadiest portion office, service forester or Cooperative red cedar or hemlock, can be planted of the field's edge. Extension educator. to reduce the effects of wind.

4 III. Laying Out the Site and Site Preparation

Before the first tree is blocks to help make them efficient It is entirely feasible to clear forested planted, careful thought management units. These roads must land and plant Christmas trees. should be given to the be well constructed to withstahd Approximately one-third (29%) of layout of your Christ­ heavily loaded trucks used to haul growers developing new plantations mas tree operation. A trees to market. Secondary roads needed to clear land, grade, remove poor layout can add con­ should run between main roads, brush, stumps or rocks, or do other siderably to the time being generally parallel to one major renovation. Such a project and expense of manage­ another, and about 60' to 100' apart should not be taken lightly, for ment. Once trees are within species blocks. These roads several reasons. Land clearing is planted, things become allow you to bring spray equipment, expensive and time-consuming. difficult to change. fertilizer and other items to the treat­ Stones must be removed if the field ment site more quickly and efficient­ is to be mowable. If stumps are to be Site Layout ly. They can also serve as firebreaks if removed, they should be cut high To layout the site design, make a weeds are controlled by burning. enough to facilitate pushing them map of your property which includes out with heavy machinery. Major all of the land which will ultimately The following publications provide land renovation requires a bulldozer be planted with Christmas trees. A more detailed information on woods or backhoe. A bulldozer and a skilled topographic map and an aerial photo road construction: operator can remove stumps and of the property are extremely helpful. Permanent Logging Roads for Better rocks from an acre of land in an Divide the area into species blocks or Woodlot Management. USDA Forest average of nine hours. units, based on the following: Service, State and Private Forestry. One problem which often results I. Soils data and the results of your For sale from Superintendent of from stump and stone removal is the species/site matching; Documents, U. S. Government Print­ loss of the humus layer, as well as ing Office, Washington, DC 20402. topsoil, from the planting site. The 2. Information from other growers Erosion Control on Logging Roads in sandy soils of some parts of southern on the species that sell well in your New England are heavily dependent area; the Appalachians. USDA Forest Ser­ vice Research Paper NE-158. For sale on organic matter for making nutri­ 3. Features such as slope, streams, from the Superintendent of Docu­ ents available to plants. Scraping existing stone walls, etc., that dictate ments, U. S. Government Printing away the humus and topsoil can logical breaks between blocks. Office, Washington, DC, 20402. leave a sandy soil infertile and inhos­ pitable to seedling development, If you will be retailing some trees at Site Preparation unless fertilizers or a cover crop are the site, you will need to have a sales Site preparation prior to planting is added. Care should be taken during area which has adequate parking. done primarily to control competing stump and stone removal to disturb You should have lighting and a shel­ vegetation and to create a mowable as little topsoil as possible. ter of some kind for sales people. If field. Before planting trees in a new Brush control is an acute problem on you plan on selling by the choose­ site, two-thirds of Christmas tree and-cut method, the sales area must newly cleared forest land. Because of growers surveyed needed to prepare the expense and potential soil distur­ be within a reasonable distance of the plantation site to some extent. your choose-and-cut plantation. bance, it may make sense, in many While preplant cultivation is rarely cases, to cut stumps flush with the required, preplant weed and brush ground and leave them. If this is Protect your plantation from fire and control often is. For over one-half of theft. A pond or other water source is done, stump treatment with an her­ the Christmas tree growers (58%), bicide will usually be necessary to advisable. Most people find it hard to site preparation involved applying imagine taking joy in decorating a prevent rapidly growing stump herbicides to control unwanted vege­ sprouts from occupying the site. stolen Christmas tree, but, nonethe­ tation. Section VIII gives specific rec­ less, theft remains a common prob­ ommendations for site preparation Overall, Christmas tree site prepara­ lem. Therefore, your plantation using herbicides for brush control. should be in a location which is tion (1988) required an average of either hard to get to by truck at 12 hours per acre, although some Nearly one-half (45%) of new Christ­ growers spent less than one hour night, or observable by you or your mas tree plantation sites required neighbors. The illustration suggests spraying herbicides, while others only minor renovation, such as worked over 100 hours on an acre, an ideal layout for a small Christmas mowing, tilling or fertilization. In tree plantat ion. manually removing stumps and these instances, growers were usually rocks. planting recently abandoned agricul­ Your main road network should fol­ turallands, such as pastures and low the boundaries between species corn fields. 5 100' minimum to woods 50' minimum to fields or homes

\\ , "\\

Keep similar species together (or Avoid planting on st•• p slopes if easier insect control work, ll shearing and sales. "cut-your-own sates. Too .lippery with snow or ice.

D•• ir.bl. to have vehicle access all .round and through pl.nution for servicing, spnying .nd fir. trucks. _

" Avoid "frost pockets" 15'~ and low, marshy areas. 8 Road Planting Sh.lt.r for crew. block L":'~"'::::r--

Adequate covered sales area in bam or shed. \ 1 / Bam Planution vi.ibl. or (------_.. -----\ from house. sh.d { Minimum \ Ii; parking space ____ --L -... --.-/ is one space for Try to park cars __ .- .ach 10 tr•• s sold. off highway.

®;/( ~------C d __ ._ d ..--' ------OUT (_ j IN Location on heavily Irav.l.d highw.y not •••• nti.l.

6 IV. Choosing the Right Species

As discussed in Chap­ Connecticut and Rhode Island tree of three species, a wide array of ter II, choosing the farmers grow more white spruce species are actually grown (see Table proper species for your than do Massachusetts growers, 1). This demonstrates a willingness operation is largely a while Massachusetts growers produce • on the part of southern New England matter of matching more true firs (see Tables 1 and 2). growers to experiment with other species preferences to These va riations in species are due to species, in addition to the old stand­ the characteristics of the differing climates of the south­ bys. This is especially apparent in your planting sites. ern New England states. The mon­ Rhode Island, where growers have Determining whether tane western part of Massachusetts branched out extensively into other your trees will be sold offers the proper environment for firs crops since 1982 (see Table 2). retail or wholesale is also (cooler and more moist), while the important. White and Norway spruce, warmer, drier summer climates of Descriptions of the most important for example, are excellent for choose­ Connecticut and Rhode Island may Christmas tree species are found on and-cut operations, but are less be less suitable for fir trees, requiring the following pages. Brief descrip­ desirable for wholesaling because of growers to choose less fastidious tions of a number of less common their poor needle retention, once cut. species, such as white spruce and its conifers, which have been occasion· varieties. ally suggested for Christmas tree As can be seen in Table I, white growing, are given at the end of this spruce, Douglas fir and Colorado Although 60% of the southern New chapter. spruce are, traditionally, the most England Christmas tree eron consist.s popular species among growers in southern New England. These three species comprise 60% of the total southern New England crop. The popularity of white spruce has been tempered somewhat lately because of its reputation (or poor needle reten­ tion. Douglas fir is relatively nutri ent demanding but has few insect OLD problems and usually commands a prem ium price. Fungal needle dis w INFORMATION ease can be a severe problem on this species in some locations. DELETED Colorado spruce and eastern white pine have both increased in popularw ity recently because they will grow on a wide range of soils and hold their needles well after being cut. Scotch pine suffers from many insect and disease problems, and some varieties tend to develop crooked stems. Scotch pine grows rapidly, however, and will do well on infertile sites that other species cannot tolerate. It should be noted that most consume rs either hate or love the look of a pine as a Christmas tree. Fraser fir is a close relative of balsam fir and is similar in appearance . Both are relatively free of serious pests, and both command a good price. Fraser will tolerate both warm si tes and frost better than balsam. Both of these firs have become mu ch more popu lar among southern New England growers in the past 15 years.

7 OLD INFORMATION DELETED

)

WHITE SPRUCE Picea glauca (Moench) Voss Soil-site requirements: Prefers moist, moderately well-drained to well­ drained soils. Will tolerate fairly wet sites but with poorer growth. Tolerates weed competition better than most species. Growth characteristics: Needles blue­ green, 1/3" to 3/4" long, surrounding the twig. Good growth rate. Basic conical form is good, but doub le leaders are common when small. Needle retention: Fair.

Preferred aspect: Any, but may win­ terburn on exposed western slopes. Shade tolerance: Fair-poor. Frost tolerance: Fair. Primary insect pests: Eastern spruce gall adelgid, spruce gall midge, gypsy moth, sawfly, spider mite, white pine weevil. Primary disease problems: Diplodia tip blight (common, but seldom serious).

8 DOUGLAS FIR Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb) Franco Soil-site requirements: Douglas fir is nutrient demanding. Requires a moist, well-drained loam or sandy loam. Dry sites or poorly-drained sites should be avoided. Good air movement and weed control are important. Growth characteristics: Considerable variation exists among seed sources with respect to cold hardiness, growth rate and needle color. Need­ les 3/4" to 1-1/4" long, green to blue­ green, occurring in two rows along the twig. Basic conical form is good. Needle retention: Excellent. Preferred aspect: Any, does best on cool north- or east-facing slopes. Shade tolerance: Fair-poor. Frost tolerance: Poor; avoid hollows or other frost-prone areas. Primary insect pests: Cooley spruce gall adelgid, gypsy moth, white pine weevil. Primary disease problems: Rhab­ docline needle cast.

9 COLORADO SPRUCE Picea pungens Engelm COLORADO BLUE SPRUCE Picea pungens var. gloUCQ Soil-site requirements: Grows on a wide range of soils. Best growth attained on moist, well-drained sites. Less tolerant of wet soils than white or Norway spruce. Growth characteristics: Needles 1" to 1-1/4" long, sharply pointed, green or blue-green to bright blue, depending on seed source. Slower growing than Norway or white spruce. Basic coni­ cal form is good. Needle retention: Good. Preferred aspect: Any. Shade tolerance: Poor. Frost tolerance: Fair-poor. Primary insect pests: Cooley spruce gall adelgid, gypsy moth, spider mite, spruce budworm, white pine weevil. Primary disease problems: Diplodia tip blight (common, but seldom serious).

10 EASTERN WHITE PINE Pinus strobus (L.) so il~site requirements: Grows on a wide range of soils, from dry to fairly wet. Best growth occurs on moist, well-drained sandy looms. Growth characteristics: Needles green to blue-green, 2" to 4" long, in groups (fascicles) of five. Fast· growing, but basic conical shape is poor and heavy; timely shearing is required. Needle relention: Good. Preferred aspecl: Any. Shade tolerance: Fair. Frosllolerance: Good. Primary insect pests: White pine weevil, Pales weevil, gypsy moth, sawfly. Primary disease problems: None (sen­ sitive to sulfur dioxide air pollutants).

11 SCOTCH (SCOTS) PINE Pinus s!llvestris (L.) Soil-site requirements: The least fas­ tidious of Christmas tree species. Grows on all but the very wettest of sites, including dry ridges and infer­ tile sites. Needle fungal diseases may become serious on low-lying sites with poor air movement. Growth characteristics: Considerable variation among seed sources. Needles generally are blue -green, 1·112" to 3" long and slightly twisted in groups (fascicles) of two. Very fast­ growing, but basic conical shape is poor and heavy; timely shearing is usually required. Trees from some seed sources develop crooked stems, or discolor in the fall. Needle retention: Good. Preferred aspect: Any; has been known to do poorly on exposed north­ ern slopes. Shade tolerance: Fair-poor. Frost tolerance: Good. Primary insect pests: Pales weevil, pine needle scale, pine shoot moth, pine tip moth, sawfly. gypsy moth, white pine weevil. Primary disease problems: Lopho­ dermium needle cast.

12 FRASER FIR Abies fraseri (Pursh) Pair Soi/.sile requirements: Fraser fir will stand neither very wet nor very dry soils. Moderately well-drained to well· drained sandy loams are best. When young, it is intolerant of heavy weed competition and high soil surface temperatures and may suffer mOf­ tality on hot, bare soils or exposed southern sites. Growth characteristics: Needles 112" to 1 ~ long, shiny green above and sil ­ very white below. Basic conical form is good, but taper is often narrow. Growth rale is similar to balsam fir; slower than some Douglas fir seed sources or varieties. Needle retention: Good-excellent. Preferred aspect: Does best on cool, north- or east-facing slopes. Shade tolerance: Good. Frost tolerance: Excellent. Primary insect pests: Balsam twig aphid, balsam wooly aphid, spider mite. Primary disease problems: Diplodia tip blight (common, but seldom serious),

13 BALSAM FIR Abies ""/samea (L.) Mill. Soil·sife requirements: Balsam is intolerant of dry soils but will do well on relatively wet sites. It is intolerant of heavy weed competition. Growth characteristics: Growth tends to be somewhat slow and irregular. Basic conical form is good. Needles dark, shiny green above, silvery white below, 3/4" to 1·112" long, often notched at the tip. Needle retention: Excellent. Preferred aspect: Cool, north- or east­ facing slopes. Shade tolerance: Fair-good. Frost tolerance: Poor. Primary insect pests: Balsam twig aphid, balsam wooly aphid. Primary disease problems: None.

MINOR CONIFERS WITH POTENTIAL FOR USE IN SOUTHERN NEW ENGlAND Over the yearsJ a number of exotic conifers have been planted in the Great Mountain Forest in Norfolk and Canaan, Connecticut, and the following comments arc based on experiences there. Most of these species have not been grown exten­ sively in commercial Christmas tree plantings because of one or morc shortcomings.

SPRUCES Spruces grow from the Arctic to the high mountains of the temperate regions. In general, spruce trees have a shallow, wide-spreading root sys­ tem and grow best in cooler regions. Some species tolerate more dryness than others. In most cases, they are much more adaptable and more easi­ ly grown than the firs. Asiatic and European Spruces Picea abies (Norway spruce--central and northern Europe to the Ural Mountains). A hardy tree of great variability. Shiny green needles are short and sharp, lying rather flat on 14 the twigs. Open branching habit. A dish-brown, upturned limbs. Short, Picea engelmannii (Engelman rapid grower which needs shearing blunt, dark green needles lie close to spruce-Rocky Mountains to Central but shapes into a beautiful tree. the twi~. This species is fast-growing. British Columbia). Shows great varia­ Needle retention is poor. The fairly open-spaced, ascending tion in color and growth rate. Dense branches need shearing but shape green to silvery-blue foliage. Rather Ficea wi/sonii (Wilson's spruce­ nicely. strong, "catty" odor when the needles centra l and western China). A grace­ are crushed, but not much different ful, pyramidal tree, with dense, li ght Picea glehnii (Sakhalin spruce­ than that of some other spruces. green foliage. The slender, rather Sakhalin Island and Japan). Another Makes a nice addition to your planta· sharp needles on whitish-gray handsome, narrow, pyramidal tree tion if you are looking for a little branches arc very distinctive. Hardy. from the Orient, with reddish-brown more shade-tolerant tree, but it will A nice tree that starts a bit slowly but twigs and short, lustrous, deep green not stand the drought and tempera­ has done well on a number of dif· needles that lie close to the twig. A ture extremes that the more deeply ferent sites. It shapes well. hardy, somewhat slow-growing tree rooted Colorado blue spruce will. that shapes well. Picea asperata (Dragon spruce­ P;cea sitchens;s (Sitka spruce­ China). A dense, rapid-growing Picea orientaUs (Oriental spruce­ Alaska to California). Very attractive, timber tree from western China. Asia Minor). An attractive tree with two-toned green and silvery-white Medium-green needles, remain on short, shiny, deep green needles that needles and good branching habit. the tree for up to seven years. Need­ lie close to the branches. A bit slow Requires a cool , humid climate. Alas­ to start, but it grows well on dry, les are a little too sharp. A lush tree kan and British Columbian sources that has been easy to manage and sandy sites. Subject to weevil damage do better than Californian ones, but a shapes well. and, occasionally, severe winterburn. Washington seed source is the best. It makes a better ornamental than it White pine weevils love it. Needles Picea omorika (Serbian spruce­ does a Christmas tree. southeastern Europe). An attractive are too sharp and retention is poor. A tree of narrow form; a desirably Western Spruces good one to know, but probably not to growl shaped Christmas tree where space is Picea glauco var. densola (Black a {actor. The needles are flat , dark Hills spruce-Black Hills region of FIRS green on one side and silvery on the southwestern South Dakota and other. A graceful spruce that shapes northeastern Wyoming). Often listed Firs are mostly slow-growing trees we ll. Slight needle burn has been as a cultivar rather than a variety, with shallow, spreading root systems noticed on exposed southwesterly but the trees grown for Christmas that require a cool, humid climate. sites after severe winter ground trees are produced from seed collec· While they do best on moist, well­ freeze. A nice tree that should do well ted in the Black Hills. A hardy, slow­ in most areas. drained soils, they grow on almost growing form of th e white spruce. any soil that is not too dry or too hot. Plants are conical and dense and may Firs are less adaptable than pines or P;cea meyer; (Meyer spruce-North reach a height of seven feet in 13 to China). This tree is rare in cultiva· spruces. They require considerable 15 years. The color of the foliage ran­ attention, particularly when young. tion and is a close relative of P. ges fro m bright green to blue-green asperata var. hetero/epsis. It is a In southern New England, unpro­ and is considered to be more attrac­ tected trees are subject to severe deer handsome tree of a broad, pyramidal tive than the typical P. glauco. habit that is perfectly hardy in damage. northwestern Connecticut. It has the Asiatic and European Firs general appearance of the Colorado blue spruce, but the branches are Abies koreono (Korean fir- Korea). more li mber, and the needles are not A lesser-known tree with stiff so sharD. Squi rrels do damage to primary branches. Needles are winter buds. It shapes well and crowded on branchlets and are makes an exce llent Christmas tree. lustrous above with broad, whitish bands beneath; they are distinctive Picea koyamai (Koyama spruce­ and attractive. A bit slow in the JaDan, Korea). A hardy, narrow, pyramidal tree with distinctive red-

15 seedbed, but 3-2 transplants set out Abies bommuelleriana (Born mueller in 1972 are growing 12" to 20" per fir-Asia Minor). Another rarely year in reasonably good soil on a planted, little known species which is north·facing slope. The only com­ closely related to the Greek fir. A plaint might be the fairly heavy cone handsome tree, with long, blunt, crop on some trees. A hardy tree that dark green needles on glabrous shapes well when the leader is branchlets. Has done well on north­ sheared shortly after attaining the east slope but also needs more trial. desired height. A top-choice, exotic­ looking fir. Abies cilicica (Cilician fir- Asia Minor, Northern Syria). A vigorous Abies veitchii (Veitch fir- Japan). A and hardy tree of sturdy, pyramidal graceful tree with soft, flexible form. Narrow, bright green needles branches that is receiving consider­ form a V-shaped depression on firm, able attention (rom some growers. nonresinolls, gray stems. A neat tree, Dense foliage is lustrous dark green with foliage that is not too dense and above, with two chalky white bands shapes well. Shows good promise. underneath. Winter bud is resinous purple. Late spring bud break Abies recurvate (Min fir -Western reduces chance of frost damage. China). An attractive tree. Some Several 40-year-old trees in the forest needles, usually those at the branch are perfectly hardy, retaining lower tip, are recurved, or pointed back­ branches. Has some difficulty getting ward toward the trunk. Interesting a leader started when young. Some foliage, with needles up to 1-112" needle yellowing occurs in late fall. Abies nordmanniana (Nordmann long, pointed, lustrous blue-green Poor terminal dominance may occur fir- Asia Minor). A better-known fir above and paler beneath. Flaky, soft, on sheared leaders. An excellent bet than other exotics. Large, flat, dark tan bark when older. Hardy on good for Christmas tree growers where the green needles show white beneath. site for 40 years. site isn't too dry. Lush foliage is crowded on horizontal branches. It suffers some from Abies homo/epis (Nikko fir-Central winterburn and late spring frosts. We Japan). Frequently planted in the have had best results on a northeast eastern United States and doing well. slope. This species has a good growth This species possesses lustrous, deep rate and good Christmas tree poten­ green foliage with white bands tial. beneath on upturned branches. Slightly sharp needles spread out­ Abies cephalonica var. apol/oms ward along the branch lets, forming a (Greek fir variety- mountains of V-shaped depression. Branches are Greece). The Greek fir is a beautiful, deeply grooved. The tan bark is soft sturdy tree. Needles are deep green and scaly. Wide-spreading branches with white bands beneath, stiff and can be shaped nicely with the usual crowded on yellowish branch lets. shearing methods. Bud break occurs Needles are sharp on the species, but in late spring. Some yellowing of blunt-on the variety. The variety is foliage can occur on heavy soils. also more hardy. It has performed Forty-year-old trees as well as well for over 25 years on average younger plantings are growing well. sites. Slight winterburn has occurred occasionally. It is an excellent Abies sacha/inemis (Sakhalin fir­ prospect for a climate that is a bit Western Firs Northern Japan and Kurile Island). milder than Norfolk, CT. The soft, broad, deep green foliage Abies concolor (White or Concolor with striking white bands beneath Abies borisii regis (King Boris fir­ fir-Rocky Mountains). A tree that and the resinous white buds are very the Balkans). Related to the Greek fir grows naturally over a wide range in attractive. A hardy tree, but new but appears to be hardier. It has the western United States; there are growth is very susceptible to frost softer needles on more limber considerable variations in site damage with late spring frosts. Due branches than the Greek fir. Early requirements, growth habits and to its open habit and rapid growth, it bud break makes it susceptible to late foliage color. It is probably the most requires frequent attention during spring frost damage. Does well on a satisfactory non indigenous fir grow­ the growing season to shape prop­ cool, moist site but needs more trial. ing in the northeast. Being more erly. Do not put it on your driest site. deeply rooted, concolor fir with­ stands heat and drought better than

16 other firs, but it seems to do best in Abies grandis (Lowland White or Pinus virginiana (Virginia pine­ moist, well-drained soils. Colorado Grand fir - Pacific Northwest into Central and Eastern United States). and neighboring northern Arizona Montana). A beautiful tree, with long, A native to our south, bearing sources seem to be hardier and bluer flexible, shiny green, two-ranked grayish-green needles in scalll::red than those of California. It is a bit needles. Looks like a green cancolor clusters on irregularly whorled slow and has some difficulty getting a fir. A less hardy tree that shows good branches. Due to its rapid juvenile good leader started. The terminal or early terminal growth and shapes up growth and its ability to thrive on lateral buds on the leader are occa­ easily. Subject to some winterburn poor sites, coupled with its ability to sionally winterkilled, but it is other­ on exposed sites. Makes a beautiful shape well, it is gaining importance wise hardy. May require frequent Christmas tree with excellent needle as a Christmas tree in the south­ attention during the growing season retention. eastern states. to control rampant top growth. A good se ller. Pinus leucodermis (Balkan pine- the Balkans). It is considered by some to Abies iasiocorpa (Alpine or Subalpine be a variety of Austrian pine. A hardy fir- Rocky Mountains). According to tree, with stiff, bright green needles, most writers, this tree is not sup­ but too slow-growing, at least when posed to do well in the eastern United young. Does not shape well, due to States, but it has done well in Nor­ poor bud development on sheared fol k, CT, for the last 30 years. Some branch tips. are growing on a windy, exposed, north- west slope with average soil Pinus monticola (Western white and moisture and haven't shown any pine- British Columbia to California damage. It looks like a lush balsam and Idaho). Similar to our eastern fir. Its dense needles are pale, blue­ white pine, but with stouter and green and long. It is a slow starter stiffer needles and a narrower, that doesn't like competition. Usually denser growth habit. Susceptible to has a narrow, pyramidal form. A weevils and blister rust, but a hardy, beautiful Christmas tree. vigorous tree. Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonica Pinus strobilormis (Mexican border (Arizona corkbark fir-5outhern pine--Southern Rocky Mountains). Rocky Mountains). A lovely prospect A close relative of the limber pine that grows too slowly. Eight-year-old and thl:: Ml::xican Ayacahuite pine that transplants that were field-planted in is hard to find listed separately in 1971 were just coming into room taxonomy books. Hardy in the hills of northwestern Connecticut. A fast size eleven yea rs later. Also has dif­ PINES fi culty getting a leader started. Very grower once it gets started. Needles attractive, blue-green, almost silvery Pines grow widely about the north­ are silvery blue-green, and are closely needles. Soft, cork-like, cream­ ern temperate regions of the world. set on the branches. Its open branch­ colored bark on older stems. They grow on a wide range of soils, ing habit requires shearing to begin from seashore to timberline, present­ at an early age. Abies procera (Noble fir- Washing­ ing the interested grower with a vari­ ton to California). A tree with soft, able collection from which to choose. Pinus flexilis (Limber pine- Rocky incomparably dense, deep green to For the most part, they are more Mountains). Another hardy, five­ blue-green foliage. Demands moist deeply rooted than spruces and firs, needled pine, with limber, droopy conditions. On dry sites, it grows into and can endure drier conditions. branches. Needles are clustered and a flat-sided bush or dense green ball. Growth rate may vary greatly not as spreading as other five-needled Not very cold hardy. Some bud between species. pines. Narrow, open habit. damage with sharp temperature drops to below zero. Winterburn not Pinus nigra (Austrian pine-Central Pinus wallichiana (Himalayan pine). uncommon. A top seller in the Europe). A rugged, hardy pine with Longest needles of any of the five ­ Pacific Northwest. Worth a try (for its long, stiff, dark green needles. Many needled pines, giving it a weeping foliage alone) on moist, protected natural varieties, of which calibrica, effect. Roots are coarse and the tree sites in milder regi ons of the north­ with dense, pyramidal form and does not transplant as readily as east­ east. Shapes we ll if leader is sheared foliage a little lighter than the ern white pine. Suffers from wind­ about mid-growth to control tip vigor. species, is a handsome choice. Due to burn and sunscald in fall. Probably infe ction by needle cast diseases, we not hardy enough for cold sections of are uncertain about future plantings southern New England. of this species.

17 v. Planting Stock and Planting

The choice of planting stock age of initial survival and the percent­ benefit of using 2-2 transplants over (seedlings or transplants) age of trees that live to attain a mar­ 2-0 seedlings. However, it should be will have considerable ef· ketable size. See Table 4 for a sum­ noted that, in 1982, growers reported feet on the success of any mary of this information as reported better survival with transplants than Christmas tree planting. by southern New England growers. seedlings. It is fair to say that each High Quality, vigorous grower will find the greatest success stock will give greater A!, might be expected, significantly using the type of planting stock that su rvival and will grow more fewer 2-2 plants can be planted per best suits a particular operation. rapidly. Any savings realized hour than 2-0 plants. Plant survival by purchasing bargain­ data for 1988 do not indicate a clear Quality of planting stock is also very priced planting stock will be lost through lower survival and slower growth. Types of Planting Stock When purchased, Christmas tree planting stock may range (rom one to five years old. The most common types of planting stock are bare root seed lings, bare root transplants and container-grown plants. OLD Seedlings are usually raised from INFORMATION seed sown directly in the nursery bed. These seedlings may subse­ DELETED quently be transplanted into other beds to provide more room for root and shoot growth. The age of nursery­ grown plants will be designated by two numbers, separated by a hyphen. The first number specifies the grow­ ing seasons in the seedbed; the second number, the growing seasons in the transplant bed. Thus, a plant listed as a 2-1 will be three years old, and has spent two years in the seedbed and one year in the trans­ plant bed. Table 4. Number oftrees field planted per hour and percent survival as reported by southern New England growers (1988). In general, older transplanted stock will be hardier and reach harvest size If Planted With Hand Tools: faster than seedlings, provided that the plants were grown properly in Plant Category # PlantedIHr % Survival % Marketable the nursery and were cared for and 2-0 64 81 69 planted correctly by the purchaser. Transplants are significantly more 2-1 50 82 58 expensive than seedlings, and the 2-2 43 84 57 grower must weigh this increased Overall 46 cost against the potential benefits 83 56 of better survival and shorter time If Planted With Machinery: until trees are saleable. See Table 3 Plant Category # Plantedlllr % Survival for southern New England grower preferences (or planting stock. 2-0 383 87 The type of planting stock a grower 2-1 185 66 chooses dramatically affects the num­ 2-2 135 76 ber of trees that can be planted in an Overall 158 81 hour, and can influence the percent-

19 important. Quality is rated on the basis of size and balance. Stem cali­ per and the length and weight of shoots as compared to the length and weight of roots are the best criteria to evaluate the relative quality of planting stock. Growth and development of planting stock varies considerably among species and often depends on the seed source and individual nursery practices. One learns from exper­ ience and from other growers where the most reliable stock may be pur­ chased. In the 1970s, interest grew in grow­ ing seedlings in containers. The seed is sown directly into a specially designed container, and the seedlings are grown in a greenhouse with opti­ Transplant beds are used to strengthen two-gear-old seedlings before mum light, temperature and fertility. they are planted in the field. The term "accelerated growth" has been applied to this process, because It is important to note that trees It is common for Christmas tree it is possible to produce acceptable grown in containers for too long may growers to buy plants from commer­ planting stock in one year or less. develop encircling roots or root sys­ cial nurseries that specialize in the These plants have the advantage of tems which fail to grow out into the production of Christmas tree seed­ faster, more uniform growth and an soil when planted. The result is poor lings and transplants. It may be pos­ intact root system, which should field performance. Always beware of sible to obtain planting stock from mean greater survival and better container-grown stock that has been local Christmas tree growers who growth. Since soil moisture following kept in small containers for too long. grow their own planting stock and are willing to sell the surplus at a planting may not be quite as critical, Obtaining Planting Stock container seedlings can be planted reasonable price. Some Soil and later in the spring than can bare Christmas tree planting stock can be Water Conservation Districts also root stock. obtained from a variety of sources. offer Christmas tree planting stock. Most producers of planting stock will Connecticut landowners can obtain Quality, however, will still vary require the purchase of large quan­ planting stock from the Connecticut among species, seed source and nur­ tities of plants (500-1000, or more). Division of Forestry, which operates series. Variations in containers used the Pachaug State Forest Tree Nurs­ will lead to differences in root-shoot ery in Voluntown, Connecticut. ratios. Be sure that there is a good Rhode Island growers can also obtain balance between tops and roots so Pachaug nursery stock through the that the plants will establish well and Rhode Island Department of Environ­ be competitive in the field. mental Management. Growers who Container-grown plants cost more intend to establish a Christmas tree and are more expensive to ship than plantation on at least one acre may purchase seedlings from the nursery bed-grown seedlings or most trans­ for what it costs to raise them. A plants. This higher cost may be justi­ fied for those species that are slower­ variety of popular species are avail­ growing or difficult to establish, such able. Orders may be for no less than as spruces, firs and Douglas fir. It 250 but no more than 10,000 seed­ should be noted that, while not all lings of any single species, and seed­ container stock will necessarily be lings may not be resold with roots accelerated-growth, they may still attached. retain some advantages. A container seedling has an established, undis­ turbed root system, which should result in more reliable and Quicker establishment in the field.

20 Growing Your Own Seedlings Seed can either be collected or pur­ and Transplant Stock chased. Purchasing seed is often the J{ you do not wish to purchase plants best way to proceed. Most conifer ready (or field planting, there is al­ seed ripens during late summer and ways the option of growing planting fall, so seed should be ordered at this stock from seed or buying small see­ time to obtain sufficient quantities of dlings, which can be grown to a the desired seed. Larger quantities of larger size in a transplant bed. There seed can be purchased and stored. are several potential advantages to • Most seed can be stored for a period growing your own seedlings or of several years if placed in tightly transplants. As stated earlier, two­ sealed containers that are kept in a year-old seedlings are Jess expensive Beds should be situated in a sunny dry, cold (34 0 to 380 F) spot. than transplants, hut transplants location, away from frost pockets and have a better growth and survival protected from sweeping winter When sown, seeds of some Christmas rate in the field. A transplant bed also winds. The seedling transplant nur­ tree species will germinate readily, serves as a personal nursery and sery should be placed where it will be while others will fail to germinate, greatly increases nexibility. Fall field easy to provide intensive manage­ even though they are healthy and planting to replace losses becomes ment and where there is access to viable. This is because the seeds of possible, and the spring planting dependable irrigation water. some tree species require a period of season is Jess hectic than it would be cold or chilling to break an internal jf all your planting stock arrives It is important to use seed of good dormancy. During the exposure to ready to plant the same day. quality from a known source to cold temperatures, seed must be produce planting stock. For some moist or imbibed for the cold to be Keep in mind that, although growing tree species, the genetic background effective at breaking the seed dor­ your own plant material can provide of the seed or the region from which mancy. In the forest, seed dormancy a number of benefits over buying seed was collected makes little dif­ is broken naturally by exposure to stock, growing seedlings or trans­ ference in the quality of the trees the cold and moisture of winter. plants is much more management­ that grow from the seed. For other Man can provide seeds with cold and intensive than growing larger plants species, notably Scotch pine and moisture artificially in a process in the field. It demands a solid com­ Douglas fir, seed source selection is called stratification. mitment on the part of the planta­ critical. These species occur naturally tion manager, since seedlings and over wide geographical ranges from Seeds can be stratified by placing young transplants are rather delicate north to south, east to west, and them in a pouch made of plastic and easily injured or damaged. Only from mountain ranges to coastal screening and burying this pouch in 7% of southern New England Christ­ plains. The trees growing in a par­ moist peat moss for two to three mas tree producers grow their own ticular region are well-adapted to months at 360 to 400 F. The seed trees from seed. However, 60% of the that region and less adapted to other pouch should be soaked in water for growers regularly maintain their pur­ regions. Matching your region with 12 to 24 hours before it is buried in chased seedlings for a period of time the appropriate seed source is a must. the peat moss, to insure that all seeds in a transplant bed. Seed or transplant beds, referred to from this point on as beds, should be located on a well-drained soil, prefer­ ably a loam or sandy loam. ~xces­ sively-drained soils can be used for beds, but copious amounts of organic matter and probably some dolomitic lime, will need to be incorporated first. Heavy, poorly-drained soils should be avoided; if they must be ~sed, raised beds are required to Improve drainage. Ideally, bed soils should have moderate fertility and a pH of 5.5 to 6.2.

Germinating Fraser fir seed and young seedlings with expanded cotyledons.

21 are moistened. Alternatively, soaked stored a few years. It is often benefi­ will receive natural stratification, but seeds can be placed inside polyethy­ cial to stratify older seed, since strati­ spring-planted seed will have to be lene bags for their cold storage, fication will make germination faster artificially stratified if seed dormancy provided the moisture content of the and more uniform than the same is known to exist. bags is checked frequently and main­ unstratified seed. Likewise, seed of tained. An old refrigerator works well species that have no specific stratifi­ Proper bed preparation is needed to as a seed stratification chamber. cation requirement will usually insure good growth of seedlings or respond better if they receive some transplants. Layout beds so they are Some seeds don't require stratifica­ stratification. See Table 5 for more four feet wide and have 18" to 24~ tion when they are fresh, but dorman­ information on stratification needs. walkways between each bed. Rototill cies can develop after they have been Keep in mind that fall-planted seed or cultivate the soil when it is sum-

Table 5. Seed pretreatment and planting requirements for some commonly grown Christmas tree species. Stratification Approximate Recommended Species Requirement. Seeding Rate Planting Season Comments (ozliOO Iq ft) I Fall Spring Abies balsamea Required 20-24 Yes Yes Fall planted seed requires no artificial stratification. Abies conc%r Required 25-50 Yes Yes Fall planted seed requires no artificial stratification. Abies fraseri Required 10-12 Yes Yes Fall planted seed requires no artificial stratification. Picea abies Not Required 4 Yes Yes Spring planting preferred. Stratifica- tion will make germination of spring- sown seed more rapid and uniform. Picea glauco Not Required 1.5-2 Yes Yes Stratification will make germination of spring-sown seed more rapid and uniform. Picea omorika Not Required 2 Yes Yes Stratification will make germination of spring-sown seed more rapid and uniform. Seed is expensive, so ger- minate seed in a greenhouse to maxi- mize yield when possible. Picea pungens Not Required 3 No Yes Fall planting is risky because seed tends to germinate in cool tempera- tures in the fall, resulting in high see- dling mortality. Stratification will make germination of spring-sown seed more rapid and uniform. Pinus strobus Required 7 Yes Yes Fall planted seed requires no artificial stratification. Pinus sylvestris Not Required 3-4 Yes Yes Stratification will make germination of spring-sown seed more rapid and uniform. Pseudotsuga Required by Some 8-12 Some Seed Yes Southern seed sources may not pos- menziesi; Seed Sources Sources sess seed dormancy and may be risky for fall sowing due to fall germination and subsequent seedling death. IValues are based on the following: - a tree density of 45 trees per square foot - an average number of seeds per ounce {or each species - an average germination rate {or each species . tree percentages of 0.4 for Pinus, 0.3 for Picea and Pseudotsuga, and 0.2 for Abies Specific calculations should be made for each seedlot; the values listed above are only guidelines.

22 - ciently dry. Stones, roots and other is not developed sufficiently to shade debris should be removed. If the soil the soil. The result is elevated surface in the bed is not friable and is low in soil temperatures that can easily kill organic matter, abundant organic roots and desiccate seedlings. Shade, matter additions of composted leaves, watering and mulch will work to composted manure, straw, com­ moderate soil temperatures. posted wood chips (supplemented with nitrogen) or compos ted bark Shade should be temporarily should be incorporated at this point. ~emoved during periods of extended If soil test results indicate the need rain to allow for better air circula­ for lime or phosphorus, these are tion. Pines may only benefit from also best added now, when they can shade for part of the first growing be incorporated. Be sure organic mat­ season, while spruces and firs will ter additions are weed-free. benefit from a full season of shade. Some slower-growing firs may The surface of the bed should be benefit from a lighter shading in the raked to a fine texture and rolled to second and even third years. eliminate any depressions or mounds. It may be desirable to Fertilizer will be needed on most fumigate the soil before planting, to seedling and transplant beds to opti­ control soil-borne diseases and mize growth of the young plants. It is important not to overfertilize young weeds. Be sure to wait until the soil Example: A seedlot of Picea pungens, temperature warms up and use only conifers, since they can be easily Colorado spruce, contains 6,000 burned. See Chapter VII for addition­ labeled fumigants according to label seeds per ounce and a germination directions. Allow sufficient time al information on fertilizing seed­ percentage of 80%. Most spruce have lings and transplants. before seeding to let the fumigant a tree percentage of30%. The desired dissipate. plant density is 50 seedlings per Weeds must be effectively controlled Beds can be seeded either in the fall square foot. in seedling and transplant beds. or spring. See Table 5 for informa­ Although mulching and hand-weed­ 100,50 ing control weeds well, it may be tion on proper planting times and s = 6.000, 0.8, OJ = 3.5 ounces seeding rates for some Christmas necessary to use chemical weed con­ tree species. The soil surface should trol. Refer to the section on So, 3.5 ounces of seed are needed for transplant beds in Chapter VIII for in­ be raked lightly to loosen the top 1/4" 100 square feet of seedbed. of soil, to prevent seeds from moving formation on herbicide use. after they land on the bed. Seeds Press seed in with light rolling or should be hand scattered uniformly tamping, and cover the seed with a Young seedlings in beds will benefit over the surface of the bed. Avoid light (118" to 1/4") layer of a sand and from some kind of winter protection. overly-dense seeding, since it reduces sawdust mixture. Avoid covering the Straw or evergreen boughs used as seedling quality and vigor. seed too deeply! Mulch the bed with mulch can be applied in late Novem­ straw or salt hay, especially for fall ber or December. Be sure to hold The number of ounces of seed sowing, to minimize constant freez­ winter mulch in place with slats so it needed to seed 100 square feet of bed ing and thawing of the bed. doesn't blow away. Remove mulch in can be calculated using the following the spring before the seedling buds formula: When the weather is warm enough begin to swell. Seedlings can also be in the spring for gennination to protected from winter winds by plac­ s= 100,D commence, it is important not to let ing snow fence, covered with burlap, NxGxT the seed bed dry out Irrigation is on the windward side of the bed. If ro­ necessary. Overwatering is to be dent populations are high and rodent S = ounces of clean seed needed; avoided, to prevent damping-off. Ger­ feeding is expected, bait should be D = desired density (seedlings/sq. ft); mination of spruce and fir seed will placed in pieces of drain tile or PVC N = number of seeds per ounce; occur after three to four weeks of pipe, underneath the mulch. The favorable weather, but pine seed will pipe will keep the bait dry and will G = germination percentage (ex- pressed as a decimal); and take longer. Once germination is un­ provide a protected area in which ro­ derway, the heavier mulch layer dents will feed. T = the tree percentage (percentage should be removed, leaving only a of viable seed that result in plant­ residual, fine mulch layer. After two years in a seedbed, pines able seedlings, expressed as a may be lifted and planted in the field. decimal). Protect seedlings from the sun for It is often beneficial to wait until the The value 100 represents 100 square the first year using lath shades or third year with pines. Spruce and fir feet of seed bed. snow fencing that provide 50% shade usually require three to four years to improve growth and reduce mor­ before they can be transplanted to tality. Roots of young conifer seed­ the field. Another option to trans­ lings are near the surface, and foliage planting directly to the field is to lift

23 seedlings after their second winter roadways and alleys; the average This means that the grower will plant and line them out in a transplant bed expected rotation age to grow five- to approximately 3.5 acres each year. At in April, where they can be grown for seven-foot tall trees; the land area the end of seven years, some trees an additional year or two, to develop deemed unusable for Christmas tree will be ready for market, but only the larger and stronger root systems. By planting; the years required for clean­ larger trees will be taken, with the spacing seedlings out, competition is up and replanting following a har­ smaller trees left for harvestingjn reduced, and they develop into hefty vest; and the number of years it takes years eight and nine. After the cycle stock that is usually able to to harvest a given crop (at least two is started, the grower will actually be withstand field planting better than years for pines, three years for taking some trees each year from plants directly from seedbeds. spruces and five or more years for each of three different blocks. This true firs). grower should strive to have twelve Many growers prefer to buy 2-0 seed­ equal-sized blocks of 3.5 acres each. lings to use in their transplant beds, The following formula can be useful rather than grow their own from in determining approximately how For smaller operations, it may not be seed. If transplants (not seedlings) many acres should be planted each possible to follow a planting plan as must stay in the bed for longer than year. outlined above. What generally hap­ two years, they should be root pens in plantations of three to ten pruned in the early spring to a depth T- W- B _ Area be planted acres is that blocks of trees, because of six inches by driving a sharp spade R+ H + C - annually (in acres) of differences in growth and cus­ between plants with badly inter­ tomer preferences, are not cleared mingled roots. Root pruning between after each rotation, as is typical in rows of plants helps to keep the root­ larger operations. Rather than accept T = total land area (in acres); to-shoot ratio in balance and makes large losses by removing unsold trees subsequent transplanting of older W = unusable or waste area (in acres); to clear the block, the smaller opera­ stock easier. tor may be forced to interplant the B = area consumed by buildings, block by hand with transplant stock. For those interested in additional roads, etc. (in acres); The result is an uneven-aged planta­ information on starting their own R = average crop rotation age (in tion that makes management, pest seedlings, refer to the following: years); and weed control and customer ser­ Dickson, A., C. E. Heit and E. L. H = harvesting period (in years); and vice more difficult. This may not be a Stone. 1973. Growing trees in small problem for the small plantation C = clean-up and fallow time (in operator who can likely devote more nurseries. Cornell University Informa­ years). tion Bulletin 68. $.75. Available from effort to the management of an indi­ Distribution Center C. 7 Research Example: Assume a total ownership vidual block than could an operator Park, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, of 53 acres, with a three-acre build­ of a large plantation. It is still impor­ 14850. ing site, five acres of roadways and tant for the operator of a small plan­ alleys, and three acres of unplantable tation to sell only a predetermined USDA Forest Service. 1974. Seeds of land. The crop is Douglas fir on a number of trees each year. so that woody plants in the United States. seven- to nine-year rotation, with a there are no years when very few Agric. Handbook No. 450. Available three-year harvesting period and one trees have reached a marketable size. from the Superintendent of Docu­ year of fallow. The formula becomes ments, U. S. Government Printing the following: Another component of a planting Office, Washington, DC 20402. plan is to determine what spacing 53 - 3 - 8 42 will be used in each block of trees. 12 = 3.5 acres A Planting Plan 8+ 3+ I Table 6 lists the number of trees per Before planting a single tree, every grower should have a planting plan by species, based on the establish­ Table 6. Number oftrees per acre for different spacings. ment of a new stand of trees each Spacing Number of Spacing Number of year. so that when harvesting begins, (feet) continuous annual production will Seedling. (feet) Seedling. be assured with about the same num­ 4x4 2722 5x8 1089 ber of trees available for harvest each year. For a variety of good reasons, 4x5 2178 6x6 1210 including work efficiency, market 4x6 1815 6x7 1037 development and tax considerations, it is almost always desirable to plan 4x7 1556 6x8 908 for a consistent annual production of 4x8 1361 7x7 889 marketable trees. 5x5 1742 7x8 778 Factors to be considered include the 5x6 1452 total number-of acres available to 8x8 681 plant; the area involved in buildings, 5x7 1245 8x9 605 acre at different planting spacings. Tree spacin~ in the block will depend on the availability and character of the land, the type of equipment employed, the species grown and the management used. Spacings of 6' x 6' or 5' x 6' have always been common, although some growers plant as close as 4' x 5'. Such close spacings mean more trees per acre but can promote needle casts or other diseases due to HOLE METHOD restricted air flow. If one is planning to sell by the choose-and-cut method, use larger mech~nized . equipment, or if acreage IS plentiful, 6' x 6' spacing or larger is probably wise. It will allow customers to move freely among the trees and makes the use of larger equipment more feasible. Planting Once your spacing is decided, layout your rows carefully so that they are SLIT METHOD straight, and the spacing is true. Effi­ of heating, drying or mechanical Those operators using power equip­ ciency in mowing, spraying and other injury. They generally are not in a ment most frequently used power­ practices will be affected if rows condition to withstand too many augers (hand-held and tractor­ meander badly. Rope or cable can be additional stresses. Careful handling mounted). Tractor-drawn planters made or purchased with markers at of stock at this time is important, to were also used by a number of five- or six-foot intervals. Paired insure survival. growers. sighting poles or lime, if needed, can also be used to mQ,rk rows. If planting is to be done within one Power equipment is used to its great­ week after stock is received, the stock est advantage on large operations Christmas trees must be planted in should be separated from the large with high acreage and relatively flat, the field at particular times of the bundle and the roots should be stone-free land. Power augers also year. Early spring is the preferred watered, then packed in a moist work well for growers using large time throughout southern New medium, such as peat moss, sphag­ transplants, because the large holes England. Planting can begin as early num moss, excelsior or sawdust. they create allow good root spread as the frost is out of the ground­ Plants should be stored in a cool (not and easily accommodate larger root usually late March to early April. All freezing), moist place. Light is not systems. Many growers note that spring planting should be concluded required in the storage area. growth seems better on auger­ by early May. Spring planting should planted trees, and mortality rates are be avoided once new growth (candles If planting is to be delayed for more than a week, then stock should be lower. Hand planting tocls, on the or shoots) is expanding. Trees moved other hand, are very versatile and can at this time almost always die. Heavy healed-in. Plants can be healed-in by be used on rough, uneven and stony soils, wet areas and frost pockets digging a sloping trench in a shady, should be planted last. outdoor location. A thin layer of trees soils and are far less expensive. For a should be placed against the side of good description of various hand An alternative planting season is fall. the trench and the roots covered planting tools and their use, see If rainfall is adequate and severe cold with moist soil. Monitor the soil and Cooperative Extension Bulletin 82-8, does not occur, Christmas trees can keep it moist but not wet. Planting Forest Trees in Connec­ be planted during October with fairly ticut, $0.75, available from Agricul­ good success. Spruce transplant bet­ Actual planting of the stock can be tural Publications, 1376 Storrs Road, ter in the fall than do Douglas fir accomplished with hand tools or with The University of Connecticut, white pine and, perhaps, true firs: the aid of power equipment. Seventy­ Storrs, CT, 06269-4035. eight percent of southern New If you have purchased planting stock, England Christmas tree growers There are basically two methods of one of the most critical aspects of the reported using only hand tools, 6% hand planting: 1) the hole method entire planting operation is the care used only power equipment and 16% and 2) the slit method. With the hole of the stock after shipment. Bareroot used a combination of power and method, one simply digs a hole with seedlings are packed tightly in bun­ hand tools. Of those using hand a shovel or a mattock, large enough dles, ~nd, despite the use of good tools, 48% made use of round point to accommodate the root system. shlppmg practices, the plants often shovels, 38% planting bars, 30% The root system is placed into the have received some stress in the form nursery spades and 18% mattocks. hole, and soil is backfilled only up to

25 the root collar. When backfilling, the root collar should be kept at the soil line. The soil should be firmly packed around the roots. With the slit planting method, a planting bar, spade or mattock is driven into the soil. The tool is then rocked back and lorth and twisted to open a V-shaped slit in the ground. ", . The seedling's roots are placed into the slit and the soil is pushed back firmly around the roots with one's foot. Be careful not to i-hook the roots or bend them upward when Correct Depth Too Shallow Too Deep planting. PLANTING DEPTH In either the hole or slit method, it is critical to have the root collar be at planting hole is used to backfill the In stony soils, field grow bags can be the soil line and to firm the soil bag and "plant" the transplant: Ai, the difficult to get into the ground, but around the roots. If seedlings are roots grow and push through the at least all stones are removed at the planted too deep, their roots may not sides of the bag, they are pruned off beginning of the growing process. Ai, get sufficient oxygen; and if they are as their diameter increases, by the a result, plants in field grow bags do planted too shallow, some roots may unyielding fabric material. Pruned not have their root balls disturbed by dry out. Similarly, if air pockets roots tend to branch more and stone removal during digging. Dig­ remain around the roots due to produce a dense, fibrous root system ging trees planted directly in stony poorly firmed soil, roots may dry out within the bag. Ai, much as 85% 01 soils is often complicated by large and die. When carrying plants the root system will be contained stones in positions that prevent around to be planted, always keep the within the bag. Fertilizers and water proper ball formation. roots in a bucket of water or covered only need to be applied within the with wet sphagnum moss, so they confines of the bag. A few other things to consider about don't dry out. field grow bags are the relatively hig In may ways, field grow bags encom­ cost of the bags, the fact that trees If growing trees to be dug and sold as pass the advantages of both field and in bags tend to require more regular "living" Christmas trees, you may be container production. Planting in irrigation than trees planted directly interested in testing a relatively new field grow bags requires considerably and that some time must be spent innovation in field planting- the more effort than planting directly in removing roots that have escaped plan table container or field grow bag. the ground, so labor costs for plant­ pruning by the fabric. For most The bag, made of a nonwoven fabric ing will be high. The labor advantage Christmas trees, a 16" field grow bag which is permeable to water and air, happens during harvest. Since most should be sufficient for a seven- or is placed in the ground, and the roots are within the bags, and the eight-year growing period. transplant is set into it. Soil from the filled bags themselves comprise the ''ball and burlap," field grow bags can be dug easily and Quickly by unskilled laborers and at virtually any time the soil is not frozen. VI. Permanent Cover Crops

In the Christmas tree plan­ tation, one possible man· agement approach is to "clean-cultivate" the entire plantation. In this method, cultivation in coordination with herbicides is used to ensure that little vegetation grows between the planted rows. Although a clean-culti- vated plantation looks nice, dean-cul­ tivation is not really a sound manage­ ment practice. In clean-cultivated plantations where the soil is bare, erosion can cause severe losses of top­ soil, even on gentle slopes. Not only is the topsoiliost with erosion, but losses of nutrients. pesticides and herbicides can, and do, occur with The use ofpermanent cover crops in Christmas tree operations is the preferred surface runoff. The cost of lost management method. nutrients, reduced pesticide and her­ bicide efficacy, damage done to road­ where it is desirable to control weed rapidly, has dense growth, is low ways, silting of streams, rivers and and brush growth. Roadways and growing, has a low fertility require­ ponds, and other associated environ­ alleys can be planted with cover ment, tolerates a wide range of soil mental consequences preclude the crops if they receive only light use. and climatic conditions and is rela­ use of clean-cultivation. Heavily-used roadways should have a tively noncompetitive with Christmas The use of permanent cover crops in gravel surface. Clean-cultivation can trees. While some of the annual covers possess many of the desirable Christmas tree operations is the then be employed down each row or preferred management method. just around each individual tree. characteristics, their aggressive Cover crops can prevent soil erosion nature probably precludes their use Selecting Cover Crops for in most situations. Permanent, peren­ and losses of pesticides, herbicides Christmas Tree Plantings and nutrients to streams, ponds and nial covers are likely to be superior to ground water. They provide a firm An ideal cover crop in Christmas tree annual covers and will fit well into surface on which to walk or drive plantations is one that establishes Christmas tree operations. The advan­ equipment. This helps prevent soil tage of a perennial cover over an compaction and promotes water annual cover is that perennial crops penetration rather than runoff. usually possess deeper root systems, Crass clippings from the mowing of providing year-round protection cover crops return organic matter to from erosion and a wear-resistant the soil and help support beneficial sod for summer, spring and fall traf­ soil microorganisms. As decay of fic. Perennial cover establishment organic matter proceeds, nutrients costs are spread over a number of are slowly released into the soil. seasons, but there are yearly costs with annual covers. When excesses of nitrogen fertilizers are available due to overapplication, a In Pennsylvania, low-growing, low­ c~ver crop can help to minimize any maintenance permanent cover crops nitrogen that runs off or leaches for nurseries have been evaluated away. Research has shown that grass and identified. Hard fescue, Chew­ COver crops are highly efficient "spon­ in~s fescue, sheeps fescue, creeping ges" of excess nitrate in the soil red fescue, perennial ryegrass and profile. Canada bluegrass have shown the greatest potential. Out of these, the The Christmas tree grower should fescues probably offer the most prom­ grow perennial cover crops between ise for southern New England Christ­ rows of trees and in all other areas mas tree growers. Perennial ryegrass

27 and Canada bluegrass may require Establishing Cover Crops in With proper management, Christmas higher inputs to be competitive with Christmas Tree Plantings tree cover crops may reduce main­ weeds. Other perennial grasses To establish a permanent Christmas tenance and production costs, while adapted to our climatic conditions tree cover crop, the following improving the soil conditions of the could be used, but will probably guidelines are recommended: plantation. A small investment in a require more management. Tim­ cover crop could pay big dividends othy, orchardgrass, bromegrass and 1. Eliminate perennial weeds prior to in the form of reduced erosion, Kentucky bluegrass need a relatively planting. The slow-growing covers do increased soil organic matter, weed fertile soil. Redtop, although highly not compete well with perennial suppression, reduced mowing costs, adapted to low fertility soils, may weeds during their establishment and reduced nutrient and herbicide spread too rapidly resulting in com­ phase. losses. petition problems. 2. Have the soil tested and amended Cover combinations are recom­ according to the needs of the crop. References mended over pure stands to mini­ Since the cover is being planted for Finch, C. U., and W. C. Sharp. 1983. mize the risk of one insect or disease conservation purposes primarily, be Cover crops in California orchards problem affecting the entire stand. sure to indicate this on the soil test and vineyards. USDA Soil Conserva­ The following combinations have information questionnaire. Be sure tion Service, Davis, CA. been recommended by the Pennsyl­ that any changes you make to the vania State University and the soil will not adversely affect the Hofstetter, B. 1988. The New Farm's Agricultural Stabilization and Conser­ growth 01 the crop. Soils between cover crop guide. The New Farm vation Service in their permanent rows of trees can often be treated dif­ 10:17-32. vegetation establishment guidelines: ferently than soils within rows of trees. Apply 40 Ibs. of nitrogen per Kuhns, L. J. Permanent cover crops hard fescue (95%) acre at the time the cover is seeded. far harlicullural plantings. Depart­ and white clover (5%) ment of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State University. hard fescue (65%) 3. Loosen the soil by plowing and then disking, or by rototilling prior and red fescue (35%) Scott, T. W. and R. F. Burt. 1985. to seeding. Chewings fescue (65%) Cover crops and intercrops for New and red fescue (35%) 4. Seed the grasses at a rate of 40 to Yark. Fact Sheet P.452.00 Cornell 60 Ibs. per acre. Spread the seed with Cooperative Extension, Cornell hard fescue (70%) University, Ithaca, NY. and Canada bluegrass (30%) a cyclone or drop spreader. Mter seed­ ing, drag, roll or cultipack the seed­ red fescue (70%) ing to make sure the seed is firmly and perennial ryegrass (30%) place in contact with the soil. A Bril­ lion-type seeder drops the seed and Sources of Seeds for Cover Crops presses it into the soil with one pass. Agway Farm and Garden Centers 5. The best time to seed is late August to late September, because The Chas. C. Hart Seed Co. the grass has two cool seasons in 304 Main St., P.O. Box 9169 which to get established before it Wethersfield, CT 06109-0169. must compete with warm-season Hoffman Seed, Inc. annual weeds. The next best time is Landisville, PA 17538. April to mid-May. Johnny's Selected Seeds 6. Limit weed competition the year Foss Hill Rd., Albion, ME 04910. of planting by mowing weeds before they start to bud or reach 8" to 10" Seedway Inc., RD2, Box 413A in height. Broadleaf weeds can be Emmaus, PA 18049. controlled with directed sprays 01 2,4-D. (Do not use 2,4-D il clover is Stanford Seed Co., Oxford, MA. in the cover crop mix.) The slower growing covers will not compete as well with weeds the first growing season if spring seeded. VII. Fertilization and Irrigation

There is little doubt test provides the basis for recommenw during the year when temperature that a well-designed pro­ dations which specify just how much (lack of frost) and moisture condi­ gram of fertilization lime or acidifying agent is needed, tiorfs permit. and pH modification and the kind and amount of fertilizer can improve the color, required for best plant growth. A fer­ 2. It is best to wait at least one density, vigor, growth, tilizer recommendation depends on month after application of fertilizer, needle retention and mar­ the nutrient supplying power of the lime or acidifying agent, before ketability of Christmas soil, the plants being grown, the taking soil samples. trees. Keep in mind that history of the land and the current w 3. Areas differing in topography, satisfactory growth is management. By taking the guess drainage, soil texture, fertilizer appliw dependent not only on nutri­ work out of estimating the soil's cations, soil organic matter content tion, but proper light, temperature, chemical status, soil testing mini­ (light colored vs. dark colored) or moisture, soil structure and pest mizes the chances of adding too intended crop use should be sampled management. In most instances, (er­ much or too little fertilizer, lime or and tested separately. tilizer applications will be necessary, acidifying agent. Sixty-five percent to supplement naturally occurring of southern New England growers 4. Under no conditions should soil mineral elements in order to reported using a soil testing service samples represent areas larger than maintain an optimum supply avail­ at least once every few years, but, 15 acres. Usually, samples should repw able for plant growth. Also be aware unfortunately, 35% still reported resent considerably smaller areas. that improper fertilization can kill never having taken advantage of the Where poor growth exists, take or injure trees and waste money. potential benefits oi a soil test. Six samples from both good and bad Although it would be convenient, percent of growers use a foliar areas, if possible, and submit them growers should not expect to be able analysis test in addition to a soil test. separately. to follow a generic fertilization pro­ gram that is applicable to all situa­ Inexpensive soil testing services are 5. Avoid sampling unusual spots, tions. Each Christmas tree plantation available at most landwgrant univerw such as former sites of compost piles is different and should be treated as sities and at some state experiment and areas where lime, acidifying such. stations. The manner in which a soil agents or fertilizer has been spilied. sample is obtained for testing is critiw Soil Testing 6. To obtain a representative sample, cal to the accuracy of the test. Use The first step toward developing a the following guidelines to help take a uniform core or thin slice of soil from at least 20 evenlywdistri w proper fertilization program is to ensure an accurate soil test. have the soil tested. A soil test bUled places within a given area. measures the soi l acidity or alkalinity 1. Late October or early November is Sample the top 6" to 8" from the (pH) am.I the levels of nutrients that usually the best lime to sample, but plow layer. Put the slices or cores in are available to the plant. The soil samples may be taken at any time a clean container and thoroughly mix them. Do not take soil only from the surface of the soil, as this will guarantee erroneous test results. 7. With the exception of excessively wet samples, soil may be sent immew diately to the soil testing lab. Wet, muddy samples should be partially or completely dried at room temperaw ture prior to being submitted. B. Transfer one cup of the soil mixw ture in the container to a plastic bag and seal with a rubber band. Take the soil sample (or mail it) to the soil testing facility. Be sure to fiJi out any questionnaire completely and accurw ately. This is especially important at soil testing facilities that provide fer­ tilization recommendations based on ,.: / the soil test results.

29 If you need help understanding the soil test results or fertilizer recom­ Table 7. Dolomitic limestone requirements to raise the soil pH to S.B. mendations, contact your local Coop­ Dolomitic lime, Ibs. per 1000 sq. ft.! erative Extension Center. Most soil Existing soli tests will provide you with informa­ pH rang. S LS SL FSL L SL·CL tion on the texture of the soil, the soil pH and the levels of calcium, 5.3-5.7 50 50 50 50 50 100 magnesium, phosphorus and potas­ sium that are present. Some testing 4.8-5.2 50 100 100 100 100 100 labs can also run tests for micronu­ trients, as well, but they may cost a 4.3-4.7 100 100 100 150 150 150 little extra. Commonly. nitrogen levels are not tested on mineral soils 3.8-4.2 100 150 150 150 200 200 because the results are somewhat unreliable and not very meaningful. less than 3.8 150 150 200 200 200 200 It is safe to assume that most soils will need some annual nitrogen S = sand, LS = loamy sand, SL = Sandy Loam, FSL = find sandy loam, inputs to maintain optimum plant L = loam, SL = silt loam, CL = clay loam growth, since nitrogen usually gets lIf the lime recommendation is 150 lbs. per 1000 sq. it. or more, it is suggested that used by the plant or leaches away dur­ half the lime be applied and the remainder a month or more later. ing the course of a growing season. pH Maintenance The term pH is used to measure the TabieB. Dolomitic limestone requirements to raise the soil pH to 6.3. chemical reaction of soil on a 0 to 14 scale. Values below 7 are considered Existing soil Dolomitic lime, lb •. per 1000 sq. ft.! acid and values above 7 are alkaline. Optimum plant growth occurs when pH range S LS SL FSL L SL·CL the soil pH has been adjusted to the 5.8-6.2 50 50 50 50 50 100 range specific for the crops in ques­ tion. For most conifers, the optimum 50 100 100 100 100 100 soil pH is between 5.5 and 6.5, with 5.3-5.7 perhaps 5.7 to 6.0 being the best. 100 100 150 150 150 Most conifers are found "in the wild" 4.8-5.2 100 growing on soils between 4.5 and 6.0. 100 150 150 150 200 200 If the pH is too low (acidic) or too 4.3-4.7 high (alkaline), many nutrients either become too readily available less than 4.3 150 150 200 200 200 200 or are "locked-up" by the soil and are S = sand, LS = loamy sand, SL = Sandy Loam, FSL = find sandy loam, unavailable to plants. As a conse­ L = loam, SL = silt loam, CL = clay loam quence, nutrient toxicities and deficiencies can occur. IIf the lime recommendation is 150 lbs. per 1000 sQ. ft. or more, it is suggested that half the lime be applied and the remainder a month or more later. The majority of southern New Eng­ land soils are slightly acidic. In most cases, if the soil pH is below 5.5, lim­ If it has been determined that a soil handle, inexpensive and causes a ing will pay dividends in improved is too acidic and the pH must be slow and gradual pH change. For a growth, tree density and needle raised, decide what type of lime to majority of growers, dolomitic lime color. Growers should be warned that apply. If the soil is deficient in both will be the most appropriate liming overliming (resulting in a pH of 7.0 calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), material to use. Nearly all southern or higher) can have devastating ef­ then dolomitic lime should be used, New England growers report liming fects on Christmas trees. Conifers are since in addition to having an their fields, with the majority (73%) intolerant of high pI I soil and will alkaline reaction, it supplies Ca and finding it necessary to lime only once produce little growth, have poor Mg in roughly proportional amounts. every few years. See Tables 7 and 8 needle color and retention and may If Ca levels are low relative to Mg for approximate liming requirements eventually die on overlimed soils. A levels, then use calcitic lime to raise for a range of pHs and soil types. grower is almost always better off the pH, since it primarily supplies growing Christmas trees on soils that Ca. Hydrated lime can also be used to After liming with dolomitic lime, it are a little too acidic, than on soils raise soil pH and supply Ca, but thIS may take several months before the that are a little too alkaline. It is material is not as safe to use because soil pH rises. This is because always easier to add more lime than it brings about a change in pH very dolomitic lime is relatively insolub le to correct an overliming situation. rapidly and is difficult to handle. in water and penetrates the soil Dolomitic or calcitic lime is safe to profile slowly to bring about a pH 30 - change. Dolomitic lime must disM to raise surface pH of a sandy. loam solve, and this takes some time. A from 4.5 to 6.5. common mistake made by growers is Although it is rare in the northeast, to apply dolomitic lime and then test some soils may have alkaline pHs and the soil pH too soon after the lime may need to have the pH lowered application. Invariably, the soil test into the acceptable range before a indicates that the soil is still too crop can be planted. In addition, acciM acidic and the grower applies a dental overliming may need to be cor­ second dose of lime. In reality, the M rected with acidifying agents. Two dolomitic lime from the first appiica commonly used acidifying agents are tion had not completed its reaction, sulfur and aluminum sulfate. Sulfur and the grower has now overapplied is usually preferred over aluminum lime because he or she did not wait sulfate, even though aluminum sulM long enough for the lime to fully dis­ fate is faster reacting, because there solve and react with the soil. It will lowing year. Applied in the fall, is no risk of aluminum buildup in the generally take four to eight weeks for dolomitic lime has several months to soil. On a silt loam, around 10 lbs. an application of dolomitic lime to dissolve, penetrate the soil and bring per 1000 SQ. ft. of sulfur, or 60 lbs. bring about a significant change in about the desired pH change. Lime per 1000 SQ. ft. of aluminum sulfate, soil pH. and acidifying agents can be applied should drop the soil pH about one Whenever possible, dolomitic individually around trees by hand or unit. With both sulfur and limes, the lime should be incorporated and in bands over rows with a lawn finer the grind of the material, the thoroughly mixed into the soil pro­ spreader. The best time to adjust the faster the pH reaction. file. This will help insure that a faster soil pH is before a crop is planted. At Fertility Needs and change in pH will occur in the top this time, lime can be incorporated Fertilizer Types 6" to 8" of soil. If dolomitic lime is into the soil easily throughout the anticipated root zone area. A number of nutrient elements in the applied only to the soil surface, then soil are essential for tree growth. only the immediate surface (1" to 3") Table 9 lists those which are required will have the pH adjusted within a The wise grower will adjust the pH to somewhere in the higher end of the in the greatest amounts, the general reasonable amount of time and it is functions they serve in tree growth possible that the soil surface pH may acceptable range, since with time the pH will drift downward on most New and some deficiency symptoms. In be raised too much. Dolomitic lime addition to these more major nutriM applications to the soil surface (when England soils. Some growers like to incorporation is not possible), should mark planting spots in the spring ents, smaller quantities of iron, man­ always be applied evenly over the en­ with a handful of lime. This prac­ ganese, boron, zinc, molybdenum, tire root zone. Keep in mind that tree tice, while convenient, must be used sodium and chlorine are needed. roots generally extend at least to the with caution or the pH within the Needed only in small Quantities, dripline and usually well beyond it. immediate root zone of a young and these elements are often called trace tender transplant may rise well above elements or microelemenls. In most Lime can be applied at any time of optimum levels. One-half cup of soils, the trace elements will be adeM the year when the soil is not frozen. dolomitic lime (about a handful) Quately supplied by the soil minerals. The best time to apply dolomitic lime applied to a four square foot area On the other hand, major nutrients, is in the fall to affect growth the fol- around the planting hole, is enough especially nitrogen (N), phosphorus

Table 9. Important nutrients for tree growth, their functions and common deficiency symptoms. Element Metabolic functions Deficiency Nitrogen (N) Essential constituent of protein, enzymes and General chlorosis (yellowing) of needles. In chlorophyll. severe cases, needles short, stiff and yellow green to yellow. Phosphorus (P) Essential to energy transfer system, root Retarded growth; coarse, poorly developed development of seedlings. roots. In severe cases, purpling of older needles. Potassium (K) Important in protein formation, growth of new Needles short and chlorotic. In severe cases, shoots and frost hardiness. needles purplish and dying back from tips.

Calcium (Ca) I~portant in root and root hair development, Rare. In severe cases, chlorosis of youngest tissue strength. foliage, tip or terminal dieback. Magnesium (Mg) Essential constituent of chlorophyll. Yellow tipping of younger foliage. Sulfur (S) Important to protein formation and respiration. Similar to nitrogen.

31 (P) and potassium (K), are often sup­ ph.ed In insufficIent quantities by the Superphosphate (0-20-0) or triple SOIl to support optimum tree growth superphosphate (0-46-0) is the pre­ and quality. To supplement the plant P source of choice. As a general naturally available nutrients fer- guideline, 7.5-12.5lbs. of superphos­ tilizers can be applied. ' phate or 2.5-5.0 lbs. of triple super­ phosphate should be incorporated Growers should understand that a per 1000 sq. ft. of area. If a grower lack of deficiency symptoms does not chooses not to provide a preplant necessarily mean that trees are grow­ charge of P, then a complete fer­ ing at an optimum rate. There is a tilizer high in P should be used for range of soil nutrient levels at which the first few years after planting. If tree growth may be reduced, while possible, this fertilizer should be deficiency symptoms are not readily During the first few years of growth scratched into the surface of the soil apparent. Trees growing under a it is preferable to apply N to the tre~s without damaging tree roots. condition of limited nutrient avail­ at a rat~ of about 0.5 to 0.75 lbs. of ability will respond to fertilizer actual N per 1000 sq. ft. of soil. This Potassium (K) is the third major applications. To be most effective amount should be increased to about nutrient and, like N, it is relatively nutrients should always be applied 1.0 to 1.25lbs. of actual N per 1000 mobile and moves down through the based on a soil test, but most nutri­ sq. ft. for the final few years before soil profile. Because K is mobile, it ents are applied as complete ferti­ harvest. In the harvest year, an addi­ can be applied to the soil surface with lizers containing N, P and K. Com­ tional 0.5 to 0.75 lbs. of actual N can good success. Sandy soils tend to be plete fertilizers with a ratio of2-1-1 be applied, if needed, in early to mid­ leached of K more quickly than silty (N-P-K), 3-1-1, 3-1-2 or 4-1-2 are fall to produce or encourage addi­ or clay soils, so they will need more recommended for established trees in tional "greening" of the foliage to frequent supplements. Growers have the field. enhance tree market value. often noted that trees which go into the winter with adequate K supplies Research has shown that of all the Phosphorus (P), another major are better able to withstand the nutrients, applications of N can have nutrient of Christmas tree species is stresses of winter and grow better the greatest impact on improving the especially needed by young, recently the next spring. Usually, sufficient K growth and quality of conifer trees transplanted trees. By stimulating can be supplied to trees through the provided all other nutrients are not root growth and development, phos­ use of complete fertilizers. severely limited. The most significant phorus helps young trees get estab­ component of the recommended lished and increases seedling survival In general, higher analysis fertilizers complete fertilizers, nitrogen is rates. Phosphorus (calcium phos­ are a better value than lower analysis needed in I.arger quantities than any phate), like dolomitic lime is rela­ fertilizers. For example, a 20 -20-20 other nutnent and produces rapid tively insoluble in water, s~ it doesn't fertilizer will usually cost less in growth and dark green needle color. move into the soil profile easily or terms of actual nutrients than a When N is suboptimal, trees will leach out of the soil easily. For this 10-10-10 fertilizer, even though the grow slowly and exhibit light green reason, the best time to apply P is cost per bag is greater for the higher or yellowish-green needle color. preplant. Enough can be incor­ analysis material. Whenever possible, Because nitrogen is a very mobile porated into the soil prior to planting s,low release formulations of fertili­ nutrient that easily leaches from the to supply the trees with a source of P hzers should be used, since they ~0!1 ~r is simply used up by the trees, for several years. pose less of a threat to the environ­ It IS hkely that some will have to be ~ent than rapidly available formula­ supplied annually. As stated earlier tI,ons and they can be used more effi­ there is no satisfactory soil test for ' ciently by the crop. Unfortunately N, ~o recommendations for N appli­ they cost more. ' cations must be based upon soil type,. past cropping history and crop For most growers, dry granular reqUIrements. cheml~1 fertilizers will be the most convement to use. They are easily Prior to planting, decaying organic applied either by hand or by a fer­ ~att.er resulting from plowing, cul­ tIltzer spreader. Proper fertilizer tlvatmg or herbicide application will pl?cement is needed to avoid tree provide a fairly sizable nutrient IOJUry and to realize the full benefits "charge" to the soil for most of the of the fertilizer. A lump of fertilizer first growing season. This is espe­ tossed against the tree stem will do cially true since research has shown httle to feed rootlets and may in fact that trees do not benefit much from kill Or IOJure the tree, since the salts first year fertilization, at least in out­ cor:tamed in most fertilizers draw ward growth enhancement, unless m?lsture from the plant. Hand- the soil is especially nutrient poor. dnven Or tractor-drawn spreaders work well as long as the equipment is properly calibrated prior to any application. Table 10. Nutrient values for manure l Granular fertilizers should be dis· Values per ton or 1000 gal. tributed evenly over the root zone of material applied either around individual trees or banded down either side of a row, Material Ibs. N Ibs. P20S Ibs. K20 Basis roughly in the area of the drip line Cow manure 5 3 6 per ton (the outermost reach of the foliage). Granular fertilizers should not be Poultry (cage layer) 16 20 12 per ton applied when the tree foliage is wet manure (either by precipitation, irrigation or Liquid cow manure 16 14 19 per 1000 gal dew), since they can cling to the foliage resulting in "foliar burn". Liquid poultry manure per 1000 gal Even if trees are dry, it may be benefi· 25 30 15 cial to shake the trees after fertilizer IValues for N should be reduced by 50% if the material is surface applied and not incor· application to work lodged fertilizer porated. into the soil. Values for N should be increased by 20% if the material is applied fresh within two months of planting and is incorporated within two days. Soluble or liquid fertilizers will likely Values for Nand K20 should be reduced by 20% if the material is applied more than not be the primary fertilizer formula· two months before planting. tion used on Christmas trees, but they may be useful on seedling or transplant beds to deliver needed nutrients unavailable to the trees and Whenever fertilizing your Christmas nutrients quickly. For all but the possibly causing nutrient contamina­ tree plantation, do not treat all the highest value areas, soluble fertilizers tion of ground water and surface trees the same, because not all are too costly and difficult to handle water. To further minimize the risk species have the same nutritional for most Christmas tree growers. of nutrient losses, a grower may requirements. Douglas fir, the true choose to split the recommended fer· firs and the spruces are all nutrient Manures, if available, can sometimes tilizer for a growing season by apply· demanding, and the most likely to be used in lieu of chemical fertilizer ing half of the nutrients in late April respond to periodic fertilization. if certain precautions are taken. and the other half in early June. White pine is somewhat less demand· Because most manures contain high Although costing more in labor ing. Scotch pine is an excellent nutri­ levels of ammonia which can burn inputs, use of a split fertilizer applica· ent forager and will grow on all but young plants if applied on the surface tion program makes more efficient the most infertile of sites. The recom­ in warm, wet weather, they should use of the nutrienls lhal are applied. mendation not to fertilize Scotch either be well-aged before application pine is almost universal in research or applied in the fall. The humus Nitrogen fertilizers should be avoided literature. Although fertilization of they add to the soil is beneficial, but between mid-July and early Septem­ Scotch pine will not hurt the trees, it the nutritive benefit to the tree is ber, because nitrogen applied at this will also not stimulate much addi· much more slowly available than time may encourage the production tional growth for the cost of the when chemical fertilizers are used. of a soft, second flush of growth. applied fertilizer. To use manures as a nutrient source, This growth cannot "harden-off' suffi­ a grower must be able to handle the ciently by winter and will be suscep­ Even for species that benefit dramati­ large volumes of organic material tible to frost and freezing injury. cally from fertilization, overfertiliza­ that must be applied for effective fer­ tion should be avoided. Research has tilization. Also, manures always con· Fall is the second best time to fertil­ shown that response to fertilization tain large volumes of weed and grass ize, but it should only be necessary drops off rapidly above a certain num· seed which can produce detrimental when spring season fertilizations ber of pounds per acre. Worse, exces­ results unless an effective weed con­ fall short of expectations or when sive use of nitrogen in soluble forms, trol program is maintained. Table 10 trees are being greened·up for such as urea or ammonium nitrate, lists manure nutrient values which market. When fertilizing in the fall can bum roots and injure or kill should be used in conjunction with those trees that are not yet market­ trees. Once fertilizer has been applied soil test recommendations. able, be sure the plants are dormant it is nearly impossible to remove. It is and use fertilizers higher in P and K, always better to underfertilize and Most fertilizers are best applied dur­ and relatively low in N. have to apply additional nutrients at ing the spring and early summer to a later date. allow trees to have the benefit of Effective Christmas tree fertilization applied nutrients for the entire grow· must go hand-in-hand with good Each grower must decide if the cost ing season. Fertilizers should not be weed control. Otherwise, the trees, of fertilizer and the time to apply the applied too early in the spring especially young ones, may be over­ material makes economic sense for a because partially frozen soils, snow grown by the rapid growth of fertil­ particular operation. Nearly all melt and heavy early spring rains will ized weeds. southern New England growers fertil­ leach nutrients away, making the ize their trees, with well over half the

33 Farm ponds can be a good source ofirrigation water for Christmas tree operations. growers fertilizing on an annual above. Note: 250 Ibs. per acre = I oz. tively watered with "lawn-type" basis. Hand application of fertilizer is per 12 sq. ft. A 35mm film canister sprinklers if the areas are not too used by 86% of growers and II % holds about I to 1.4 oz. of this type of large. Portable gas-powered pumps report using drop spreaders. On fertilizer, a cup holds 8 to 9 oz. Fer­ work well to move water from farm average, 384 trees could be fertilized tilizer can be diluted with sand or ponds to the areas needing irrigati on. per hour. The most commonly soil for easier distribution. Keep rain gauges or small cans scat­ reported fertilizer formulation was tered around in the beds and water granular 10-10-10, with about 40% Irrigation O. 75~ to 1" every seven days or so of all growers who fertilize using this The use of irrigation will depend throughout the growing season. The formulation. heavily on the management practices volume of water is based somewhat used by the grower and the potential on soil type and weather conditions. The following is a possible system of benefits of irrigation against the A pooly-drained soil may need less liming and fertilizing seedling and costs. For larger, well-establish trees, water, and a well-drained soil may transplant beds suggested by Dr. irrigation will not be economically need more. Also, dry, windy days will John F. Ahrens at the Connecticut feasible for a majority of growers. quickly dry out foliage and soils. Agricultural Experiment Station. The increase in growth resulting First-year seed beds should be irri­ Transplant Beds from irrigation will not compensate gated more sparingly than two- or for the cost of getting water to the three-year seedling or transplant First year: Apply sufficient lime to trees. Irrigation may be useful on beds which are moistened to a depth bring pH to 6.0-6.5. Apply superphos­ established trees during extended of about 6". phate if needed, both according to a periods of drought, primarily to soil test. Work both into the soil prevent injury or death of the trees The best time of the day to irrigate is before planting. Delay fertilization resulting from desiccation. early in the morning when winds and for five to six weeks so that roots can the evaporative rate are low, so the establish, then apply 250 to 300 Ibs. The most common need for irriga­ greatest application efficiency exists. per acre of 10-6-4 or 10-5-5 fertilizer tion will be in seed and transplant Foliage made wet by irrigation will with 50% organic (slow release) beds and on field planted trees that dry rapidly as the temperature and nitrogen. This type of fertilizer is are not yet established. Although not winds increase, reducing the risk of available in lawn fertilizer mixtures. always necessary in these situations, foliar diseases. Morning irrigation Reapply this amount in early Septem­ application of water can dramatically also insures that the soil is moist ber. Use irrigation to supplement reduce losses of trees and generally and cool during the warmest parts rainfall so the total equals at least increase growth rate. Watering of of the day. one inch of water per week during seed and transplant beds can serve to the growing season. prevent desiccation, to cool foliage To protect against late spring frost, and soil during dangerously hot water just before sunrise, typically Second year: Apply 500 to 600 Ibs. of weather and to protect from frost the coldest time of the night, espe­ 10-6-4 fertil izer per acre one to two injury. cially on clear nights. A light applica­ weeks before bud break. Repeat if tion of 0.25' is usually enough to needed in early June. Irrigate as Seed and transplant beds can be effee- hold off light frosts.

34 VIII. Weed Control

Weeds in Christmas trees ling weeds and brush, 28% used Annual weeds require a single season _ can have a major effect mowing as the only control method, to complete their life cycle from a ".,": on tree sUlVival, growth while 68% reported using a combina,. germinating seed to a seed producing , "' ..' and quality, Weeds com- tion of mowing and herbicides. plant. Examples are crabgrass, pig­ , : ',' pete with trees for their Growers reported that, on average, a weed, lambsquarters and purslane. ~.. basic needs- light, nutrients one-acre plantation could be mowed Annual weeds that germinate in the and water. Competition for water, in three hours. fall and flower the following spring alone, can result in high tree mor­ are called winter annuals. Weeds tality, especially during the planting To apply herbicides, the majority of such as common chickweed, ground­ year, and competition for light growers (87%) use hand-held sel, shepherd's purse and annual causes loss of lower branches and sprayers, but some (10%) use tractor, bluegrass are winter annuals. misshapen trees. Trees grown with­ mounted sprayers. Strip or band her­ out weed competition usually have bicide application was used by 65% of Biennial weeds require two full more buds, aTC denser and have bet­ growers, and 28% of growers sprayed seasons to complete their life cycle, ter color than those grown in weeds. only the area directly around indi­ An example is wild carrot, which ger, Competition reduces growth and vidual trees, Only 8% of growers minates and grows vegetatively the quality, and extends the period from reported spraying the entire planta­ first year, overwinters, and then planting to harvest by three to five tion. According to growers, one can produces a seed head and dies the years or more, reducing profitability. expect to spend three days per year, second year. Both annual and bien­ per acre, on weed control in tree nial weeds reproduce only by seeds. Weeds provide good habitat for plantings, rodents which can girdle stems or Perennial weeds live from year to roots and severely damage or kill Types of Weeds Encountered year by storing reserves in their trees. Weeds also create fire hazards. in Christmas Tree Plantings roots, tubers or underground stems. One runaway fire in the life of a plan ­ Weeds are defined as plants out of These weeds reproduce and spread, tation is enough to destroy a crop of place, Therefore, any of the thou, not only by seeds, but by perennial Christmas trees. Uncontrolled weeds sands of plant types growing on tubers, stolons, rhizomes or roots. and brush in plantations can also Christmas tree sites can be con­ Destroying the aboveground parts of have a detrimental effect on the sidered weeds. These weeds can be annual weeds kills the entire plant, morale of the work force involved in classified as annuals, biennials, peren­ but destroying the vegetative portion operations such as shearing and har­ nials or woody plants. vesting, and increase the time and labor required to complete these tasks. Poison ivy in a plantation can result in lost time due to adverse CRABGRASS health effects, Despite the negative aspects of weed growth in plantations, there are at least two benefits of some weed cover. On sloping land subject to erosion, elimination of all soil cover can permit extensive erosion, and on heavy, imperfectly drained soils, com­ plete elimination of soil cover can result in winter heaving and the loss of young trees. Therefore, vegetation control methods are best integrated with soil management practices. Methods of preventing soil erosion and heaving are discussed further in ChapterVL Over 94% of growers reported that they employed some kind of measures to control unwanted vegetation in their Christmas tree ' plantations, Of the growers control, IAMBSQUARTERS"

35 of perennial weeds, unless repeated, does not kill the plant. Perennial weeds in plantations include quack­ grass, goldenrod, nutsedge, orchard­ grass, bluegass, broomsedge, bird vetch, bindweed and many others. Annual and perennial weeds may be subdivided into monocots (grasses and sedges) and dicots (broadleaves). Monocots have a single seed leaf and usually have long, narrow leaves with parallel veins, whereas dieots have two seed leaves and broader leaves with net veining. Sedges are distinguished from grasses in that their stems are always triangular in cross section, whereas stems of grasses are always flat or rounded in cross section.

Woody plants are perennial in nature Band treatment ofherbicides over rows reduces soil erosion and herbicide costs. with woody stems and roots that over­ winter. These plants include trees, Periodic mechanical cultivation many broadleaf annuals and many shrubs (low-growing woody plants) coupled with periodic weeding or woody plants, but has little effect on and vines which, can start from seed hoeing was the primary method of most perennial grassy weeds, which or from basal sprouts or root suckers controlling weeds in clean-tilled have growing points at the base of following cutting. Woody plants that crops before the advent of herbicides. the plant. Mowing can reduce weed commonly invade plantations and Though effective, especially under competition with trees for light, but become weeds are often collectively dry soil conditions, cultivation and does little to reduce competition for referred to as brush. hand methods of weed control have moisture and nutrients. Further­ high labor costs. In New England, more, mowing alone in small trees is Cultural Methods of cultivation on a seven- to 14-day hazardous to the trees. Many small Controlling Weeds schedule and weeding or hoeing on a conifers are mowed down because Cultural methods of controlling three- to four-week schedule are the weeds hide the rows of trees. weeds in Christmas trees include usually required to prevent weeds Three major benefits of mowing are mechanical tillage, mowing, hand from overtopping small trees. reduction of fire hazard by keeping weeding, hoeing or mulching. The weed growth vegetative, reduction of method chosen can depend on the MOWING-Periodic mowing of the habitat for rodent populations and climate, soil, weed species and econ­ top growth of weeds can control reduction in brush populations. omic considerations. Often, combina­ tions of methods provide the best means for managing a plantation. (~) TILLAGE-Plowing, disking or fre­ quent shallow cultivation can control most annual weeds and some peren­ ~~ ! ~! nials and woody plants by destroying the food source of weeds and deplet­ ing their root reserves. These sys­ tems work best under dry soil condi­ tions but often fail in humid climates ~(j) or seasons. Plowing also buries weed • seeds, forestalling many infestations. Tillage prior to planting in seedbeds, transplant beds or field sites provides an opportunity not only to control many perennial weeds but also to incorporate soil amendments, such ~~ as lime, phosphorus or sulfur, that do not move readily into root zones with Clean cultivation, around individual trees or in strips down surface application. each tree row, prevents weeds from competing with trees and still maintains vegetation in the interrow areas.

36 Mowing between rows is a common should be removed while in the seed­ make true solutions (clear mixtures practice where herbicides are applied ling stage. Even where preemergence that do not settle out), whereas in bands down rows of trees. Mowing herbicides are used in seedling or others are formulated as emulsifiable allows the maintenance of a stable transplant beds, it is essential to concentrates, f10wable suspensions, ground cover between rows of trees, remove any weeds that exceed one to wettable powders or water dispersible which helps to control soil erosion two inches in height or width. granules. Solutions, emulsifiable con­ on sloping lands and also provides an centrates and f10wable suspensions aesthetic and practical soil cover in Chemical Methods of Controlling are liquids and can be measured by plantations where customers cut Weeds (Herbicides) volume, whereas water dispersible their own trees (choose-and-cut Modern herbicides are organic, granules and wettable powders are operations). biodegradable chemicals that differ dry materials and are measured by greatly in their effects on specific weight or in bulk volume measures MULCHING-All plants require light crop plants and weeds, persistence in calibrated to deliver weight for growth, and mulches kill weeds soil and other characteristics. The equivalents. by shading the soil. Many different only thing that all herbicides have in kinds of mulching materials can be common is that, at prescribed rates Granular formulations consist of the used, such as black plastic, news­ and methods of application, they kill active ingredient andinert materials, papers and many natural organic or prevent growth of weeds. The im­ such as attapulgite clay, vermiculite materials, such as wood chips, saw­ portant specific information for each or corn cobs. The percentage of dust, bark, composted leaves, pine herbicide as to crops that may be active ingredient by weight is given needles, straw, etc. Mulches also treated, weeds that are controlled, on the label of dry materials. The conserve soil moisture and reduce rates and methods of application and weight of active ingredient per unit erosion and frost heaving. Because of other special precautions is given on volume is printed on each container their expense they are most practical the herbicide label. Since uses of liquid herbicides. Therefore, with in transplant beds or in young planta­ change, the grower can also get the both dry and liquid herbicides, it is tions where these benefits are most proper information from current common to speak in terms of pounds needed. Optimal weed control usu­ federal and state registrations for per acre of active ingredient (lb/A ail. ally cannot be obtained with mulches these herbicides and can also consult alone, but, where practical, mulches with local Cooperative Extension can be used in combination with her­ TYPES OF HERBICIDES AND HOW educators on rates applicable to their THEY CONTROL WEEDS-Herbi­ bicides, often reducing the amounts soil and climatic conditions. Table 11 of herbicide required. cides for Christmas lrees may bt': clas­ lists the current registrations of her­ sified as soil fumigants, preemer­ WEEDING-Though impractical for bicides that have proven useful for gence or postemergence, depending plantations, hand weeding is still an Christmas tree plantings in New on whether they prevent weed important means of controlling England. Table 12 lists southern New growth before planting, before emer­ weeds in seedbeds and transplant England Christmas tree growers her­ gence or kill established weeds after beds even where herbicides are used. bicide preferences, including the they emerge. Some herbicides Labor statistics.obtained at the Con­ preferred season of application. exhibit both preemergence and post­ necticut State Forest Nursery in Growers have a responsibility to use emergence activity (Table 11). Voluntown showed that, prior to the herbicides in ways that do not harm 1. Soil Fumigants use of herbicides in seedbeds, hand the environment. Reducing the weeding required an average of 450 Soil fumigants are volatile chemi­ potential for off-target movement of cals that control weed seeds, aliliv­ hours per acre per year. Studies at herbicides in the air or on the soil ing plant parts, such as roots, rhi­ the Connecticut Agricultural Experi­ surface, as well as prevention of soil ment Slation have indicalt:t.l that zomes and tubers of perennial weeds, erosion and herbicides leaching into and soil-borne insects, disease organ­ hand weeding in closely planted seed­ groundwater, are important con­ isms and nematodes. Awaiting lings or transplants can vary between siderations that should be addressed 275 and 800 hours per acre per year. period is required between treatment in weed control programs. Many of and planting to allow the toxic vapors Labor requirements for hand weed­ the practices mentioned in this chap­ ing vary greatly, depending upon to dissipate. Fumigants also control ter provide examples of environmen­ beneficial soil organisms and, there­ whether perennial weeds have been tal stewardship. controlled before planting, the fore, are used primarily when a presence of annual weeds on the site serious weed problem exists on the and weather conditions. FORMULATIONS OF HERBICIDES­ site for which no alternate treatment Herbicides are formulated in ways is available. Weeding requirements usually are that allow them to be sprayed or ap­ greater during the first year than plied dry in the form of granules. The 2. Preemergence Herbicides during ensuing years in seedbeds or sprayable formulations include the Preemergence herbicides are transplant beds. Hand weeding at active ingredient and various sol ­ applied on the soil, where they weekly to monthly intervals may be vents and additives that either prevent weed growth from seeds, required to prevent the growth­ enhance the activity of the herbicide dormant buds or underground plant retarding effects of weeds and weed or allow it to be suspended in water parts, but usually have little effect on removal on seedling conifers. Weeds or another carrier. Some herbicides emerged actively growing weeds.

37 Rainfall, irrigation or shallow incor­ certain conifers are inherently toler­ 3. Postemergen~e Herbicides poration is necessary to activate ant of herbicide dosages that kill Postemergence herbicides kill preemergence herbicides. Poor weeds. Secondly, conifer roots are established weeds following absorp­ results are often obtained if dry located in a deeper zone than the tion of the herbicide primarily weather follows application or incor­ herbicides and escape contact with through leaves and stems, but some poration is omitted. These herbicides them. The same mechanisms of resis­ herbicides are absorbed through the usually are low in water solubility tance apply to certain weeds and espe­ roots. The herbicide is a contact type and persist in the soil for one to cially to deep-rooted perennial weeds if injury is local, with only treated several months, controlling weeds for that may appear resistant to preemer- .. plant portions affected. A systemic long periods. gence herbicides. herbicide moves into the Dlant to kill In leachable sandy soils or in soils deeper root systems. OLD OLD low in organic matter, herbicides sometimes penetrate to root zones of INFORMATION INFORMA TION conifers and cause injury. Clay and organic matter in soil tend to bind Sys:emic herbiBe¥aft¥'ehfiY DELETED insoluble herbicides and prevent deep-rooted perennial weeds or L. Preemergence their leaching to root zones. Rates of woody plants, whereas contact her­ herbiciaes usually are safely applied application, therefore, are adjusted bicides are effective primarily against without injury directly over conifers according to soil type, organic matter annual and shallow-rooted perennial that are specified on the labels. content and rainfall or irrigation pat­ weeds. Contact herbicides usually kill terns. The duration of effective weed weeds rapidly (within a few days) and Conifers, such as Christmas trees, control and the safety of a given con­ may grow without injury in soils are less affected by rainfall soon after ifer species and size are dependent application than are systemic her­ treated with preemergence herbi­ upon the rate of application. cides for two reasons. The first is that bicides. Weeds sprayed with systemic herbicides take several days, or even

I-

OLD INFORMATION DELETED I )

39 weeks, to finally die. In all cases, proper spray coverage and penetra­ tion of the weed foliage are essential for good results. Spray adjuvants or wetting agents often improve weed control with postemergence her­ bicides, but they may also increase injury to conifers where sprays con­ tact the conifer foliage. The selection of postemergence her­ bicides depends upon conifer type. Some herbicides must be applied before plantmg or directed to avoid spraying the conifer foliage. Certain conifers may be tolerant of ither sprays 1 Jar speCltlea times and stages of growth.

Since posternergence herbicide~

J have little or no residual ef­ fect on germinating weeds, they are often combined or followed with preemergence herbicides to provide longer residual control.

OLD INFORMATION DELETED

• 40 IX. Insect Control

~~ Christmas trees, like \,~~ shade trees and Of­ ~~~ namentals, are highly "~,:::~ valued (or their aes- \ ~~ thetie Qualities. Each ~ ~ species or variety of tree ~""-' offers its own unique charac­ teristics of size, shape, color, texture and fragrance. Insects and mites can seriously affect these desired charac­ teristics. Primarily, it is the feeding habits that cause yellowing and browning, stunting, die-back, swell­ ing and even death of the host plant. The ideal method for pest control lies in pest prevention. The grower must have a good understanding of the OLD pests associated with each particular INFORMATION species, as well as knowledge of their life cycles and times of emergence. DELETED Growers must monitor their plant­ ings on a regular basis and record the current infestation status of all pests. If pest populations are discovered early enough, they can often be con­ trolled by cultural practices such as pruning or perhaps by localized chemical sprays. Spraying should be kept to a minimum to avoid the development of pesticide resistance \ in the pest population and to protect those insects that are beneficial. Any insect pests that cannot be identified f by the grower should be taken to the local Cooperative Extension office for positive identification.

OLD J INFORMATION to using a pesticide. Stay current development of pesticide resistance with the changes in pesticide laws in in the pest populations. DELETED your state and, if any questions arise, contact your state pesticide coor­ Proper timing of pesticide applica­ \ dinator for current and accurate tions and proper coverage with Pesticide labels are always changing; information. sprays are extremely important fac­ therefore, it is the ultimate respon­ tors in successful use of pesticides. sibility ofthe pesticide user to safely Growers should become aware of the The right chemical, at the wrong and legally use agrichemicals. This most common pests, what they look time, or improperly applied, is an guide is in no manner intended to like, when to expect them and how exercise in futility. . replace the label. By federal law, it is many the trees can tolerate before unlawful to use a pesticide in any chemical controls are necessary. This Dormant oil sprays are very effective manner that is inconsistent with its helps to keep pesticide use to a mini­ against pests that overwinter in an labe l. Always carefully read, under­ mum, saves money, protects the exposed form, such as eggs on the stand and follow pesticide labels prior environment, protects the beneficial bark. As implied in the name, these insects and reduces the chances of special mineral oils are applied when 49 Life Cycle: Bagworms survive the winter as eggs inside the bag, attached to a twig. The eggs hatch in June, and young larvae soon begin feeding and constructing their bags. Larvae are full-grown by late August, and permanently attach their bags to twigs by spinning a silken band over the twig. In September or October, adult male moths emerge from their bags and fly to other bags containing females. Females do not leave their bags and are fertilized there. Eggs are then laid in the bag to overwinter. Conlral: Hand-picking and destroy­ ing bags between October and May will eliminate eggs. Several parasitic '<- insects are found in most bagworm populations but, generally, provide Regular inspection ofplantations is important in controlling insufficient control. insect and disease damage. Insecticidal sprays are usually needed the host plant is dormant, primarily for good control and are most effec­ in late March into April. Late use of tive during mid- to late June, when dormant oils should be carefully con­ larvae are still small. Older larvae sidered, because phytotoxic damage (after about mid-July) are much may occur on the host plant. Even more difficult to control with sprays. though dormant oils are very safe to humans, wildlife and the environ­ OLD \ ment, they are still considered to be pesticides, so carefully read and fol­ INFORMA TIONI I low Ihe directions on Ihe label. Also, DELETlfn ~om- dormant oils and other horticultural plete coverage ofafrtoltage and twigs oils used at any time of the year will is necessary for good control. cause the needles of blue spruce to darken and lose their blue color. The BALSAM TWIG APHID original color will return in new Mindaros abielinus growth flushes. Oils can be used -$ against a wide variety of pests with ex­ cellent results. BAGWORM Thyridopteryx ephemeraeFarmis Adult males are small, dark-colored moths that have hairy bodies and clear wings_ Bagworm larvae are amber-colored, and have shiny black heads. At maturity, bagworms and bags can be approximately 2" long, but, in southern New England, most bags are considerably smaller. Hosts: Firs and spruces. Balsam and Hosts:, Firs, spruces, pines, Douglas Bagworm larvae cause injury to Fraser fir are affected to a greater fir and many other deciduous and extent than are the spruces. evergreen species not used as Christmas trees by feeding on needles. In very heavy infestations, Christmas trees. Description and Irljury: These evergreens can be defoliated and aphids are soft-bodied, pale-green Description and Injury: Bagworms either stunted or killed. Some twigs sucking insects. Older individuals are get their name from a carrot-shaped may be girdled by the silken bag covered with a waxy material that is bag they construct from chewed-up attachments. In southern New either white or bluish-gray. Bluish­ foliage (needles). As the bagworm England, bagworm infestations are gray aphid mothers can often be seen grows, it enlarges the bag. Adult usually light, so feeding injury is in spring surrounded by smaller female bagworms are grub-like and often minimal, but bags hanging in greenish offspring. look more like larvae than adults. the tree are unsightly and decrease the marketability of trees. 50 hosts (a spruce apd Douglas fir) to complete a full life cycle. Immature female nymphs overwinter at the base of terminal buds. In the spring, the nymphs mature, and hundreds of eggs are laid in cottony white masses Twisted and stunted growth on bal­ at the bases of emerging new shoots. sam fir (Abies balsamea) that Eggs hatch quickly, and young results from feeding by the balsam nymphs begin feeding on the suc­ twig aphid_ culent needle bases of new emerging shoots when they are only 2 to 2-112 Damage by the feeding aphids results inches long. Feeding results in swell­ in needles and shoots that are curled, ing of the tissue and gall formation. twisted and distorted. Some needles The adelgids live inside the galls may die as a result of aphid feeding until mid-summer (usually mid-July) and may fall off. The bark on shoots when the galls dry out and the cham­ where aphids have fed develops a bers open. Winged adults emerge and rough surface. Balsam twig aphids migrate to other spruce trees or to can produce copious amounts of Douglas fir. honeydew, that shows up on the foliage as a sticky, shiny "shellac". Adelgids that migrate to Douglas fir Black sooty mold may grow on the Galls ofthe Cooley's spruce gall adel­ lay eggs, and a population of wooly nutrient-rich honeydew. gid are larger than galls formed by adelgids develops. Some woolly adel­ the eastern spruce gall adelgid and gids develop wings and fly back to Life Cycle: Eggs of the balsam twig are found primarily on Colorado spruce trees, where they lay eggs that aphid are covered with tiny rods of (blue) spruce, Picea pungens produce an overwintering spruce white wax, which aTe the overwinter­ (glauca). population. The wingless adelgids ing structures. Eggs on the tree bark that remain on Douglas fir lay eggs hatch in early spring, and the new Description and Injury: The primary that form the overwintering popula­ aphids immediately begin to feed on damage occurs on spruces, in the tion on Douglas fir. If the Cooley newly emerging, tender shoots and form of elongated galls that develop spruce gall adelgid does not move to needles. Live young aTe produced by on new shoots. Galls are 2 to 2-112 the alternate host, Douglas fir, it has adult aphids throughout the sum­ inches long, many-chambered and a life cycle similar to the Eastern mer. In early summer, some aphids light green to purple. In late summer spruce gall adelgid. lay eggs on the bark; it is these eggs the galls turn brown, dry out and the that will overwinter aRd start a new chambers open. Twigs that form galls Control: It is important to realize population of aphids the following usually die. Galls remain on the tree, that once the protective Cooley gall season. reducing the tree quality. Repeated has begun to form, control is difficult infestations can eventually disfigure using insecticides. Hand removal of Control: To prevent the damage trees. galls is effective during the Ugreen" caused by this pest, insecticidal stage, but impractical. Chemical con­ sprays should be applied to the Cooley spruce galls can be confused trol of the overwintering stages foliage and twigs in late April or early with Eastern spruce galls, but are dis­ should be emphasized. may. Follow-up sprays may be neces­ tinguishable upon close inspection. sary to achieve complete control. Cooley spruce galls are much longer On spruce, foliar insecticide sprays Because the eggs are so conspicuous than Eastern spruce galls, and the should be applied from late Septem­ on the bark, early season scouting for needles on a Cooley spruce gall are ber through mid-October. Alterna­ eggs can provide a grower with a long, while the needles on an Eastern tively, sprays can be applied in the good estimate of how severe the up­ spruce gall are short and scale-like. spring, between mid-April and early coming season's balsam twig aphid In addition, Cooley spruce galls are May, at the time when buds just population is likely to be. ". most often found on Colorado begin to break and before the new spruce, while Eastern spruce galls growth is longer than 3/4". Insec­ are most common on white spruce. ticides may also be effective, if ap­ plied when the galls dry, open and Cooley spruce gall feeding damage release the adelgids (mid-July to COOLEY SPRUCE GALL on the alternate host, Douglas fir, early August). On Douglas fir, sprays ADELGID does not result in gall formation. should be applied at bud-break Adelges cooley; Instead, yellow-spotted and bent and/or in October. needles develop, and the tree can be Hosts: Colorado spruce, Engelmann speckled with tiny cotton-like balls. sp~uce, Sitka spruce, Norway spruce, Onental spruce and Douglas fir. Life Cycle: The Cooley spruce gall "- adelgid requires two years and two }Horticultural oils should only be applied to hardened-off foliage and

51 not to expanding, succulent foliage. ERIOPHYID MITES Insecticides should only be applied if (varlous spedes) daytime temperatures are weI! above freezing. Fertilizers should not be applied to infested trees, since it stimulates heavier feeding and rapid population growth of the adelgids. Only after the insects are controlled ~ should fertilizers be applied to Host: Scotch pine is the primary promote growth. Christmas tree species affected. EASTERN SPRUCE GALL Description and Injury: Eriophyid ADELGID mites are very small and cannot be Adelges abietis seen with the naked eye. They are carrot-shaped and are usually light­ Cl~~ colored. ~~ ~ Scotch pines injured by eriophyid mites develop rosettes of buds where needles should have developed. Heavy mite infestations lead to stunted, misshapen and unsightly trees. Trees rarely die from this pest. Other symptoms may include chlorotic needles, dwarfed needles and partial defoliation. Life Cycle: Because there are so many eriophyid mite species, and Damage on white spruce (Picea because they are so tiny, the life glauca) caused by the easlern cycles are poorly understood. Hosts: White, Norway, black and spruce gall adelgid. Arrows indicale Apparently, they overwinter in all red spruce, primarily; occasionally, where galls have fanned. stages, from egg to adult. Mites Colorado spruce. migrate to shoot tips in the spring to open, releasing adelgids that lay eggs begin feeding. Several generations Description and Injury: Galls result­ on the needle tips. Overwintering per season can be expected. ing from Eastern spruce gall adelgid adults hatch from these eggs, and feeding resemble small pineapples or settle at the bases of buds. Control: These mites can be con­ pine cones. These swollen parts of trolled any time they are noticed on the stems are usually 112- to I-inch Control: The insects cannot be effec­ the tree. Unfortunately, since they long. Galls form at the base of new tively controlled with chemicals are so small, they are rarely noticed terminal growth, and normal-looking when inside the protective galls. until the damage is evident. Sprays in growth continues beyond the galls. Hand removal of galls is effeclive mid- to late May are usually effective Galls change from green to brown during the I'green" stage, but on a at controlling early populations. A limited scale. during the growing season. Plants follow-up spray two weeks later often show galls from both current Chemical sprays should be directed will clean up any newly-hatched season and seasons past. Galls are at the foliage, and can be applied in mites, since most sprays do not affect unsightly, cause stunting and dis­ the spring, prior to bud break, or in mite eggs. figurement of the tree, and reduce the fall, between late September and tree quality, but seldom kill the tree. mid-October. Daytime temperatures Life Cycle: Immature female adel­ should be well above freezing when I See Cooley spruce gids overwinter at the base of buds. insecticides are applied. The applica­ gall adelgid for specifics on using These females become active as buds tion of fertilizer without controlling horticultural oils. begin to swell in the spring, and each Eastern spruce gall adelgid will lays up to 200 eggs at the base of a stimulate more intense insect feed­ EUROPEAN PINE SHOOT bud. Young nymphs hatch in less ing and enhance insect population MOTH than two weeks and immediately growth. Rhyadonla huoliana begin feeding on the needles of See Cooley spruce gall adelgid infor­ Hosts: Scotch pine is the primary emerging shoots. Multicelled galls mation for appropriate chemical Christmas tree species affected. form, with each cell providing shelter controls. for a growing nymph. Sometime Description and Injury: Full-grown during September, the galls dry and larvae (caterpillars) are SIB" long, and

52 OLD are brown with black heads. Adults Control: Sprays should be directed at are small moths. INFORMATION the foliage of the

53 thereby causing severe damage to fall, when the temperatures get too will feed on the tender bark of young new growth. After three to four cold. trees and seedlings for a short period weeks of feeding, larvae pupate and a before moving to tree stumps or second generation begins for the Control: Healthy trees are rarely weakened trees. The Pales weevil is second half of the growing season. attacked, but trees under stress, such nocturnal, feeding at night and as transplants, may need pesticide returning each day to the protection Control: Trees weakened by drought applications to prevent injury. of litter on the ground. Most feeding or infertility seem to be most suscep­ Applications in late April through damage will occur prior to July 1. tible, so adequate moisture and fer­ early May will control this insect. An tilizer should be maintained. Foliar alternative time to spray would be Mating and reproduction usually sprays in May will kill larvae before from August to September. , occurs around July 1. Females bur­ they enter the stem tissue. Sprays in row their way to the roots of stumps, late July to early August will control dead trees or weakened trees, where the second generation. Good spray they lay eggs beneath the bark of coverage of shoot tips is essential for roots. Larvae feed on the roots for control. the rest of the summer, with pupa­ tion occurring in late summer. Just OLD beneath the bark, pupation occurs in chambers which contain excelsior­ INFORMATION like fibers. The majority of adults emerge in late September and DELETED October, feed for awhile on twig NORTHERN PINE WEEVIL bark or needles, then hibernate. Pissooes nemarensis Removal of stumps and dead wood Hosts: Can attack most pine species. will limit sites for egg laying and lar­ Control: Night-time scouting will vae to develop. Accurate and efficient help determine the exact time of Description and Injury: -The adult is pesticide applications can be made adult emergence in the spring. Also a 114" to 3/8" long beetle with a when adults are known to be present, look for feeding holes on twigs. snout. Weevils are brown with white through monitoring. Adults are noc­ Chemical applications sometime and reddish irregular spots on the turnal, so scouting may need to be between mid-April and mid-May are body. Two prominent white spots done after dark. usually effective, but warm weather occur on the rear of the beetle. The can activate adults even earlier than larvae are white and legless and have PALES WEEVIL brown heads. Larvae can be as long Hglobius pales as 112". Hosts: All pines, especially white IAn alternative time to apply pesticides is late September pine. May also attack other conifers, Damage is caused primarily by the through October. feeding of adult weevils on twigs and to a lesser degree. small branches. Small puncture Since weevils use stumps and roots holes (feeding holes) can be seen in Description and Injury: Adults are of weakened trees for reproduction, weevils that are 1/4" to 3/8' long. removal of these prior to July 1 will stem bark, through which weevils They are usually black or reddish­ gain access to the inner bark on reduce the number of sites available brown and have small, scattered which they feed. These holes or pits for egg laying. are usually readily visible on patches of yellow on their wing branches and indicate areas where covers. the inner bark is likely to be seriously Injury is caused by weevil feeding on damaged. Damaged inner bark leads the bark of stems. Feeding results in Control measures should be targeted to discoloration, browning and flag­ puncture holes, or pits, in the bark. ging of foliage. Affected branches at young trees. It is important to When feeding is heavy, feeding pits treat the roots of seedlings and liners soon die. can run together, effectively girdling entire shoots. Feeding is usually con­ that are being planted, if Pales weevil Life cycle: is a common problem Weevils overwinter as fined to small branches and stems, adults in debris on the soil surface. They emerge late April, early May often only on the lower half of each PINE BARKADELGID and feed on twigs and branches. Egg tree. On larger trees, branches may Pineus strobi laying begins in late May and early "flag" and eventually turn brown and June and can continue through the die; when a younger tree is girdled, growing season. Eggs are deposited however, the entire tree often dies or on stumps, on logs or on dead and is seriously stunted. dying trees, usually beneath the bark. Life Cycle: Pales weevils spend the Larvae excavate elliptical areas in the winter as adults in leaf Jitter beneath wood and make cocoons of excelsior­ trees or as larvae in the roots. Adults like wood fiber. Adults emerge in become active from April to June and mid- to late summer and feed until

54 Host: Found primarily on white pine PINE NEEDLE SCALE PINE ROOT COLlAR WEEVIL but will also attack Scotch pine. Chionaspis pinifo[iae Hylohius radicis Host: Scotch and white pine. Description and Injury: Adult adel­ Hosts: Most common on Scotch and gids are small, dark insects, covered white pine, but also on Douglas fir, true firs and spruces. Description and Injury: Adults are with white, flocculent wax. Eggs are dark reddish-brown to black, and milky to amber-colored, and darken Description and Injury: Pine needle have light-colored, irregular patches as they mature. Nymphs look much scales are oysters hell-shaped, hard on the back. This snouted weevil like a yellowish aphjd when young, scales. Males are white, about 1/12" • resembles the Pales weevil, but it is but as they mature, they darken and long and have four parallel ridges on larger, measuring 3/8" to 112" long. secrete their waxy covering. The their bodies. Females are white to yel­ Larvae are legless, white, brown­ trunks of heavily infested trees may lowish and 1/8" long. Eggs are pink headed and often crescent-shaped. appear to be nearly white from merg­ or reddish-brown. Newly-hatched Larvae feed on the bark and cam­ ing masses of adelgids. Cottony crawlers are reddish ~ brown with masses can also be seen around black eye spots. bium of host trees around the root needle bases. collar and its adjacent roots. Feeding Scales attach themselves to the sur­ is usually below the soil line. Feeding Adelgids feed by sucking sap from the faces of needles. Heavily infested injury causes partial girdling of the tree. Injury shows as yellow needles plants take on a whitened appearance tree, resulting in restricted water and that eventually die and fall off. Small from the numerous insects covering nutrient flow. Trees become stunted trees are often severely stunted and them. Scales suck sap from the need­ and weakened, often tipping over in may die when adelgid populations les, causing them to yellow, tum winds or snow loads. Badly girdled are large. Larger trees will exhibit brown and drop prematurely. Light trees die standing. Evidence of heavy low vitality and poor needle color, infestations rarely produce economic infestation is a swollen tree trunk at and will produce little new growth. damage, but heavy populations will the soil line and dark pitch oozing Life Cycle: Pine bark adelgids over­ cause a loss of vigor, sparse foliage from this area. and twig death. winter in all stages but primarily as Life Cycle: The winter is spent as an immature females. In late winter Life Cycle: Pine needle scales over~ adult in the soil, under litter or in development resumes, and eggs are winter as eggs under female scales. the bark crevices of tree trunks. laid in small, cottony masses at the Eggs hatch in late spring when the Nearly full-grown larvae also over­ bases of needles. These eggs produce tiny crawlers emerge and begin feed­ winter. Eggs are deposited from early both winged and wingless forms. ing on needles. Crawlers can move May through late September in Both immature adelgids, called about until they settle down to feed cavities in the inner bark near the crawlers, and winged adelgids can and secrete their waxy shell covering. soil line or, sometimes, directly into migrate to other trees. Stationary The scales mature in early July, the soil. Peak egg laying occurs wingless forms reproduce par­ mate, and females lay eggs. These during late June and early July. lar­ thenogenically and produce several eggs produce a second generation of vae hatch from eggs in about two generations per year. Some winged crawlers by mid- to late July. weeks and begin feeding downward forms may fly to spruce trees where in the inner bark, at the base of the they lay eggs. Nymphs hatching from Control: Dormant oil sprays in April trunk and into large roots. As larvae eggs that have been laid on spruce will control overwintering eggs. grow, their galleries (i. e., tunnels in trees die. Foliar sprays in late May and, again the bark) are enlarged to accom­ 7 to 10 days later, will control first modate themselves. Galleries may Control: Overwintering females may generation scales. Second generation even be expanded into the surround­ be killed by dormant oils. Oils should scales will be controlled by foliar ing soil. Larvae feed on the bark be applied from mid- to late May. sprays in early August, with repellt during growing season until cold spray as described above. weather in the fall. Larvae then over­ OLD winter under the bark in their gal­ leries and resume feeding the follow­ INFORMATION ing spring. Pupation occurs from early June through September. New DELETED adults feed on branches for the dura­ tion of the summer and fall, then overwinter in litter beneath the tree. ( .3> Adults emerge the following spring c to feed again on branches and to lay eggs. Some adults may even over~ winter a second time, thereby laymg eggs (or two consecutive seasons.

55 Initial sprays should be made ing clusters of needles are an early WHITE PINE APHID from mid-May to mid-June to control sign of sawfly infestation and the feed­ Cinara strobi overwintering adults. A second appli­ ing of young sawfly larvae. These cation in mid-August will control damaged needles die and drop from newly emerging adults. A third spray the tree. Older sawfly larvae eat in early September may help control entire needle clusters, leaving only any adults that are emerging late. stubs or the fascicle sheath. Large Spray efforts should be concentrated lalVae can even damage young bark. around the lower trunk, at the soil Sawfly larvae have an interesting line and out several inches from the habit of rearing back their heads in a trunk on the soil. menacing posture, in unison, when an intruder approaches. This PINE SAWFLIES response can be a good ID feature Diprion and Neodipr;on spp. for most sawflies. Light sawfly feeding is usually not a Hosts: White pine. significant problem, but heavy infes~ tation can kill branches or entire Description and Injury: The white trees. This is especially true if heavy pine aphid is a pear-shaped insect defoliation occurs late in the growing with a soft body. The species has both season. winged and wingless forms. The aphid's shiny, black body has a white stripe down the middle and white spots on the sides. Long, stiff hairs cover the body. Winged adults can be as large as 1/4" long, but nymphs of all sizes smaller than this will be seen as well. Eggs are black and are laid end to end, in rows, on the needles. Life Cycle: This aphid overwinters as Hosts: White pine and Scotch pine. eggs in the Northeast. Eggs hatch in Life Cycle: Most species overwinter the spring into wingless females that Description and injury: Sawny lar­ as prepupae inside cocoons, most give birth parthenogenically to live vae are caterpillar-like, but are not often in the litter or topsoil beneath young. Aphids live in colonies which true caterpillars (i. e., iepidopterans). the tree. Pupation is completed in produce several parthenogenic A sawfly larva can be distinguished early spring, and adults emerge a few generations of both winged and wing~ from a true caterpillar by the number weeks later. Eggs are implanted in less females, during the summer. In of prolegs on the posterior part of its needles in rows. Eggs hatch in three the faIl, both male and female winged body: a caterpillar will have two to to five weeks. LalVae feed in masses, forms are produced; these mate, and five pairs of these fleshy legs, while a defoliating trees from top to bottom. overwintering eggs are subsequently sawfly larva will have seven or more The larvae move to new food sources laid. pairs. The larvae measure 3/4" to r when old ones are exhausted. When in length when mature and vary in fully-grown, larvae drop to the soil Control: Aphids are relatively easy to color from greenish to straw-colored, and form their cocoons. There may control with insecticides. Foliar to gray. Most have prominent stripes be one or two generations per year. sprays L or spots on their bodies. Cocoons are cylindrical, reddish-brown structures Pine sawflies are sometimes divided ) applied in May dr 1/4" to 3/8" long and less than 1/8" into spring-feeding and summer-feed­ June and again in mid-August, wide. They are constructed of tough, ing types. Spring-feeding species should control aphids. Isolated woven silks. commonly attack only last season's populations can be spot sprayed needles, because they are feeding whenever they are seen. Adult sawflies are not moths or but~ prior to the expansion of the current terflies. They are small wasps, 5/16" season's new growth. Summer Horticultural oils, applied in April, long, that look like a cross between feeders prefer current season's will often smother some eggs and houseflies and wasps. The insect gets foliage, but, eventually, eat last year's will help to keep aphid populations its common name from a saw-like needles as well. low. Careful monitoring for this pest structure on the end of the females's is needed, since populations can abdomen, which she uses to cut slits Control: Foliar sprays when the lar­ build up quickly at any time during in needles for egg laying. Eggs are vae are seen (mid-May to mid-June) the growing season. about 11l6~ long, and are laid in rows are effective. on or embedded into needles. Dried, skeletonized or ragged-Iook-

56 SPRUCE SPIDER MITE are multiple overlapping generations It eventually turns brown and dies. Olegonychus ununguis per year. This is usually noticeable about mid­ June. Cut part of the dead shoot and The spruce spider mite, contrary to the larvae, pupae or young adults popular belief, is a "cool weather should be visible beneath the bark mite," and seems to exhibit maxi­ and throughout the wood. Two-year mum feeding and reproduction in growth is always killed, but up to five the spring and fall. During the hot, years of growth can be killed. dry parts of the summer, the mites. become inactive, and populations Lateral branches in a whorl below usually decline dramatically as a the killed leader assume the role of result of predation by natural mite the leader. More than one lateral enemies. shoot may compete to become the leader, with the result being "cab­ Control: Scout plantings regularly bage pines", trees with crooked and to catch mite buildup in the early multi-forked trunks. White pines stages. Thorough foliar sprays in May grown as Christmas trees are targets and September are recommended for for the white pine weevil because it Hosts: Attacks all Christmas tree control. Repeated sprays every ten to prefers small trees, 3' to IS' tall, species but is especially troublesome fourteen days, for all but the systemic which are growing in full sun. on spruces. miticides, may be required to get pop­ ulations under control. Description and Injury: Mites are not insects, but are arachnids, and have eight legs rather than the OLD insect's six. These mites are very 1 small and are difficult to see without INFORMATION magnification. Shaking a branch over a piece of white paper often dis­ DELETED lodges some mites onto the paper Horticultural oils, applied in April, where they are easier to see. They ap­ will reduce early season mite popula­ pear as dark green to reddish-brown, tion explosions. Remember that oils spider-like flecks that move. Larvae will discolor blue-needled (glaucous) are smaller than adults or nymphs conifers. and have only six legs. Eggs are very tiny, round and brown. Heavily in­ WHITE PINE WEEVIL fested branches may be covered with Pissodes strobi strands of webbing, mixed with dead mites and eggs. The spruce spider mite is the most destructive mite of conifers. It injures foliage by sucking chloro­ phyll and sap from needles, causing them to become speckled, yellow and bleached. Injured needles often die Hosts: White pine and Norway and drop. Plant vigor is reduced by spruce are most seriously attacked. W1lite pine weevil damage. spruce mite feeding. Mite attacks Scotch pine, blue spruce, white sometimes follow control programs spruce and Douglas fir are occasion­ Life Cycle: Adults overwinter in for gypsy moth, because repeated ally attacked. litter on the ground and resume applications of carbaryl or methoxy­ activity sometime in April. Eggs are chlor kill mite predators, but not Description and Injury: The adult laid in tiny chewed-out holes in ter­ weevil is a reddish-brown, snouted mites. Mite damage often progresses minals; these hatch in seven to ten from the bottom of a plant, upward. beetle about I/S" to 1/4" long, which days. Larvae feed on the inner bark of Several years of repeated heavy mite has irregular white patches on its the leaders and pupate inside the pith feeding can kill trees. back. The legless larvae are white and of the leaders. Larvae move upward cylindrical. in the leader as they feed . Adults Life Cycle: Eggs laid at the bases of emerge from late June through early needles are the principle means of Adult weevil feeding and egg laying September and may fly to new loca­ overwintering for this pest. Eggs damage are first evident as resin tions. There is only one generation hatch in April and May, and the larval droplets oozing from tiny holes in per year. mi tes feed and pass through several terminal leaders. As the larvae grow nymphal stages before becoming inside the leader, their fe edi ng Control: Any leaders that begin to adults in four to five weeks. There girdles the leader, and the current wilt should be removed and burned season's growth wilts and naps over.

57 before late June to kill the insects SPRUCE 1WIG MIDGE Rererences inside. The strongest lateral shoot Hosts: White spruce and, occasion­ Baker, J. R. 1988. Insect and related from the highest remaining whorl of ally, Colorado spruce. pests ofshrubs. The North Carolina branches should be trained vertically Agricultural Experiment Station. so that it will develop into a decent Description and Injury: The spruce new terminal leader. Leaving a stub twig midge is a tiny fly, native to Baker, W. L. 1972. Eastern forest in­ of old central leader above the high­ Canada, that was seen initially in sects. U.S. Department of Agriculture est whorl of branches provides a good southwestern Connecticut in the - rorest Service, Misc. Publication place to tie a lateral in a vertical early 1970s. Since then, it has been No. 1175. orientation. After a growing season, spreading to most parts of southern the stub can be cut away; the lateral New England. will remain vertical as the new leader. The tiny midge larvae bore into shoots, causing an elongated swelling A guide to common insects and dis­ JThe top of the tree or gall to form along the new shoot. eases of forest trees in the north­ should be sprayed from all sides in Severe infestations cause the current eastern United States. 1979. U.S. April before the candles begin to elon­ year's growth to curl, drop needles Department of Agriculture-Forest gate. It is important to thoroughly and die within the year. Service. coat the central terminal cluster of Johnson, W. T. and H. H. Lyon. 1976. shoots. Life Cycle: Adults emerge from galls over a three-week period from late Insects that feed on trees and shrubs. April to mid-May. They live only a Cornell University Press. few days, laying reddish-orange eggs under bud scales and at the bases of Miller, R. L. and K. Roach. 1979. needles. The eggs hatch, and larvae Insect pests ofChristmas trees. Bul­ bore into the shoots, creating the letin 619 of the Cooperative Exten­ galls that they remain in until the fol­ sion Service, The Ohio State Univer­ lowing April, when the cycle begins sity. again. Control: Foliar sprays in late April through early May, when buds are swelling, are effective.,.

58 X. Disease Control

A 1989 survey of Christ­ appear on last year's needles in late faster drying of foliage. Removal of mas tree growers in fall to mid-winter. These blotches weeds and brush around the base of

w southern New turn reddish-brown and are conspic " the tree facilitates quicker drying of England, conducted uous by February. In spring, as new the foliage. by The University of growth begins, orange-brown fruit­ Connecticut's Depart­ ing structures appear in the blotches. If severe disease develops, it may be ment of Plant The fruiting bodies are obvious as necessary to rogue some trees and Science, indicated they protrude from the leaf surface prune the lower branches of others. that there were several following wet weather. Infected need­ Culls in and around the planting potentially destructive les are cast from the tree in spring should be eliminated, preferably by diseases present in southern New and early summer leaving only the the first of April. England, During conditions con­ current year's needles. The above ducive to disease development. these symptoms are most obvious on the In some plantings, a fungicide may diseases can result in a reduction of lower branches. be necessary to reduce the severity tree quality and, occasionally. death of disease. F" ""t-I./~ pplied at of the tree. Disease Cyc/e- Spores which cause bud-break, one week later and three new infections are discharged from weeks after the first spray, should Fungicides aTe available for use in fruiting bodies on the needles during provide adequate control. An addi­ controlling most diseases of Christ­ wet periods. They can be carried by tional spray application two to three mas trees, particularly foliar diseases. wind to developing new needles on weeks after the third application The use of cultural practices which surrounding trees. If conditions are may be required if there is extreme create less favorable conditions for riftht (cool temperatures around 45- variation in bud-break within the the causal fungus will help reduce 55 F and several days of rain or driz­ planting, and/or there is a long, disease severity. Twenty percent of zle) the spores can initiate infection. cool spring. southern New England Christmas Infection can occur as soon as green tree growers felt that they had to take tissue appears in the buds. Seedlings should be purchased from measures to control harmful Christ­ a reputable nurseryman. Only pur­ mas tree diseases in their plantings. Control-In general, disease is most chase seedlings grown from seed The following is a discussion of some severe on trees in areas where mois­ sources that are known to be less of the diseases found on Christmas ture remains for long periods after susceptible to Rhabdocline needle trees in southern New England. rain or dew. Avoid planting suscep­ cast disease. tible trees on north facing slopes, Swiss Needle Cast NEEDLE DISEASES near the edge of a hardwood forest or in low, damp areas. Planting at wid er Hos/-Douglas fir The most common diseases observed spacing (6' x 6') will help promote on Christmas trees are foliar dis­ Symp/oms-Yellowing or mottling eases, primarily needle cast diseases. of one- or two-year-old needles in Fifteen percent of growers indi cate early spring is characteristic of Swiss that needle cast diseases are a serious needle cast. The infected needles problem. These are caused by fungi gradually turn brown, and two rows which attack the needles, causing of black, fuzzy fruiting bodies various symptoms, including necro­ develop on the underside of needles sis, yel lowing and defoliation. Heavily by early summer. Heavily infected infected trees are weakened and sus­ branches on the lower part of the ceptib le to various secondary organ­ tree will usually only retain the cur­ isms. Also, most infected trees are rent year's needles. Several years of unacceptable for sale as Christmas continuous infection severely trees. weakens trees and may cause mortality of some branches. Rhabdocline Needle Cast Hos/s-Douglas fir. Based on obser­ Disease Cyc/e-Spores are dis- vations in Pennsylvania and Ger­ charged from the fruiting bodies and many, Douglas fir from the south­ spread by splashing rain to emerging western United States seem to be the needles. Trees which remain moist most susceptible. for long periods of time after becom­ ing wet are most likely to be severely Symp/oms- The first visible infected. symptoms are yellow blotches that

59 Control-Follow the cultural recom­ Symptoms- This disease can be OTHER PROBLEMS mendations given for Rhabdocline easily distinguished from Lophoder­ Sweetfem Rust needle cast. Since the disease can be mium needle cast because symptom Although this disease is relatively spread by infected nursery stock, development occurs primarily in the uncommon, losses can occur when inspect plants carefully. Do not shear fall. The most conspicuous symptom the alternate host is in close infected trees during wet weather. is the yellow color of infected need ­ proximity to the pines. les. Close examination will reveal Applications of fu~t! 1C-1./~~ i11 brown bands that run across the Hosts- Most two- and three-needle reduce disease severity. The first ap· needle. Fruiting bodies develop pines are susceptible. Scotch pine is plication should be made when new primarily in the brown bands. Unlike the most commonly infected pine in growth is one-inch long, followed by Lophodermium needle cast, where southern New England. Alternate a second application in three weeks. symptoms are most conspicuous on hosts are sweetfern (Comptonia Regular rainfall during the early the lower part of the trees, symptoms peregrina) and sweetgale (Myrica growing season may necessitate a develop throughout the tree. gale). third application. Disease Cycle-Spore development Symptoms- The sweetfern rust fun­ Lophodermium Needle Cast occurs on infected needles, either on gus attacks the main stem of trees, Hosts- Most species of two- or three­ the tree or the ground. The spores usually near the base. Infected stems needle pines are susceptible. In can be wind disseminated any time are slightly swollen and cankered, southern New England, Scotch of the year when the temperature is usually on one side. Orange-colored pines (particularly Spanish and above freezing and it is wet. Accord­ spore masses which form on the French Green seed sources) are ing to studies conducted at Pennsyl­ stem in the spring make the disease most susceptible. vania State University, infection may easy to recognize. occur from July through December. Symptoms- Reddening of the pre­ However, severe infection usually Control - Where practical, elimina­ vious year's needles in early spring occurs from April to late May. The tion of sweetfern or sweetgale in and followed by browning of the needles same studies also indicate that around the planting will control the and defoliation in June and July. infected needles do not develop disease. It is not known how far the Symptoms are most common on the symptoms until the end of the fungal spores travel, but it is appar­ lower branches. By mid-July, black second growing season or the begin­ ently only a short distance. fruiting bodies become visible on ning of the third growing season. dead needles. Disease Cycle -Spores are wind dis­ Air Pollution Injury seminated from fruiting bodies on 3 Thefun­ Sulfur dioxide and ozone can cause old needles during wet periods in gus has the potential of causing infec­ damage on susceptible species in mid-July to late September. Current tion during most of the year, so foli­ southern New England. The severity year needles are infected, and the fun­ age must be protected from late of damage is dependent upon many gus persists in these needles until the spring to late fall. Sprays should be factors induding age of needles, following season. applied in late March, early May, mid­ genetic susceptibility of the tree, Control- This disease is similar to June, mid-August and early October. exposure time, weather and pollutant Rhabdocline in that the causal fun­ Since seedlings may be infected and concentration. Air pollution can gus requires abundant moisture for not show symptoms, growers should reduce growth, discolor needles and dissemination and infection. There­ be certain to plant stock from nur­ predispose trees to attack from secon­ fore, the best control strategy series which have effective disease dary agents. control programs. includes the measures outlined under Rhabdocline to assure rapid drying of foliage. Fungicides can be used to protect trees during the period from earlv July to the first part of October.

Cyc1aneusma (Naemacyc1us) Needle Cast Hosts- Scotch pine is the primary host in Christmas tree plantations. Hosts-All species of conifers are Symploms- The new growth is Control-Stressed and weakened susceptible. invaded in the early spring causing it trees are most susceptible. Choosing to wilt and eventually turn brown. the correct site and controlling pests Symptoms-Stunting of needles is a By July, the affected shoot usually will help avoid stress. Trees planted common symptom. Affected needles drops off. in recently cleared hardwood stands may have brown, red or yellow tips. are most likely to be infected. These A stippling or flecking of the needles Disease Cycle- The cause of this dis­ sites should be avoided if possible. is also characteristic of some air pol· ease has not been clearly established. lution damage. Exposure of Eastern Circumstantial evidence indicates .. White Pine Root Decline white pine seedlings to ozone for that a fungus, possibly Dipladia sp., Hosts-Eastern white pine is the long periods results in a condition is involved. The injury seems to be most susceptible of the conifers known as chlorotic dwarfing. most prevalent following cool, moist grown for Christmas trees in Affected trees are stunted and have weather in early spring as new southern New England. Scotch very sparse, off-color foliage (usually growth is emerging. pine is also susceptible. only the current year's needles) and the overall appearance of the tree is Control-The disease is seldom Symptoms-Symptom development scraggly. serious enough to warrant chemical is somewhat variable, but the end control. If necessary, an application result is death of the entire tree. In Control- The major source of ozone of an appropriate fungicide with a some cases buds fail to open in the results from sunlight acting on spreader·sticker in early spring as spring, and the tree dies suddenly. In automobile exhaust, initiating a new shoots are emerging, and again other cases the new growth wilts ini­ series of chemical reactions that in 10 to 14 days, should provide con­ tially and is followed by the eventual result in smog comprised mainly of trol. death of the tree. Occasionally the ozone. Injury can occur great distan· tree will turn yellow during the grow· ces from the source of the pollutant. Shoestring Root Rot ing season and die in the fall or the Ideally, control consists of reducing Host- Most conifers following spring. Some discoloration the amount of ozone generated usually occurs in the wood at the Symptoms-Rapid decline and death through automobile exhaust pollu­ base of the tree. Trees that wilt and tion control. Eastern white pine of a tree are characteristic of this die suddenly should be checked care­ showing symptoms of chlorotic disease. Foliage turns yellow then fully to determine if mouse girdling dwarf disease will not recover so brown. Occasionally there is a resin might be responsible. they should be rogued. at the base of the tree. When the bark in this area is removed, a white Control-There are no practical Tip Blight mycelial fan of the causal fungus chemical means of controlling this This is a common, but rarely serious, may be evident. disease in Christmas tree plantings. disease which causes death of new Sites where the disease is a problem Disease Cycle- Shoestring Root Rot shoots. should be planted to more resistant is caused by a fungus that Iives in species such as Douglas fir and white Hosts- Fraser fir, white spruce, the soil. It is common in hardwood spruce. Avoid planting Eastern white white fir, Douglas fir and Colorado forests and colonizes roots and pine on poorly·drained soils. spruce have shown symptoms of this stumps of many trees. It spreads disease in southern New England. through the soil by growth of a spe­ cialized type of fungal structure called a rhizomorph (shoestring). The fungus infects through the roots and eventually girdles the trunk of the tree.

61 XI. Animal Damage and Control

In southern New Eng­ Voles feed mostly on bark of tree Pine voles (Microtus pinetorum), also land, some wild animals stems, bark of roots, plant stems or ~nown as woodland voles, are not might cause enough dam ­ shoots up to about 114 inch in diame­ likely to be as much a problem to age to plantation Christ­ ter and on various other plant mater­ Christmas tree growers as meadow mas trees to warrant ials. When there is a deep snow cover voles because they spend more time damage control treatment. and voles are abundant, all the stems underground and fe ed mainly on Presently, there seems to and branches of small trees and plant parts from below. They seek be no widespread damage shrubs below the snowline can be succulent roots, tubers, sprouts and in the region, but growers completely debarked. This becomes the tender bark of tree roots. Pine should be able to recognize damage evident once the snow cover melts. voles can be distinguished from the and be aware of treatment alterna­ meadow species by their smaller size tives. Wildlife causes damage only if Two species of voles are found in (up to 6 inches), their dull reddish­ it is attracted by suitable habitat con­ southern New England, the more brown color and the bicolored tail ditions or if it is driven to seek secon­ common meadow vole and the which is only slightly longer than the dary foods when its natural foods are smaller pine vole. Both might have hind foot. The red color is the main diminished. In any event, it is usually an impact on plantation Christmas characteristic. the local animals that are involved. trees, but the latter is often a par­ Damage can include debarking, nip­ ticularly damaging animal in fruit Damage to Christmas trees by voles ping of new growth or breaking of orchards. can best be prevented by frequent leaders on the trees.

ANIMALS THAT MIGHT CAUSE DAMAGE

Voles Voles differ from mice in that they have rather short, stocky bodies, short tails, short ears barely protrud­ ing above the body hair and small MEADOW VOLE PINE VOLE eyes. They are brown or gray overall and six to seven inches in length. Meadow voles (Microtus pennsyl­ mowing and clipping of the ground Voles breed throughout the year, but vanicus). often called "meadow vegetation between tree rows and mostly in spring and summer, having mice," occur in various types of around trees. When ground cover is three or more litters per year with habitat having sufficient ground very dense and tall, the clippings three to six young in each litter. Ges­ cover. Because they live both under­ should be removed to eliminate a tation is 24 days_ Females become ground and on the ground surface, mat buildup that would provide voles sexually mature in 25 to 30 days; they are said to be semifossorial. with an ideal habitat in which to live males at around 45 days. Thus the They construct many tunnels, sur­ and breed. While mowing is the biotic potential (the possible number face runways and numerous burrow recommended method of damage of offspring per spring pair) is high. entrances. These animals Jive in all prevention. poisoned baits Since the life span is short (two to 16 sorts of habitats where there is a full , months), populations of voles nor­ ground cover of grasses and other are enecuve In COntrolling ~ole num­ mally do not reach eruptive levels. plants. Their primary foods are the bers within the plantation. They are However, large population fluctua­ tender parts of grasses, sedges and most effective when used in late fall tions are characterist ic, with peaks many succulent plants. When food is before snow cover develops. Treat­ every two to five years. Occasionally scarce, they will feed on the bark of ment of marginal areas is important, extremely high densities are reached trees and shrubs. Meadow voles are to intercept voles moving into the such as in western Massachusetts and generally dark chestnut brown over plantation. One problem with neighboring areas several years ago. the back and head, the sides are paler poisoned baits is that wildlife other Voles are active day and night and do and the belly is tan or gray. The short than voles might be killed. Your local not hibernate. Their home range is tail is darker on top than the gray Cooperative Extension educator 114 acre or less, and many individuals underside. should be consulted in regards to commonly live together in a com­ what poisons are allowed in a par­ munity, in an extensive tunnel system. ticular state and as to proper applica­ tion procedures.

63 White-footed Mouse Insects, seeds, nuts and grains are The white-footed mouse (Peromys­ the principal foods of white-footed cus sp.) is another small mammal mice which cache foods for winter which might be found in Christmas use. During spring they sometimes tree plantations. It is probably the become a nuisance by digging up most common mammal in North planted seeds that they detect with America. As the common name their keen sense of smell. Because of implies, it has white feet with the their food habits, it is unlikely that white extending along the underside white-footed mice will become a of the tail, over the belly and on the problem in Christmas tree planta­ lower face. The tail is much longer tions. Should population control be than that of voles, measuring nearly desired, baits carrying toxicants as long as the body. The eyes are . . are sold m large and black, the ears are large farm and hardware stores and are and protruding and the coarse whis­ generally useful. In closed areas, kers are long. The back and sides of various commercial repellents or nap­ adults are grayish to reddish-brown. thalene moth balls or flakes remain tation and thereby strip enough bark effective for several months. to injure the trees. During winter, White-footed mice are prolific particularly in the later months, deer breeders, like voles, and inhabit a Deer sometimes enter tree farms to wide variety of vegetation, from over­ Deer occasionally damage Christmas browse on the dormant buds if their grown fields to fully wooded areas. trees by nibbling the soft, succulent preferred natural foods are in short They readily climb trees and shrubs. new growth during summer, but this supply. In a 1985 survey of Christmas The nests are in underground cavi­ is rare, because of the abundance of tree growers in Ohio, nearly 45% ties, under boards or logs, in hollow natural foods. Towards the end of reported damage from deer, mainly trees, logs, fence posts and bird summer, as the fall rut approaches, in fall and winter. White pine and firs houses. They are nocturnal and males begin to rub their new antlers were the most damaged species. remain active all year. Many can be on small sapling hardwoods or con­ found in abandoned buildings, as ifers to rid themselves of the dried Deer are protected game species in well as in basements and attics of velvet skin layer on the antlers and to all states, so damage control methods occupied houses. mark their territory. Where deer are must be legally applied. When dam­ plentiful, a buck might choose to rub age to plantation trees by deer is on the sterns of a few trees in a plan- excessive, most states will allow the

Voles can extensively debark Christmas trees when deep snow is present.

,d

64 landowner to shoot the encroaching individual deer at any time during the year, providing a permit is obtained from the state wildlife agency. Short of killing deer, exclusion of the animals from plantations is the best form of control. Fencing has proven to be the most effective means where deer are abundant, but this alterna­ tive might be too costly in most situa­ tions in southern New England. Deer can be excluded from planta­ tions by use of an eight-foot high, mesh fence, but such a barrier is very expensive to construct. Electric fences are more reasonably priced, but maintenance costs tend to be high and, to be effective, they must be continuously electrified during the periods when deer are apt to ven­ ture into tree plantings. An effective five -wire electric fence has been developed at Pennsylvania State University and a seven-wire type has OLD been used with much success at Carey Arboretum in New York State. INFORMATION Either of these designs would be use­ ful to protect Christmas trees. DELETED Deer can be discouraged from enter­ ing tree plantations by treating trees with a commercial repellent. Spray­ ing with a repellent may be restricted to the rew trees where deer habitually enter the plot and then treating other trees randomly, but with spe­ cial attention to the outer rows. Indi­ vidual trees should be fully covered with the spray. If a planting is sur­ rounded by woods and is less than 25 acres, every tree should be treated, as well as the low vegetation in planta­ tion borders, to make the inner treat­ ment more effective. Repellents are virtually ineffective when put on bare soil, as the ingredients readily deac­ tivate. See Table 16 for some selected chemicals and suppliers. L

Woodchucks are not known to feed commercially available cartridge that on tree seedlings. Within a tree plant­ produces carbon monoxide gas when ing, they might become a rare burned. After lighting the cartridge nuisance, by creating a physical and placing it in the burrow, all hazard with the digging of a burrow. entrances to the underground system These animals can best be controlled should be blocked to allow the by fumigating their burrows with a fumigant to spread but remain con-

65 tained. Specific directions for use of Birds the cartridges should be followed Birds might become an occasional closely. The devices can be purchased minor problem when they perch on at local farm supply outlets. There fragile tender leaders of plantation are no poisons registered for wood­ trees during the first few weeks of the chuck control, so the only other ways growing season. There is little that of disposing of nuisance individuals can be done to prevent this or is by trapping or shooting. See state damage to terminal buds in other wildlife laws to review which seasons, because virtually all birds methods are legal in your state. are protected by federal and/or state laws. If damage from birds becomes severe, the federal animal damage NOTE OF CAUTION control agent (listed under Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Before using any repellent or toxi­ cant products to reduce or prevent U.S. Department of Agriculture) for your area should be consulted. animal damage, BE SURE TO READ THE LABELS ON THE CONTAIN· ERS. Special precautions must be taken for certain preparations. Some commercial chemicals might damage some species of Christmas trees, so a Rabbits test application should be made on Rabbits are not apt to damage one or two trees. Christmas trees, because they feed primarily on succulent plants during the growing season and on slender \ twigs of woody plants at other times. ~ ew growth is particularly sensi­ When winter food is scarce, they tive to some products, and applica­ might chew bark from small trees tion should be made only before bud including some species of conifers. burst. Be safe. Use precautions and Rabbit damage can be easily recog· 2 Wire Sleeves follow directions for treating trees. nized by the angular cuts made on /' Batten Post twigs by their chisel·like front teeth, + in contrast to damage done by deer, which tear twigs apart, leaving 24" shredded, broken ends. 20'

To keep rabbits from feeding in plan· 18" tations, repellents used for deer work + well. eSDecially . . It rabbit damage IS 18" severe ana persistent, some sort of wire fence might be feasible. An 12" electrically charged wire, placed low + 6''p.\''''''!!r.!!... !!t4 leveL". _,,~~I ' 1If/ enough to the ground to prevent rab­ . 8" \"'" Trip Wire bjts from sliding under it, is an effec­ tive control. A hardware wire or 8" 1 Ground Level\, . . : ~ small mesh poultry wire fence along .•""'!''''''''" , , the periphery where rabbits habitu· , . , ! ally enter the plantation, or around The Pennsylvania State University electric Fence is the entire plot, might be the most used to protect vegetation from deer. effective way to protect valuable trees from these animals. The least costly way of reducing damage might be elimination of rabbits by shooting or Crop Side trapping. Because rabbits are pro­ The seven-wire electric Fence was tected game species in all of southern developed at Carey Arboretum in New York. New England, the state wildlife agen· Deer Side cy should be contacted for specific advice on elimination...... 66 XII. Shearing and Shaping

Unsheared Christmas trees were the rule 25 Table 17. Number oftrees sheared per hour by Southern New England and more years ago, Christmas Ire! growers. then growers began to Number of treea aheared per hour adopt shearing prac­ tices used by nur­ Tree Height Least Mean Maximum serymen. The result was often dense, heavy Less than 3 ft. 12 133 600 trees that took too long 3t05ft. 3 81 500 to reach salable size. Greater than 5 ft. 2 56 400 The current prevailing practice is to shear just enough to produce a tree of medium density in as few well-shaped tree will look essentially some pitch cutting solvent, such as years as possible. the same from all sides. kerosene, or a good household cleaner, such as Fantastic, should be In 1957, the U.S. Department of Equipment available. The latter is easier on the Agriculture established standard Hand pruning shears are the tool of hands than kerosene and comes in an grades for Christmas trees. These choice to cut a branch or twig at its atomizing dispenser. standards, while voluntary, are used base, a procedure most often used in more and more commonly in whole­ eliminating double leaders or butt Chaps or leg guards and protective sale transactions and outline the pruning. A leather seaboard attached gloves are good ideas when using characteristics the shearer should to a waist belt is convenient for carry­ knives. Some sort of measuring stick strive to obtain. In general, a well­ ing hand pruners. Long-handled for determining lengths of leaders is shaped tree will have the following shears extended several feet are avail­ helpful. The blade length of the shear­ characteristics: able to cut leaders or touch-up the ing knife may be an adequate measur­ tops of tall trees. ing device. Twist ties, plastic tape, a Stem-It will have a single, straight hand-held stapling taper and bamboo stem. Shearing is done with either hedge sticks are items that can be used to Bul/- The butt, or handle, should be clippers, shearing knives or power tie errant leaders. shears. Thirty-seven percent of trimmed to the first complete whorl growers use hedge clippers, 22% use Shaping of live branches. The trimmed handle knives, 34% use both clippers and should be six to ten inches in length. Because of their different growth (Note, some customers prefer to trim knives, and 7% use pruning shears to habits, shearing discussions usually shape their trees. Shearing with a the handle and have use of the break the tree species into two main knife is faster than with hedge clip­ groupings: (1) pines and (2) spruces branches for decorating.) pers, and the power shearer is much and firs. Most growers (84%) shear Taper- The percent of taper is deter­ faster than the knife. Disadvantages their trees once a year, but some mined by dividing the tree's branch of the knife are that it is very sharp (11 %) shear twice a year and 6% width at the base by the height and and dangerous if mishandled; disad­ shear only every other year or even multiplying by 100. Normal taper is vantages of the power shearer have less frequently. between 40% and 90%; 66% is often largely to do with the capital invest­ What follows are some general guide­ considered the ideal (a tree with such ment. The cost of power shearers lines to be used in shaping Christmas a taper, if six feet tall, would be four may be too great for owners of small trees. Please remember that these are feet across). Pines will generally have plantations. Shearing trees nearing only guidelines. Shaping, while not a wider taper (60-90%) than spruces market size with a knife takes an difficult, is a job which is really only and firs (40-70%). average time, per tree, of about one minute. Some figures on number of mastered through observation and Density-A "U.S. Premium" or "U.S. trees sheared per hour are given in experience, and no two shearers do No. 1~ grade tree will have at least Table 17. everything the same way. The state medium density, which means that Christmas tree growers associations "whorls or branches are relatively No one of these tools does an hold regular field meetings where close together, the branchlets or side inherently better or worse job. proper shearing is often demon­ branches are fairly numerous, and Quality is dependent largely on strated. The Cooperative Extension the needle population is adequate to the operator, not the tool in his or Systems and the Agricultural Experi­ COver the branches. The stem may be her hand. ment Stations offer similar Visible, but not distinctly visible programs, from time to time. Sharp, clean tools are essential for throughout most of its length." The good shearing, so a honing stone and

67 ~ power shearer is especially useful on large trees (sir to eight feet) and trees with lots ofannual growth, such as white pine and Douglas fir. PINES which means during the months of the top whorl laterals are, the longer Each growing season, the leader June and early July for southern the leader can be. If the leader is cut or tip of a pine tree forms a single New England. back, the top whorl laterals sho~ld cluster of buds consisting of a ter­ also be cut back to about two-thirds minal bud, from which will grow In scheduling pine shearing, the rule the length of the leader. next year's leader, and several lateral to follow is young trees before old; buds, from which will grow the white pine before Scotch. Young Do no other shaping unless a lower lateral branches. This group of lateral trees are sheared before old because limb is growing through the limbs branches, emanating from a single trees which are sheared very early above it or protrudes well outside the point on the stem, is called a whorl. can sometimes produce secondary general form of the tree. Meticulous The point from which they emanate growth (Iammas growth), a feature shaping to produce a perfect cone is called a node, and the stem area which may be a bonus on young trees shape at this state is fine if you are between two nodes is called an inter­ but disfigure the conical shape of growing table trees, but a waste of node. Under normal conditions, no trees approaching market size. This time otherwise. limbs will form along the internodes. late season growth may be off-color, as well. The following are some Trees Three Feet /0 Five Feet Tall­ There are, however, dormant buds, general guidelines (or shearing pines, Annual shearing is now required to called faside buds, which exist at the assuming you are aiming (or six- to develop symmetrical trees with a base of healthy needle clusters grow­ eight-foot trees. taper in the normal range. Prune ing along the new and one-year-old double leaders and, if necessary, cut stems. Removal of the terminal bud Year ofPlanting - Do no shaping. back the leader (using 12" to 16" as cluster can stimulate these buds to Remove double stems, if that was not the rule of thumb) and top whorl develop into shoot buds that sprout done before planting. branches as above. If more than one the following season. Timing, how­ Trees Less Than Three Feet Tall­ top whorl branch is cut, it is often ever, is critical. Pines must he Prune double leaders. As a general advisable to debud the rest of them, or uneven growth may result. A sheared during the growing season rule, leaders should be kept no or healthy fasicle buds will not longer than 16", but remember that pruned shoot will produce more buds and, hence, more branches the next develop. The best time to shear is as more mistakes are made from over­ year than an unpruned shoot. Shear soon as the terminal bud is evident shearing at this stage than vice versa. lower branches as necessary to main­ and shoot extension has stopped, The stronger and more numerous tain the conical shape. 68 Trees Five Feet to Market Year­ before market should be to fill any enables detection of white pine Most pines hold their needles for large holes and create an even weevil damage before the entire only two full growing seasons. Pine appearance, so that heavy shearing is leader is affected. Removal of the shearing, therefore, necessarily cul­ not required during the year of sale. infected leader at this time will, in minates in the development of an On trees that are thin, it may be many cases, save a year's growth outer layer of green foliage, with advisable to remove the terminal which would otherwise be lost. needle less branches in the interior. bud even if the leader length is not Shearing up to this point has con­ too long so that branch density will There is a growth regulator, benzyl centrated simply on maintaining the be increased. adenine, (Pro-Shear, Abbot Labs) normal cone shape. Now, however, which can be used to increase bud set thought must be given to filling any A common problem with pines, and branching on white pine. A holes and creating a full and even which may occur at any age, is leader single yearly application has been foliage effect. die-back due to infestation by insects shown to be effective, but whether it such as white pine weevil or the is practical for most growers to use is If the tree is well formed and tapered, European pine shoot moth. When not clear. this may mean doing nothing other the leader dies back, a strong lateral than what was done in previous branch from the top branch whorl SPRUCES AND FIRS years. If not, it may mean shearing should be trained to become the new Like the pines, spruces and firs pro­ somewhat more heavily, so that leader. Select a strong lateral (prefer­ duce a terminal bud and a cluster of larger numbers of branches are ably one with another strong limb lateral buds which will make next debudded and, thus, form new bud beneath it to fill the gap) and tie it to year's main whorl of branches. How­ clusters and subsequent tufts of full a straight stick which extends below ever, the spruces and firs set addi­ foliage. Granted, one can overdo this the top whorl and is tied to the main tional side buds along the length of and end up with a tree so dense that stem. String, rubber bands, twist ties the Ieader. These buds produce small the buyer can do little more than or even long grass stems have been branches which add to the overall wrap a garland around it. But the used successfully for this purpose. density of the tree. object during the last year or two Early shearing (mid-June) often

\. ... h ~.-'~ Knife at high point ofcutting stroke. Ann and knife A stake and taping machine is used to tie a side . are always brought down to the outside ofthe body, branch into the terminal position. never across the front. Note leg guards. If shearing with a !mife with other people, work on altemale rows to ensure safe working distance.

69 When multiple leaders exist, it may be necessary to When a plant loses its central leader due to disease, remove competing shoots so one shoot can lake insect attack or mechanical injury, it will be neces­ over as a central leader. sary to hold a new branch in a vertical orientation for a period of time so it can develop into a new central leader. Here (arrow) plastic tape is used to position a new leader by attaching it to another lateral branch. Spruces and firs can be pruned any Some points to remember with Douglas fir from southern sources time of year except during extremely spruces and firs: may keep growing into the fall, espe­ cold weather and during growth cially when on good soil with ade­ extension. However, best bud set If the tree has a single, straight stem Quate moisture. Some growers prune appears to be obtained when spruces of proper length and the branches such trees twice, once in July and and firs are sheared once growth is are within the normal taper, walk again in September. Others prune completed and is just beginning to right by. On average, those growers heavily just once in late summer. harden. Most experienced growers try surveyed sheared 9096 of their pines to shear their spruces and firs right each year, but only 78% of their Basal Pruning after they finish their pines, from late spruces and/or firs. There are growers who advocate June to early August. Among the Keep leader lengths between 10' and basal pruning on relatively young species grown in southern New trees (three to four feet) to develop a England, Fraser fir is the last species 16', depending on tree development and taper as discussed in the section good handle early and a strong bot­ to extend and harden new growth; tom whorl. This is a reasonable prac­ on pines. If the leader is cut, cut top thus, it should be the last species tice on vigorously growing trees pruned. whorl laterals back to about two­ where a reduction of total growth is thirds of the length of the leader. desired. In southern New England Unlike pines, spruces and firs tend Shear any lower limbs as necessary basal pruning on young trees has naturally to grow in a cone shape, so to maintain normal taper. been noted to stunt total tree growth. shearing can usually be done less Many wholesale growers do not basal often or, at least, less heavily. If the Some species, notably Fraser fir, have a tendency to grow tall and thin with prune until they harvest the tree. trees are perfectly shaped in the size a candlestick (less than 40%) taper. Some of the choose-and-cut range of three to five feet, then, most Height growth may have to be con­ operators basal prune in late fall the likely, they are being oversheared. trolled to allow time for lower limbs year before or the year of harvest, to fill out. and the branches are used for

70 wreaths, garlands and bunches of Conclusion greens. Basal pruning on Douglas firs Approach an unpruned tree with an when three to five feet tall, may be idea of what it should look like after justified, to increase air circulation it is pruned: height, taper, symmetry around the base of the trees and, and density. Cut the leader and shear thus, reduce infection by rhabdocline the tree. After you have pruned one needle cast disease. or several trees, step back and ask if they look right for that species and Tying Leaders size tree. Adjust your technique Most growers do some tying of accordingly. If working with other leaders, especially on trees that afe growers, exchange ideas and advice within three years of market. Any with each other to improve the Qual­ species may have a damaged or miss­ ity and speed of the shearing process. ing leader. Errant tops are common Remember, at a minute per tree, you on blue spruce and Douglas fir. Ter­ can prune 480 trees in eight hours. minal buds on blue spruce grown in At 30 seconds per tree, you double areas with poor air drainage often fail the rate to 960 trees. With a lot of to grow in the spring and a lateral trees to prune, seconds wasted or branch (rom a tip whorl fails to attain saved per tree can add days to or sub­ dominance rapidly and without a tract days from the length of the job. serious crook. Such trees are more • marketable and, thus, more valuable, if a promising lateral branch of the top whorl is tied or splinted to a verti­ cal position. A wooden stick, twist ties or plastic tape are useful (or doing this.

71 XIII. Marketing

arketing is the key to a suc­ cessful Christmas tree enterprise. Regardless of how well trees are s; produced, a profitable marketing outlet is the financial bottom line. Before a tree is planted, a plan to market the product must be determined. The grower has several options in marketing the crop. The choices are wholesaling, retailing on the farm. with either tag or choose-and-cut, retailing at a lot on or off the farm, or balling and burlapping. In The entire harvest and retail period is Wholesaling southern New England, 79% of crammed into a few short weeks or growers retail their trees, 5% There are several advantages to weekends between Thanksgiving and wholesale their trees, and 15% com­ wholesaling Christmas trees. First, bine wholesaling and retailing. Christmas. Reliable seasonal labor is large quantities of trees are marketed needed in sufficient quantity. Plan at one time, saving time and expense. There is no substitute for high to have that labor when it is needed. The average southern New England quality Christmas trees. All statistics Experience indicates that one person Christmas tree wholesaler sells show there is and will be a surplus of can harvest between 50 to 75 trees around 650 trees per year. Second, trees on the market for the foresee­ per eight-hour day. wholesale selling may go on all year. able future. Only the very best trees Some established growers contract are going to sell and demand a high Consider these marketing vehicles: with buyers a year or more before price. Poor quality trees will be left 1. Wholesaling; harvesting. Third, the risks and costs on your plantation or on roadside 2. Choose and Cut; of transportation and retail market­ lots after December 25. Focus on 3. Choose, Tag and Cut; ing are passed onto someone else. quality, quality, quality. 4. The Retail Lot; The primary disadvantage is the 5. Balling and Burlapping; lower price received per tree. Grow into the business. If the plan is 6. Associated Products. to have a 10-acre farm, don't plant To wholesale, the grower must know the entire 10 acres in one year. Plan well in advance how many trees of and plant it over a IO-year period. what size and species are needed to This offers an opportunity to improve sell in any given year so as not to management. The tree growing under- or oversell. Becoming estab­ management and reputation will be lished in the wholesale market will important in developing customer take some advertising at first, but relations. there are good outlets available. Once a grower begins to sell trees, he The Connecticut, Massachusetts and or she must continue to have an GREENS Rhode Island Christmas tree growers abundance of trees for customers. If TABtE TR[[S associations have established market­ an operation must close for a year or ing committees. Their responsibility two after opening, customers will is to connect the grower with the find another source of trees and may W.ele.nds potential buyer for wholesaling. The not return. An even-aged stand may W•• kday aftomoons associations are not responsible for take two to five years to completely Dec 5, the contract between grower and harvest, depending on species buyer, but simply supply information management, etc. All trees do not to both parties. The National grow uniformly. One stand, eight Christmas Tree Association publishes years old, may take as long as 13 an annual marketing issue of the years to completely harvest. American Christmas Tree Journal in May. Remember that most reliable wholesale buyers ship very early.

73 A large area for piling and loading is not sold, it is still growing and need needed when wholesaling large num­ not be thrown away, as do cut trees bers of trees. One thousand trees on retail lots. (about an acre's worth), stacked head For choose and cut, the selling high, can take up to one quarter acre usually begins around Thanksgiving, of space. The piling area should be although the trend is toward even protected against theft, and a water Doug lo.s Fir Balsam Fir earlier dates. Both tagging and source is desirable (or keeping the choose and cut allow the customer to cut trees moist. Ft'tlser Fir browse over the tree plantation, seek­ Retailing White pine ing the tree of their choice. After the 0r>E! "best tree" is harvested, the neit best To retail Christmas trees, select tag­ sCatt:h tree becomes the best tree on the ging, choose and cut, or the retail I farm. The customer never sees the lot. The average southern New trees that were cut and taken off the England Christmas tree retailer plantation, so comparisons cannot be sells around 450 trees per year. made, as with the tagging method. In TAGGING- To tag or not to tag has tagging operations, many potential been discussed since Christmas tree customers compare the trees they farms have been in existence. In have to select from to trees that are southern New England, 38% of Infonnalive signs make the already reserved with a tag, and they growers allow customers to tag trees, customer's experience a beiler one. may feel that they are having to settle then return later to cut the trees. for second best. Once the customer Beginners should contact growers The customer will usually pay 25 to has chosen a tree, he or she either who have used tagging and choose 50 percent of the purchase price, as a cuts the tree, usually with a bowsaw and cut methods. Ask for advantages down payment. provided by the grower, or has the tree cut by a sales attendant. and disadvantages of both operations CHOOSE AND CUT- Because of the and make a decision. disadvantages discussed previously, Whatever retailing method is chosen, Unless a tagging operation is fool­ many growers have elected to elimin­ certain conditions are required for proof, some tag switching and other ate tagging. In southern New Eng­ success. Adequate parking is a must problems can be expected. Some land, 87% percent of growers have with a parking space for every 10-12 people may elect not to return to that settled on choose and cut marketing. trees sold on the busiest day. Unless tagged tree. With tagged trees a There are good reasons for the popu­ trees are being retailed at a shopping grower must deal with the customer larity of choose and cut selling. The center or the tree farm is on a busy twice- once for tagging and once for grower is selling not only a tree, but highway, advertising in the local harvesting. Tagging usually starts in an outing to the country. For many newspapers will be necessary. Liabil­ the fall, sometimes as early as Labor families, this annual excursion to ity insurance for the sales period will Day, making the marketing season the local tree farm is as much a part be required, and an adequate, but not long. The biggest disadvantage is the of the holiday season as Christmas excessive, labor force will be neces­ "tagged-out-syndrome". After the dinner, and, if a good experience is sary, to keep customers happy and first two to three weeks, a farm can provided, repeat customers will be costs low. Forty-one percent of retail look like it is sold out. The customer plentiful. Furthermore, if a tree is growers find they have to hire extra sees a sea of tags waving in the breeze and is convinced that all the high quality trees are tagged and there are none left for him or her. In reality, many high-quality trees may be left. Tags may be supplied to the cus­ tomer, or an employee may actually put the tag on the tree. Field and row numbers must be printed on the tag, in addition to serial numbers. The biggest advantage gained by allowing tagging is that the fall weather it is usually beautiful and can often contribute toward higher ~ales. Another bonus is that deposits, If taken, boost early season cash flow. J.t'hen laying out a Christmas tree operation, be sure to allocale sufficient space for off-road parking. 74 temporary help during the marketing there is easy money to be made seIl­ and harvesting period. ing Christmas trees in these lots. Competition to sell trees at retail lots Timing in retailing is crucial, per­ is very real, and many retail lots go haps even more so than in whole­ out of business each year, only to be saling. Depending on which day of replaced by other individuals ready the week Christmas falls, as much as to try their hand at this type of 50% of the year's business can occur Christmas tree marketing. on a single weekend. A single day of bad weather or a day when a grower Theft of trees, high labor costs and is not ready to sell trees can translate customer price haggling are com­ to a serious dent in profits. Well-kept mon difficulties encountered in annual records of weather, sales and operating a retail lot. Maintaining trends can prove increasingly valu­ fresh, high-quality trees in retail lots able with time. is also a difficult task. The biggest dis­ advantage is competitor panic price To sell by the choose and cut cutting. If trees aren't sold by the method, it is necessary to plan plant­ middle of December, inexperienced ings so that a continuous supply of lot owners panic and put signs up marketable trees are available within cutting tree prices in half or worse. dragging distance of the parking Price cutting rarely makes an opera­ area. Tractor or horsedrawn rides to tion more profitable. more remote fields can be provided, but this adds to operating expenses Retail lots can be used to one's and slows the operation. Most advantage, if there are extra trees on growers plant in even-aged, single the farm that can't be marketed at species blocks which are harvested the farm. When looking for a lot, over a two- or five-year period and remember that a good location is the then replanted. The alternative is to key to success. Be sure to plan for manage all-aged fields, which means ample parking, customer traffic flow, that a tree is replanted the following Measurement sticks provided to cus­ a proper method of tree display, how year in each space where one is har­ lomers will help Ihem delermine ifa and where extra trees will be stored, vested. This method increases the Iree will fil benealh Iheir ceiling. and dependable security. Permits, a chances that smaller trees will be They are also useful for operations vendors license, a sales tax license damaged by customers trampling where Irees are priced by Ihe fool. and insurance will probably be them, but some growers prefer it, needed to sell trees at a retaillo!. nonetheless. Keep in mind that, during the week, stands emerge on vacant lots, in gar­ most sales are made in the evening, THE RETAIL LOT-We are all den centers, next to convenience so lights will be needed. Consider familiar with the retail lots in towns stores and at gas stations. Many where and how wreaths, roping, bas­ and cities. Overnight Christmas tree people have the misconception that kets and other associated materials should be displayed. Lots should not be overstocked; an unsold cut tree is a lost tree. Resupply the retail lot with freshly cut trees as they are needed. This minimizes the risk of great losses from unsold trees and the customer gets a fresher, higher quality tree. Above all, a retail sales business must have a neat, attractive and safe sales area. The grower who displays some cut trees standing up and hangs 15 or 20 wreaths on an attractive wreath tree will always fare better than the grower who tosses some trees on the ground and nails two or three wreaths to the barn wall.

Having a well-organized, adequately staffed sales area facilitates the final sale of Irees and hardgoods and keeps bolh Ihe cuslomer and sales personnel happy. 75 Finally, when the season is over, take stock of which trees did and did not sell and try to determine why. What species moved faster than others and what price ranges were people inter­ ested in? Were there problems with quality or were the trees simply dis­ played unattractively? Again, careful record keeping over time will indi­ cate which changes in practices are needed to continually improve sales and profits. Live Balled and Buriapped Christmas Trees Over the past few years there has been a renewed interest in live balled and burlapped (B & B) evergreens as Christmas trees. Live trees are sold by 22% of southern New England Christmas tree growers. Live trees range from 2' potted trees to 8' B & B trees. Customers usually buy live trees to plant in their yard after Christmas. Common reasons stated for purchasing a live tree are: 1. A desire to plant a tree in their yard for landscaping purposes;

2. The economic value of spending Live trees, either balled and burlapped or in the extra money for a live tree which containers, are in demand for those cus­ can be planted, rather than buying a tomers wanting to enjoy their tree for the cut tree and throwing it away after holidays and also in their yard. Christmas; [n the past few years, there has been 1. Live tree customers, especially 3. The feeling (by some) that the a marked increase in demand for first-timers, may leave their tree in­ idea of cutting down a living tree is large B & B trees in the 6' to 8' size, side for two to three weeks, although unjust and unnecessary; particularly blue spruce, Norway accepted recommendations are for 4. The planting of a live tree can spruce, and Fraser fir. This presents five to seven days in the house. As a serve as a first Christmas together several serious problems for both the result, many trees will break dor­ celebration, a memorial to new­ customer and seller, including the mancy, become deacclimated and die borns and as an investment in the added work of delivery; the task of from subsequent exposure to severe increased value of their property; moving a 300-lb. rootball into the winter conditions. house; finding a tub large enough to 5. Those who do not have a place to hold the tree; removal of the tree 2. Some customers will find the plant a live tree can give it to rela­ after Christmas; the digging of a extra effort of hauling the tree inside, tives or donate it to a park or other large hole; and the planting, staking watering the rootball, leaving the organization. and shielding of the tree to prevent tree up only five to seven days, haul­ winter damage. In addition to these ing the tree outside, digging and Customers prefer blue spruce, white concerns, the average price of a large planting too much trouble and con­ spruce, Fraser fir, white pine, Norvvay tree can range well above $100. vert back to a cut tree. spruce, Douglas fir and concolor fir Nevertheless, many customers want a 3. The lower cost of a nice 7' cut as live Christmas trees. The majority large live tree (many have cathedral of sales are with 5' B & B trees be­ tree is easier to justify than the ceilings) and are willing to deal with much higher cost of a comparable cause the rootball is a manageable the added problems. size and weight, and because, when B & B tree, which has no guarantee of survival. placed in a tub, the tree is actually Without proper planting instructions close to 6' tall. and education concerning live trees, Christmas tree farms may experience a decline in the number of repeat live tree customers for several reasons.

76 The following policies will help ensure satisfied and repeat customers B & B lANDSCAPE TREES-Recent­ of a B & B operation. The main goal ly, Christmas tree growers have is for customers to have a successful found an expanded market for their addition to their landscape and trees as B & B landscape trees sold in become repeat customers during the both the spring and fall. The poten­ next Christmas season. tial for sales of quality evergreen trees, particularly blue spruce, white 1. Ask potentiailive tree customers pine, Fraser fir, Austrian pine and how long they plan to keep their tree white spruce, is expanding each year. up. If they insist on two to three The demand for good size B & B weeks, politely recommend they look trees (5' to 8') is great. Owners of at cut trees. If they can adjust to Christmas tree farms with good dig­ having a tree up no more than a ging conditions can easily expand week, then show them live B & B their selling season by digging trees tree selections. themselves, hiring diggers or renting a tree spade to mechanically dig the 2. Make customers aware of the trees. extra weight the rootball adds to a tree. RENTING B & B TREES-Although The financial return on live B & B the renting of B & B trees for use as trees sold as landscape plants is often 3. Explain that a live tree must be Christmas trees is a new concept and more than the return on trees sold as brought into and out of the house not done on a wide scale, growers Christmas trees. The sale of needle gradually to avoid temperature who have tried rentals have found evergreens as nursery plants provides shocks. business to be brisk. Trees used for cash flow in the early spring and fall rentals can be either container­ when cash flow is typically low. 4. Explain that a planting hole must grown or dug with a ball from the be predug before the ground is field. Containerized trees or B & B The several disadvantages of a live frozen. trees are stored in unheated over­ tree operation include the difficulty wintering hoop houses covered with of digging trees in rocky soil, the S. Explain that planted trees should white polyethylene plastic. Trees added expense of labor and machin­ be mulched, staked and protected stored in overwintering houses can ery and the need to provide a means (rom winds with burlap. then be easily delivered to the cus­ for watering, digging and delivering a perishable commodity. 6. Every customer should receive a tomer on a specified date before Christmas. Rented trees are picked set of written instructions and should One must also deal with the fact that, up after Christmas and returned to be encouraged to call the Christmas once a B & B tree is removed, the the tree farm where they are placed tree farm jf Questions arise. grower is left with a hole in the field back in the protective overwintering where a planting spot used to exist. There is a significant market for live structures. Rented trees can be On small farms in particular, the B & B trees, but live trees as Christ­ grown for another season and can long-term value of the topsoil mas trees are not for everyone. Edu­ then be sold as a live tree, a cut tree cating the customer on potential removed with a rootball may exceed or rented again. By renting trees, the the value of the tree itself. advantages and disadvantages and grower can receive profit from the fully explaining the appropriate plant­ tree more than once. Christmas Shops ing procedures is important. With the right customer and the correct Tree renting is popular with urban Many choose and cut retail Christ­ care, a living Christmas tree can pro­ and apartment dwellers who want a mas tree farms have found that a Christmas Shop as part of their opera­ vide years of enjoyment in the home­ live tree but cannot contend with the owner's landscape as well as provid­ "hassles" of obtaining and discarding tion adds significantly to the family ing pleasure as a Christmas tree. a tree. A rented tree is exactly what is Christmas experience and increases needed by this group. sales. From a simple display of orna­ ments on a shed wall to an elaborate Rental fees are generally comparable two-story shop, many Christmas tree to the cost of less expensive cut trees. growers have entered the retail shop Although Christmas tree renting is business. an evolving business, it appears to ~ . have considerable potential and \.. , should not be ingnored.

77 Items featured in Christmas shops Another important sales product is a There are several marketing tips include tree ornaments, collectibles, sturdy, high-quality tree stand. A tree which can be useful to any Christmas imported German nutcrackers and stand can be easily sold by a know­ tree retailer. incense burners, bulbs, garland, ledgeable salesperson, demonstrating lights, handcrafts and many other the advantages and how it works. I. Keep a detailed list of all cus­ gift lines. Many items can be hand­ Some operators place the tree in the tomers and their addresses, for made during the less busy months, stand if the customer buys both the future direct mailings. or purchased from local craftspeople tree and the stand. The important 2. Identify your market and clientele who enjoy making items but have no points are to offer a top quality stand, and then develop a marketing plan to retail outlet. provide clear instructions on how to reach customers using a variety of use it and stand behind the product media, including direct mail , radio, The Christmas Shop can become a with service. focal point where outside sales can be newspaper and even television. Offer­ finalized, it can be an appropriate Additional services, such as tree shak­ ing special events and attractions can location for Santa Claus to make a ing, baling trees and putting a fresh also help to draw customers to the visit and has the potential to produce cut on the bottom of each tree will tree farm. income year-round (although most lead to increased customer satisfac­ 3. Insist on a top-quality product sales occur in November and Decem­ tion and increased repeat sales. and a well-trained and knowledgeable ber each season). Balers are used by 23% of southern staff, and offer excellent customer ser­ New England retailers, and 2% use vice at all times. Related Products shakers. Allowing customers to In addition to Christmas trees, there return their trees after Christmas are several related Christmas tree for chipping and composting is also products which can lead to increased becoming popular. sales. Christmas wreaths, handmade or bought wholesale, will add signifi­ cantly to sales. These can be custom decorated and delivered or shipped to friends and relatives in other states. The most popular wreath is tradi­ tional balsam, although boughs from Douglas fir, Fraser fir, white pine and Scotch pine will also make fine wreaths. Roping and cut greens are two other accessory products that many customers will want. Roping is made from a variety of species, in- cl uding mountain-laurel, princess pine (a Lycopodium), white pine or mixed evergreen varieties. Greens can be cut from poor quality trees in the field or in lots and bundled for quick sales.

Displays ofitems , such as slands, will help sell more hardgoods along with Ihe Irees.

78 xv. Christmas Tree Management Calendar

Planning is set lip on a Quarterly basis to allow will help you, or perhaps you want to probably the some flexibility, but items are gener­ write the important jobs into your single most ally listed in their order of chronol­ .. own production calendar. Either way. important task ogy and/or importance. The checklist be sure to include time for planning to ensure that format allows you to watch your and time for review into your sched­ returns meet progress, and the additional lines ule. Best of luck and good growing. needs or expec­ encourage you to add your own indi­ tations. Knowing vidual jobs or notes. This calendar is Note: Every attempt has been made what to expect is the best a beginning, 50 it is suggested that to list activities in chronological measure of success. this list be incorporated into your order;--nevertheless, you must check own master plan. Perhaps a notebook local conditions before doing any The following calendar is with the list and the journal pages treatment.

Activities for JANUARY, FEBRUARY and MARCH

_ Conventions, meetings, education. _ File chapter 61161A early. _ Remove culis, if necessary. _ Limited shearing possible on spruce and fir, but pick warm days, to avoid shattering. _ Bottom prune; check double tops. _ Have you reviewed your seedling order? Do you need Summarize all records from sales and to order additional trees? cost of production. _ Inventory all chemicals and fertilizers. Order only _ File necessary Quarterly taxes. amount needed for one season. _ Pay sales tax, if not paid. _ Review pesticide license, attend update seminars Review insurance. and classes as needed. _ Check, replace and replenish all safety equipment. _ Update customer records, analyze sales and market­ ing methods for possible changes. Check rodent damage, if snow _ Reevaluate and project sales activities, develop cover permits. proposed changes for next year, file in appropriate place for later date. _ Check all equipment _ Breathe deeply. Relax and enjoy winter. to make sure it is ready for spring use. _ Prepare tax records.

ADDITIONAL NOTES:

83 Activities for APRIL, MAY and JUNE

_ Have you completed first quarter items? _ Monitor sawflies and aphids. Apply controls as needed. _ Apply dormant oil spray, as soon as weather permits. _ Apply postemergence herbicide as needed. Use care _ April is best month to plant in southern New not to contact new tree growth. England (rainy days are best). _ Have you checked your shearing equipment? _ Complete preemergence herbicide in early April or as soon as possible after planting. _ Third fungicide application at 10- to 14- day interval, as label directs. _ Are you watching for insect activity, especially aphids and mites, on a weekly basis? _ Mow as needed, especially just prior to shearing. Avoid exhaust burn on tender foliage. _ Treat Scotch pine stumps for weevil control. _ Begin Scotch and white pine shearing toward end of _ File taxes, if not done already, June, or when "candles" are fully elongated and _If disease is present, apply first fungicide at bud swell. needles are Ifl to 2/3 spread. Youngest trees first, oldest last. _ Is your mowing equipment ready? _ Vegetation control (spot) _ CAUTION: AVOID TRANSPLANTING, IF BUDS as needed. Watch out for HAVE BROKEN. new, soft tree growth. _ Apply second fungicide application at bud break. Fol­ Review Christmas sales low label directions. needs; order now, if pos­ sible. _ Apply white pine weevil control to tops of affected trees and those immediately su rrounding. _ Contact prospective buyers, if wholesaling ADDITIONAL NOTES:

84 Activities for JULY, AUGUST and SEPTEMBER

_ Complete shearing of pines. _ Late August app ly insect control for pales weevil _ Order fall planting needs, after checking for spring _ Volunteer to staff fairs and booths. mortality. _ Herbicide for brush control. _ Is your equipment in good repair? _ Late Sepl'ember control adult aphids. _ Mow only if needed for shearing or to reduce com­ petition. _ Watch for late sawfly (second hatch) . _ Begin shearing spruce, then fir. _ Apply colorant to poor or off-colored saleable trees. _ Continue to monitor weekly for insects/disease. _ Fall planting/replacement, if not too dry. Apply controls on ly as needed. _ Finalize advertising, jf not done. _ Conti nue to spot treat herbicide, only as necessary. _ Enter trees in local fair/competilion. Vacation? Conventions? _ Eastern States Exposition! _ Prepare for sa les season, check inventories and _ Site prep next year plantings. equipment, order supplies not previously ordered. _ Plow fields due for renovation/soil test and apply fall _ Tag/count saleable trees for this season. lime and fertilizer if not done. _ Review sales procedures/traffic patternsl"glitches". _ Avoid ground compac- ~~ Order signs if necessary. tion. Mow only when _ Review insurance needs, if not already done. necessary. _ Review and/or plan marketing strategy. _ Visit other growers! Share information.

ADDITIONAL NOTES:

85 Activities for OCTOBER, NOVEMBER and DECEMBER

_ Have you finished planting? _ Rent or purchase cash registers and other equip­ ment, if needed. _ Have you completed all herbicide treatments? Send out customer notices and advertisements. _ Have all insect controls been completed? _If wholesaling, check all harvest equipment and _ Review sales helpi contact or recruit now. needs. Prepare to harvest. _ Have you completed hazard removal and repair? Sell! Selll Sell! _ Order seedlings for next year's spring planting. _Cleanup. _ Clean and store equipment no longer needed. _ Inventory stock. _ Tag trees for sale if not done already. _ Bring your money _ Early choose-and-cut tagging? to the bank. Smile! _ Make sure all tax requirements and sales permits have been met. _Take a deep breath, next year _ Set up sales areas, Christmas shop, etc. will be here before you know itl ADDITIONAL NOTES:

86 Christmas Tree Terminology

LEADER -~-:l . DISTANCE BETWEEN WHORLS GOOSENECK IS ONE YEAR'S GROWTH

WHORL-SEVERAL BRANCHES RADIATING FROM SAME LEVEL ON THE STEM

_-HANDLE

The information in this material is (or educational pUrp