Celebrity Endorsement in Sports Advertising

University of Groningen, Marketing Department

Supervisor: dr. Marijke C. Leliveld

Management summary

This study represents an investigation in celebrity endorsements in sports advertising. The objective of this research is to understand the influence of the type of information and the relatedness of the celebrity on consumers brand attitude and purchase intention. In particular, this thesis will focus on positive and negative information about related and non related celebrities in celebrity endorsement. The problem statement of this study is: ‘What is the influence of the type of information about the celebrity in celebrity endorsements in sports advertising on the brand attitude and the purchase intention of consumers?’

To answer this problem statement, I studied literature about celebrity endorsement and specifically the influence of related and unrelated celebrities and the influence of positive and negative information. Two major effects have been determined; brand attitude and purchase intention. These effects have been leading in this study.

To develop my experimental materials, I conducted a pilot test to establish the validity of using Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey, and using a positive ‐ and negative press release in the experiment. The pilot test showed that there is no difference between Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey concerning their level of famousness and attractiveness and the credibility of the advertisement itself. Both celebrities differ only on their relatedness to sports. The pilot test also showed that there is a difference between the type of information. For these reasons, I conducted the experiment with Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey and both press releases.

To measure the brand attitude, I distinguished the cognitive, affective and conative components of brand attitude. The interaction effect on the affective brand attitude is exactly what I expected, i.e. the type of information influences consumers’ feelings and emotions; the affective part of brand attitude. The positive information influences consumers’ affective brand attitude more than the negative information. Furthermore, the positive information has more impact on the related celebrity than on the non related celebrity. The results indicate that the type of information is more determinative in case of related celebrities and less determinative in case of non related celebrities.

Subsequently, I tested the influence of type of celebrity and type of information on the purchase intention of consumers. This test revealed a significant main effect both of the type of celebrity as well as the type of information. Although there is no significant interaction effect, the type of

celebrity and type of information both influence the purchase intention. I also asked the respondents for the willingness to pay. This test revealed a significant main effect on product and a significant interaction effect on product and type of celebrity and at the same time a between subjects effect of the type of celebrity.

All in all, this research show the results on brand attitude and purchase intention caused by exposing consumers to a press release (positive or negative) about a celebrity (related or non related) exactly as I expected it to be. Both brand attitude and purchase intention are influenced by the type of celebrity and the type of information, whereby the effects are stronger in the related celebrity condition.

Preface

With great interest I wrote my master thesis about celebrity endorsement in sports advertising. My interest is a result of studying Business Administration at the University of Groningen and playing soccer for the professional women soccer team of FC Zwolle.

From this moment my student life will change into a working life which is something I am looking forward to!

First of all I would like to thank my supervisor, Marijke Leliveld, for our nice cooperation and our talks about celebrities and sometimes also about sports. Edwin van de Sar is not the keeper of the Dutch national soccer team anymore! But more important I would like to thank her for her expertise and support during the process. In addition I want to thank Jia Lui, as my second supervisor, for the final feedback.

Hopefully you will enjoy reading this thesis.

Zwolle, 23 November 2010

L.R. van Beekhuizen

Picture 1: Mandy Versteegt, Claudia van den Heiligenberg, Danniele van de Donk, Cynthia Beekhuis, Jill Wilmot, Kika van Es, Marlous Pieete, Linda van Beekhuizen. 4

Table of content

Management summary 2

Preface 4

1. Introduction 6

2. Theoretical framework 9 2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of celebrity endorsement 9 2.2 Positive and negative information about celebrity endorsers 10 2.3 Related and non related celebrities 11 2.4 Brand attitude 12 2.5 Purchase intention 14 2.6 Conceptual model 15

3. Research design and methodology 17 3.1 Pilot study 17 3.1.1 Celebrity manipulation 18 3.1.2 Information manipulation 19 3.2 Methodology 20 3.2.1 Procedure 21 3.2.2 Brand attitude 21 3.2.3 Purchase intention 21 3.2.4 Manipulation check 21

4. Results 23 4.1 Brand attitude 23 4.2 Purchase intention 24

5. Discussion 26 5.1 General findings 26 5.2 Implications 27 5.3 Future research 27 5.4 Conclusion 28

6. References 29

Appendix 31

1. Introduction

Celebrity endorsement is a popular tool to advertise. Celebrity endorsement is described in the literature as a famous person who can draw attention to a brand a shape the perceptions consumers have of the brand by virtue of the inferences that consumers make based on the knowledge they have about the celebrity (Keller, 2007). One of the early examples is Queen Victoria’s endorsement of Cadbury’s Cocoa (Sherman 1985). Three of humankind’s greatest inventions, (cinema, radio, and television) have extended the scope of endorsement as an advertising technique. Fashion label Dolce & Gabbana, for example, tied Italian national soccer heroes (Andrea Pirlo, Fabio Cannavaro, Gennaro Gattuso, Giancluca Zambrotta and Manuele Blasi) to endorse in their exclusive underwear campaign for the World Cup 2010 in South Africa.

Picture 2: Italian soccer players for Dolce & Gabbana (source: D&G)

However, celebrity endorsement is not without risk. The fact that ‘La Squadra Azzurra’ was eliminated in the first round –and that Manuele Blasi was not even selected for the Italian team by coach Marcello Lippi– is regrettable for Dolce & Gabbana. This incident is nothing compared to the scandal around another celebrity: Tiger Woods. No professional athlete has had such an immediate impact on his or her sport as the arrival of Tiger Woods on the PGA Tour. But due to his numerous sexual affairs and escapades, Tiger Woods’ image is badly damaged and his income decreased with ten percent. His sponsors Gilette and Accenture denounced the cooperation with the billionaire immediately. Only major lender Nike kept faith.

Given these examples, it is easily argued that the type of information about a celebrity can be determinative for the success of the endorsement. Positive information about a celebrity can enhance consumers’ preference towards a brand and purchase intention. On the other hand, negative information about a celebrity can harm the endorsement and the brand. Therefore, the main purpose of this thesis is to study whether the effect of celebrity endorsement is affected by the type of information that is exposed about the celebrity.

Besides the type of information, the impact of celebrity endorsement depends on the fit between the celebrity and the product (Till and Shimp, 1998). There has to be a meaningful relationship between the celebrity, the audience and the product. According to Erdogan (1999) brands can build characters which are congruent with their brand and target audience. It is plausible that ‘FIFA player of 2009’, Lionel Messi, will affect Adidas’ campaign for the new ‘Adizero’ soccer boot more than, for example, movie star Sean Connery or George Clooney would. In this thesis I argue that celebrities who are related to the product will affect endorsement more than celebrities who are not related to the product.

Picture 3: Lionel Messi for Adidas (source: Adidas).

In sum, in this thesis I will focus on celebrity endorsement in sports advertising. The use of famous people in advertising in general has become prevalent, but there is less information about the use of sport celebrities in sport advertising. Sports events, such as the Olympic Games, World Cup soccer or Grand Slam tennis tournaments, are expensive for brands. So it would be useful to know the relationship between sport celebrities and sport advertising. With this thesis I aim to provide a more comprehensive picture of the effects of celebrity endorsement in sports advertising. The objective of this research is to understand consumers brand attitude and purchase intention after being exposed

to positive and negative information about related and non related celebrities in celebrity endorsement. In particular, this thesis will focus on the type of information and the relatedness of the celebrity. Therefore, the problem statement is: ‘What is the influence of the type of information about the celebrity in celebrity endorsements in sports advertising on the brand attitude and the purchase intention of consumers?’ To investigate this, I will study the effects of the relatedness and non relatedness of a celebrity and the effects of positive and negative information using an experiment. In the next chapter I will discuss in more detail the relevant literature related to this problem statement.

2. Theoretical framework

The use of celebrity endorsement is an example of the linking of a brand with other entities, namely the association people have with the celebrity used. The rationale behind celebrity endorsement is that a famous person can draw attention to a brand and shape the perceptions consumers have of the brand. Hence, the celebrity must be well known to improve awareness, image and responses for the brand (Keller, 2007). Brands can benefit from celebrity endorsement in several ways. Celebrity endorsements are a powerful device by which to enter foreign markets. Celebrities with world‐wide popularity can help companies break through many such roadblocks (Erdogan, 1999). According to Agrawal and Kamakura (1995), celebrity endorsement makes advertisements believable and enhances message recall. Furthermore, celebrities aid in the recognition of brand names, create a positive attitude towards the brand and create a distinct personality for the endorsed brand.

2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of celebrity endorsement According to Till and Shimp (1998) the impact of a celebrity endorser depends on the fit between the celebrity, the audience and the product. The potential advantages, potential hazards and the preventive tactics are described in table 1 below (Erdogan, 1999).

Potential advantages Potential hazards Preventive tactics Increased attention Overshadow the brand Pre‐testing and careful planning.

Image polishing Public controversy Buying insurance and putting provision clauses in contract. Brand introduction Image change and Explaining what is their role and putting clause overexposure to restrict. Brand repositioning Image change and loss Examining what life‐cycle stage the celebrity is of public recognition in and how long this stage is likely to continue. Underpin global expensive Selecting celebrities who are appropriate for campaigns global target audience, not because they are ‘hot’ in all market audiences. Table 1: potential advantages, potential hazards and preventive tactics (Erdogan, 1999).

2.2 Positive and negative information about celebrity endorsers Celebrity endorsers are effective because they bring a host of characteristics that the audience uses in evaluating the ad. Companies invest large sums of money to align their brands and themselves with endorsers. In return for the large expenditures in endorsements celebrity endorsers are expected to endorse a product successfully wherefore consumers will evaluate the endorsement as credible, believable and appealing (Martin, 1996). Brown and Stayman (1992) agree and add that when this happens some of the following objectives will be accomplished: the credibility of the product’s message is increased, people tend to pay attention to the ad, people tend to like the ad, brand and recall is enhanced, product liking may increase and other positive effect may occur.

Earlier research reveals that a successful endorser strategy enhances the level of consumers' recalling towards product information, reinforces consumers' recognition to endorsed brands, positively influences consumers' attitude to low‐involved products and even enhance consumers' purchase intention and preference towards brands (Lui et al., 2007). It is also proven that celebrities make advertisements believable and enhance message recall and that approximately 20% of all television commercials feature a famous person, and approximately 10% of the dollars spent on televisions advertising are used in celebrity endorsement (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995). Furthermore, celebrities aid in the recognition of brand names, create a positive attitude towards the brand and create a distinct personality for the endorsed brand. Ultimately, celebrity endorsements are believed to generate a greater likelihood of customers’ choosing in the endorsed brand. Thus, using celebrity endorsements is an advertising strategy that should enhance the marginal value of advertisements expenditures and create brand equity by means of the ‘secondary association’ of a celebrity with a brand.

There is also a downside of celebrity endorsement. Because the celebrity has an already existing public personality, there is only a limited possibility to adjust this personality to the brand (Erdogan, 1999). Another disadvantage is the lack of control a company has over the celebrity. Celebrities’ behavior can be unpredictable and companies cannot control the moral, ethical and legal problems that accompanying some celebrities (Money et al., 2006). In 2005 for instance, one of the world’s recognizable models, Kate Moss, ‐who appeared in ads for Chanel, Christian Dior and Burberry before‐ was dismissed by fashion brand H&M after a furor over cocaine. Even worse, most famous American murder case ever involving a celebrity, O.J. Simpson, must have reverberated through the rental car company whose name was inextricably linked with him. The man affectionately known to millions of people is suddenly an advertiser's worst nightmare. Till and Shimp (1998) found that negative information about a spokesperson can damage product evaluation through the associative

link between the brand and celebrity. Brands perceived with a strong connection with the endorser are more vulnerable when negative information about the endorser is exposed. Another issue is that consumers become more cynical about celebrities’ motives to connect themselves with a brand or product (Erdogan, 1999). A celebrity has to be aware of the greed and subsequent overexposure when a celebrity becomes an endorser for many diverse products, such as the British Spice Girls in the nineties. The successful girl band endorsed for many brands such as Pepsi, Tesco, L’oreal and Sony.

Picture 4: the Spice Girls for Pepsi (source: Pepsi)

In this study, I will focus on the type of information and I expect it to be important for the successfulness of celebrity endorsement. Negative information will negatively affect a consumer’s attitude toward a celebrity and in turn impact attitudes toward the endorsed brand.

Hypothesis 1: I argue that positive information about a celebrity leads to a positive brand attitude and negative information about a celebrity leads to a negative brand attitude.

2.3 Related and non related celebrities McCracken (1989) defined a celebrity endorser as ‘any individual who enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement’. The celebrity should fit with the consumer’s prior perception of the product. According to Martin (1996) the personality characteristics of the athlete affect endorsement evaluations in the same way as for non‐athlete celebrities. However, athletes also bring sport’s characteristics to the endorsement and the sports image will affect consumer evaluations of the endorsement.

When an athlete endorses a product the sport forms the foundation for that endorsement. The sport that a celebrity is in is the activity that makes the celebrity a (related) celebrity. Football player David Beckham is a related celebrity when he endorses football products for the brand Adidas for example, but he is a non related celebrity when endorses underwear for the brand Armani. Consumers use information from an ad, but they also use information about the celebrity to make inferences about the product. This transfer of information from the celebrity to the product is what makes celebrity endorsement effective.

Hypothesis 2: Information about a related celebrity has more effect on consumers’ brand attitude than information about a non related celebrity. Moreover, the type of information will have a stronger effect on related celebrities than for non related celebrities.

2.4 Brand attitude Attitude consist of three components; the cognitive, affective and conative component. In case of this study, the type of celebrity and the type of information are expected to be particularly influencing on the affective component. A study from Yoo and MacInnes (2005) focuses on feelings (also known as emotions) as predictors of affective attitude: feelings are defined as acute, transitory and specific affective experiences that occur as a result of some experience. Both Lavidge and Steiner (1961) and Hoyer and MacInnes (2007) state that the three advertising functions are directly related to a classical psychological model which divides behavior into three components or dimensions: 1) the cognitive component ‐the intellectual, mental or rational states‐; 2) the affective component ‐the emotional or feeling states‐; and 3) the conative or motivational component ‐the striving states, relating to the tendency to treat objects as positive or negative goals‐.

Figure 1: the stair‐step‐model (Lavidge and Steiner, 1961).

Also the stair‐step‐model (figure 1) of Lavidge and Steiner (1961) distinguish the cognitive, affective and conative components of brand attitude. In figure 1, the seven steps outlined indicate three major functions of advertising. The first two steps of the model, awareness and knowledge, refers to the function information or ideas. The second two steps, liking and preference, refers to the function attitude or feeling. The final two steps, conviction and purchase, refers to the function action. The stair‐step‐model leads consumers, in seven steps, from attitude ‐awareness‐ to actual purchase: 1) the consumer is unaware of the existence of the product or service; 2) the consumer is becoming aware of the existence of the product or service; 3) the consumer knows what the product has to offer; 4) the consumer has favorable attitudes towards the product; 5) the consumer favorable attitudes have developed to preferences; 6) the consumer got the conviction that the purchase would be wise; and 7) the consumers translates the attitude into actual purchase.

Because of different types of attitudes, different scales can be used to measure consumers’ brand attitude. Earlier research reveals that brand attitude is measured by scales as ‘good vs. bad’, ‘like vs. dislike’, ‘nice vs. not nice’ (Chattopadhyay, 1998), ‘good vs. bad’, ‘like very much vs. do not like very much, ‘pleasant vs. unpleasant’, ‘poor quality vs. high quality’ (Gresham et. al., 1984), and ‘good vs. bad’, ‘positive vs. negative’ and ‘the extent to which they like it vs. dislike it’ (Whan Park et. al., 2010). I will use three scales to measure the three types of attitude (see also Method section).

A person is more likely to adopt a positive attitude or behavior of another person or a group if he or she identifies with the person. Moreover, consumers are more likely to purchase complex or expensive products which are endorsed by experts rather than by typical consumers. Indeed, an endorser’s expertise is more important than physical attractiveness in affecting attitude towards an endorsed brand. Ideally, a natural fit (the match‐up) should exist between an association and a product (Daneshvary and Schwer, 2000). Consumers’ attitudes can be influenced by big events such as the Olympic Games and World Championships. In 2009 for example, Nike created for the tennis tournament Wimbledon Championships a new collection for superstar and multiple Grand Slam winner (sixteen Grand Slam trophies) Roger Federer (picture 5). Ideally, consumers should identify themselves with Roger Federer, but at least should have a positive association between two concepts to become interested; Nike and Roger Federer.

Picture 5: Roger Federer for Nike ‘Wimbledon 2009’ (source: Nike).

I argue that the type of celebrity and the type of information will particularly influence the affective component, because this component is based on emotions and feelings. I hypothesize that information about a related celebrity has more effect on consumers’ affective brand attitude than information about a non related celebrity. Moreover, I hypothesize that positive information about a celebrity leads to a positive affective brand attitude and negative information about a celebrity leads to a negative affective brand attitude.

2.5 Purchase intention According to Daneshvary and Schwer (2000) is the endorser’s expertise more important than physical attractiveness in affecting attitude towards an endorsed brand. An endorser’s expertise influences the attitude towards the brand and the purchase behavior, positively or negatively. Fishbein and Ajzen (1977) confirm with Lavidge and Steiner (1961) their process from attitude to purchase. Thus, I predict that consumers with a positive brand attitude will have a positive purchase intention and consumers with a negative brand attitude will have a negative purchase intention.

Hypothesis 3: The related celebrity will have a stronger effect on the brand attitude and purchase intention than for non related celebrity.

2.6 Conceptual model The problem statement of this thesis: ‘What is the influence of the type of information about the celebrity in celebrity endorsements in sports advertising on the brand attitude and the purchase intention of consumers?’, is shown in the conceptual model. The type of celebrity can be related or non related and the type of information can be positive or negative.

Figure 2: Conceptual model

To answer the problem statement, the main question is divided into sub questions: 1) what influence does the type of information (positive or negative) about a celebrity have on consumers attitude towards a brand; 2) what influence does the type of celebrity (related or non related) have on consumers attitude towards a brand; 3) does the effect towards a brand also affect the purchase intention of consumers.

The hypotheses derived from this model and by my theoretical background are as follows: • Information will affect a consumer’s attitude toward a celebrity and in turn impact attitudes toward the endorsed brand. I argue that positive information about a celebrity leads to a positive brand attitude and negative information about a celebrity leads to a negative brand attitude. In other words, I expect a main effect of information. • Information about a related celebrity has more effect on consumers’ brand attitude than information about a non related celebrity. Moreover, the type of information will have a

stronger effect on related celebrities than for non related celebrities. In other words, I expect an interaction effect of information and celebrity on brand attitude. • Consumers with a positive brand attitude will have a positive purchase intention and consumers with a negative brand attitude will have a negative purchase intention. The related celebrity will have a stronger effect on the brand attitude and purchase intention than for non related celebrity.

As I already announced, in case of this study, the type of celebrity and the type of information are expected to be particularly influencing on the affective component. I expect a main effect and interaction effect on affective brand attitude, because consumers will process the information based on their emotions and feelings. Consumers’ emotions and feelings will be addressed by seeing a press release about a celebrity, but their knowledge and experiences will not change immediately.

For all these hypotheses obtain that the type of information is more determinative in case of related celebrities, which will be the interaction effect. In other words, the celebrity has to be closely linked to the brand to cause effect of information.

3. Research design and methodology

For the type of celebrity, Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey were selected. As the sport related celebrity, tennis player Roger Federer was selected and as the non related celebrity, actor Patrick Dempsey was selected. Both men have a similar look and appearance (picture 6). For the type of information, a positive press release and a negative press release were written. The positive press release was about the celebrity becoming the ambassador for UNICEF and the negative press release was about the celebrity having caused a car accident. To test whether there are only differences in the type of celebrity and the type of information rather than acquaintance and attractiveness, I conducted a pilot study.

Picture 6: Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey

3.1 Pilot study The participants were eighteen males and twenty‐one females (mean age = 28.05, SD = 7.32). The participants were randomly assigned to one of the conditions of the 2 (celebrity: Roger Federer versus Patrick Dempsey) x 2 (information: positive versus negative) between‐subjects factorial design. Respondents were asked to view the picture of the celebrity, to view the advertisement of the celebrity and to read the text of the press release carefully (appendix 1). Several 7‐point Likert scaled items were used to measure the brand attitude and purchase intentions (appendix 1), whereby point 1 is the most negative scaled question and 7 is the most positive scaled question.

3.1.1 Celebrity manipulation The type of celebrity was manipulated by the use of two different celebrities. The participants were asked to what degree they thought Roger Federer (or Patrick Dempsey) were well‐known and famous. Because the Cronbach’s Alpha of these two questions is α = 0,79, these two questions were combined into a ‘famous’ scale. To test the influence of type of celebrity and type of information on ‘famous’, I conducted 2x2 ANOVA. This test revealed no significant effects, F (1,35) = < 1, ns. The participants were also asked to what degree the thought Roger Federer (or Patrick Dempsey) were nice, likable, handsome, charming and friendly. Because the Cronbach’s Alpha of these five questions is α = 0,88, these questions were combined into an ‘attractive’ scale. To test whether the type of celebrity and the type of information influences ‘attractive’, a 2x2 ANOVA was conducted. This test revealed no significant effects, F (1,35) = < 1, ns. Both 2x2 ANOVA’s did not reveal any significant effects. So, there is no difference between Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey concerning their level of famousness and attractiveness.

Another important aspect of the materials is to what degree Roger Federer (and not Patrick Dempsey) is associated with sports and more specific with the brand Adidas. A 2x2 ANOVA on the extent to which Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey are associated with sports, showed only a significant main effect on the type of celebrity, F (1,35) = 113,12 , p < 0,001. Roger Federer was associated more with sports (M = 6.30) than Patrick Dempsey (M = 1.53). None of the other effects was significant echoing our material development. Moreover, a 2x2 ANOVA on the extent to which Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey are associated with Adidas, also showed only a significant main effect on the type of celebrity, F (1,35) = 57,40 , p < 0,001. Roger Federer was associated more with Adidas (M = 4.45) than Patrick Dempsey (M = 1.32). Several respondents indicated to know that Roger Federer is sponsored by Nike. This is probably the reason that the association is not very high. Nevertheless, the difference between Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey was significant.

Naturally, the credibility of the advertisements is important. First of all, the participants were asked in what degree they thought the advertisement was credible. To test whether the type of celebrity and the type of information influences the credibility, probability and convincingness, three 2x2 ANOVA’s were conducted. These tests revealed no significant effects, F (1,35) = < 1, ns. Although Patrick Dempsey is not related to Adidas, the advertisement is not unbelievable. To conclude, the two advertisements differ only on the relatedness to sports of the celebrity and not on attractiveness, famousness or credibility.

Figure 3 shows an overview of all the means of the celebrity manipulation. Components Individual items Mean Mean Type effect Roger Federer Patrick Dempsey Famous ‐ Well‐known 6.05 6.05 No effect ‐ Famous 5.60 5.74 No effect Attractive ‐ Nice 5.35 5.58 No effect ‐ Likable 5.45 5.42 No effect ‐ Handsome 5.20 5.37 No effect ‐ Charming 5.20 5.53 No effect ‐ Friendly 5.40 5.26 No effect Associations ‐ Association with sports 6.30 1.53 Type of celeb. ‐ Association with Adidas 4.45 1.32 Type of celeb. Credible ‐ Credibility 3.75 3.58 No effect ‐ Probability 3.45 3.26 No effect ‐ Convincingness 3.45 2.95 No effect Figure 3: overview celebrity manipulation.

3.1.2 Information manipulation The type of information was manipulated by two different press releases. The participants were asked to what degree they thought the information and occasion/ incident itself were positive either negative and in which degree the image of the celebrity was affected. Because the Cronbach’s Alpha of these two questions is α = 0,96, these questions were combined into a ‘type of information’ scale. To test if the car accident is really received more negative than the ambassadorship for UNICEF, a 2x2 ANOVA was conducted. This test revealed a significant main effect on the type of information, F (1,35) = 2,37 , p < 0,001. Like expected, the press release about the car accident was rated as more negative (M = 2.37) than the press release about the ambassadorship for UNICEF (M = 6.07). The participants were also asked in what degree they thought the press release was newsworthy (little/ big news, interestingness and importance). Because Cronbach’s Alpha of these three questions is α = 0,94, these questions were combined into a ‘type of news’ scale. These tests revealed no significant effects, F (1,35) = < 1, ns. In other words, only the valence of the type of information differed and nothing else.

Figure 4 shows an overview of all the means of the celebrity manipulation. Components Individual items Mean Mean Type effect Roger Federer Patrick Dempsey Type of ‐ positive/ negative ‘occasion’ 4.30 3.79 Type of info. information ‐ Affectedness of celebrity 4.20 3.84 Type of info. Type of news ‐ Little/ big news 3.15 2.63 No effect ‐ Interestingness 3.00 2.53 No effect ‐ Importance 2.90 2.58 No effect Figure 4: overview information manipulation.

3.2 Methodology The pilot test showed that there is no difference between Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey concerning their level of famousness and attractiveness and the credibility of the advertisement itself. Both celebrities differ only on their relatedness to sports. The pilot test also showed that there is a difference between the type of information. For these reasons, I conducted the experiment with Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey and both press releases (picture 7 & appendix 2).

Picture 7: Example Roger Federer as ambassador for UNICEF

3.2.1 Procedure The participants were 45 males and 57 females (mean age = 26.98, SD = 7.08). The participants were randomly assigned to one of the conditions of the 2 (celebrity: Roger Federer versus Patrick Dempsey) x 2 (information: positive versus negative) between‐subjects factorial design. Respondents were asked to view the press release and read the text carefully (appendix 2). Several 7‐point Likert scaled items were used to measure the brand attitude and purchase intentions (appendix 3), whereby point 1 is the most negative scaled question and 7 is the most positive scaled question. Finally, some questions to check to manipulations were asked.

3.2.2 Brand attitude I distinguished the three components of brand attitude; the cognitive, affective and conative brand attitude. • Cognitive: o To what extent do you think the Adidas brand is impressive? o To what extent do you think the Adidas brand is satisfactory? o To what extent do you think the Adidas brand is good? • Affective: o To what extent do you like the Adidas brand? o To what extent do you think the Adidas brand is attractive? o To what extent do you think the Adidas brand is entertaining? • Conative: o To what extent is Adidas your favorite sports brand? o To what extent would you consider buying Adidas products?

3.2.3 Purchase intention I also asked the respondents for their purchase intention, by asking them if they would buy products of the Adidas brand, in case they need them (yes/ no) and to what extent they think that Adidas products are value for money (7‐point Likert scaled item). To measure the willingness to pay, I asked how much money the respondents are willing to pay for a tennis racket, a pair of football boots and a swimsuit.

3.2.4 Manipulation check First, I briefly checked the manipulations again. I conducted a 2x2 ANOVA to test whether the advertisement is credible. This test revealed no significant effects, F (2,97) = < 1, ns. I also conducted a 2x2 ANOVA on the extent to which Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey are associated with sports,

which showed only a significant main effect on the type of celebrity, F (2,97) = 631,41 , p < 0,001. Moreover, a 2x2 ANOVA on the extent to which Roger Federer and Patrick Dempsey are associated with Adidas, also showed only a significant main effect on the type of celebrity, F (2,97) = 57,40 , p < 0,001. Roger Federer was associated more with both sports as well as the brand Adidas.

Secondly, I wanted to measure to what degree the respondents thought the advertisement was attractive (niceness, attractiveness and interestingness). Because Cronbach’s Alpha of these questions is α = 0,83, these questions were combined into a ‘attractive’ scale. To test the influence of type of celebrity and type of information on ‘attractive’, I conducted a 2x2 ANOVA. This test revealed no significant effects, F (2,97) = < 1, ns.

Figure 5 shows an overview of all the means of the manipulation check. Components Individual items Mean Mean Type effect Roger Federer Patrick Dempsey Credible ‐ Credibility 4.04 4.18 No effect ‐ Probability 4.13 4.16 No effect ‐ Convincingness 4.08 4.04 No effect Associations ‐ Association with sports 6.46 2.04 Type of celeb. ‐ Association with Adidas 4.32 1.94 Type of celeb. Attractive ‐ Niceness 3.76 3.79 No effect ‐ Attractiveness 3.98 4.04 No effect ‐ Interestingness 3.32 3.44 No effect Figure 5: overview manipulation check.

4. Results

4.1 Brand attitude To measure the brand attitude of the respondents, the brand attitude is divided into three aspects; cognitive, affective and conative brand attitude. The cognitive brand attitude is subdivided into impressive, satisfactory and good. Because Cronbach’s Alpha of these questions is α = 0,87, these questions were combined into the cognitive brand attitude. To test the influence of type of celebrity and type of information on the cognitive brand attitude, I conducted a 2x2 ANOVA. This test revealed a significant main effect on the type of celebrity, F (2,97) = 192.22 , p < 0,001. The respondents in the related celebrity condition indicated to have a higher cognitive brand attitude (M = 5.49) than the respondents in the unrelated celebrity condition (M = 3.54).

To measure affective attitude, participants were asked to what degree they thought Adidas was nice, attractive and entertaining. Because Cronbach’s Alpha of these questions is α = 0,95, these questions were combined into the affective brand attitude. To test the influence of type of celebrity and type of information on the affective brand attitude, I conducted a 2x2 ANOVA. This test revealed a significant interaction effect, F (2,97) = 15.86 , p < 0,001 (figure 4 on page 23). This test showed a significant main effect of type of celebrity and type of information qualified by the interaction effect1.

Within the related celebrity condition, positive information resulted in a higher attitude towards Adidas (M = 6.19) than negative information (M = 3.92) , p < 0,001. This difference was less strong within in the unrelated celebrity condition (Mpos = 4.07 and Mneg = 3.03). In line with my hypothesis, the results indicate that the type of information is more determinative in case of related celebrities and less determinative in case of non related celebrities.

The conative part of brand attitude is measured by the combination of ‘Adidas as favorite sports brand’ and ‘considering to buy Adidas products’ of which Cronbach’s Alpha is α = 0,91. To test the influence of type of celebrity and type of information on the conative brand attitude, I conducted a 2x2 ANOVA. This test revealed a significant main effect on the type of celebrity, F (2,97) = 158.44 , p < 0,001. The respondents in de related celebrity condition indicated to have a higher conative brand attitude (M = 5.92) than the respondents in the unrelated celebrity condition (M = 3.52).

The interaction effect on the affective brand attitude is exactly what I expected (figure 6). The type of information does influence consumers’ feelings and emotions; the affective part of brand attitude.

1 The degree to what the respondents read the press release, does not affect the results.

The positive information influences consumers’ affective brand attitude more than the negative information. Furthermore, the positive information has more impact on the related celebrity than on the non related celebrity.

High affective 7 brand attitude Positive information 6 Negative information 5

0 Low affective brand attitude Roger Federer Patrick Dempsey

Figure 6: Affective brand attitude

Figure 7 shows an overview of all the means of the manipulation check. Components Individual items Mean Mean Type effect Roger Federer Patrick Dempsey Cognitive ‐ Impressive 5.40 3.19 Type of celeb. attitude ‐ Satisfactory 5.36 3.98 Type of celeb. ‐ Good 5.70 3.44 Type of celeb. Affective ‐ Nice 5.06 3.56 Interaction attitude ‐ Attractive 5.06 3.62 effect ‐ Entertaining 5.04 3.56 Interaction effect Interaction effect Conative ‐ Adidas favorite sports brand 5.94 3.73 Type of celeb. attitude ‐ considering buying Adidas 5.90 3.31 Type of celeb. Figure 7: overview brand attitude results

4.2 Purchase intention To test the influence of type of celebrity and type of information on the purchase intention of consumers I used the question ‘Would you buy products of the Adidas brand, in case you need them?’ and conducted a hierarchical log linear analysis. This test revealed a significant main effect both of the type of celebrity, Chi square (1) = 14.00, p< 0,001, as well as the type of information, Chi square (1) = 4.04, p < 0,05. 98% of the respondents who saw the spreadsheet of the related celebrity, Roger Federer, would purchase Adidas products and 75% of the respondents who saw the spreadsheet of the unrelated celebrity, Patrick Dempsey, would purchase Adidas products. Analyzing the other main effect, of the type of information, 92% of the respondents who read the press release with positive information, ambassadorship for UNICEF, would purchase Adidas products and 80% of the respondents who read the press release with negative information, car accident, would purchase Adidas products. Although there is no significant interaction effect, the type of celebrity and type of information both influence the purchase intention. I also used the question ‘Do you think that Adidas products are value for money?’ and I conducted a 2x2 ANOVA. This test revealed a significant main effect on the type celebrity, F (2,97) = 131,95 , p < 0,001 means.

As mentioned before, I also asked the respondents for the willingness to pay. I conducted a 2 between subjects (celebrity: related versus unrelated) x 2 between subjects (information: positive versus negative) x 3 within subjects (products: tennis racket versus football boots versus swimsuit) repeated measures ANOVA .This test revealed a significant main effect on product and a significant interaction effect on product and type of celebrity and at the same time a between subjects effect of the type of celebrity (Roger Federer M = 47.80 and Patrick Dempsey M = 35.29).

Figure 8 shows an overview of the between subjects (celebrity: related versus unrelated) x 2 between subjects (information: positive versus negative) x 3 within subjects (products: tennis racket versus football boots versus swimsuit) results. Components Individual items Mean Mean Type effect Roger Federer Patrick Dempsey

Tennis racket Positive information 117.20 76.11 Interaction effect Negative information 124.60 80.60 Interaction effect Football boots Positive information 136.20 87.96 Interaction effect Negative information 135.00 96.40 Interaction effect Swimsuit Positive information 47.40 36.85 Interaction effect Negative information 48.20 33.60 Interaction effect Figure 8: results between subjects test.

5. Discussion

Celebrity endorsements are frequently used as a mean of attracting attention and can be effective at positioning products in consumers’ minds. Consumers appreciate celebrities in endorsements because the endorsed products offer the chance to have something in common with a celebrity. However, the use of celebrities as endorsers is not without risk given the extraordinary lifestyles celebrities live. Therefore, the main purpose of this thesis was to study whether the effect of celebrity endorsement is affected by the type of information that is exposed about the celebrity. Specifically, I examined what happened to the brand attitude and purchase intention of consumers after exposing them to a positive or negative press release of a related or non related celebrity.

5.1 General findings To measure the brand attitude, I distinguished the cognitive, affective and conative components of brand attitude. The interaction effect on the affective brand attitude is exactly what I expected. The type of information does influence consumers’ feelings and emotions; the affective part of brand attitude. The positive information influences consumers’ affective brand attitude more than the negative information. Furthermore, the positive information has more impact on the related celebrity than on the non related celebrity. In line with my hypothesis, the results indicate that the type of information is more determinative in case of related celebrities and less determinative in case of non related celebrities.

The main effects on the type of celebrity of the cognitive and conative brand attitude are consistent with previous literature. A related celebrity influences the advertisement more than a non related celebrity. The type of information does hardly affect consumers’ attitude. Consumers do not directly relate bad behavior of a celebrity to a brand. Is that really true? Tiger Woods suffered badly after the exposure of all the negative information about him. Not only his own popularity was damaged, the popularity of ‘his’ brand also decreased enormous, because almost all his sponsors denounced the cooperation immediately.

The difference between Tiger Woods and the celebrities and press releases used in this study can be made easily. Tiger Woods appeared time after time in a negative way. Moreover, his ex‐wife, supermodel Elin Nordegren, set herself vulnerable in the media which yielded her more sympathy and made Tiger Woods more and more the ‘bogey’man2. In this study, Roger Federer (or Patrick

2 The bogeyman is here used as a culprit. But the golf term bogey means that the player goes one swing over par.

Dempsey) appeared only once in the media and the negative information is still less negative than all Tiger Woods his escapades. Consumers might be stunned by the car accident, but they do not connect it directly to the brand. It is likely that consumers’ will be affected more when negative information is exposed more often, as in case of Tiger Woods.

I tested the influence of type of celebrity and type of information on the purchase intention of consumers. This test revealed a significant main effect both of the type of celebrity as well as the type of information. Although there is no significant interaction effect, the type of celebrity and type of information both influence the purchase intention. It is likely that this influence is stronger derived from the affective brand attitude. I also asked the respondents for the willingness to pay. This test revealed a significant main effect on product and a significant interaction effect on product and type of celebrity and at the same time a between subjects effect of the type of celebrity.

5.2 Implications This research contributes scientifically to the existing literature about celebrity endorsement. This study is the first that studies the influence of the type of information that is exposed about related as well as unrelated celebrities on sports advertising. This leads to better understanding of the applicability of celebrity endorsement. This study has a practical contribution as well. The study provided a brand attitude and purchase intention questionnaire. These outcomes could be pragmatic for researchers who want to study brand attitudes and purchase intentions. Marketers will be able to understand celebrity endorsement and the use of related and non related celebrities. A related celebrity sounds nice, but when this celebrity crosses the line constantly, a brave non related celebrity would be better for a brand.

5.3 Future research Although this study makes a contribution to the celebrity endorsement literature, there are a few recommendations for future research. First, this study was a single‐shot study, i.e., I measured the effects only once. I recommend developing a longitudinal study to examine the brand attitude and purchase intention, which might be helpful in understanding the long term effects, and more importantly, the effects of several positive versus negative information about the celebrity. It would also be an addition to do a study on purchase behavior instead of the scenario study on purchase intention. With a behavior study real purchase data are generalized. Furthermore, in future research, the involvement construct could be tested. It is plausible that high‐involved consumers are influenced more, by the type of celebrity as well as the type of information, than low‐involved

consumers. Finally, because of low power further research on this topic with a larger sample would be recommended. When utilizing a larger sample it is likely that the results of the brand attitude effect also are valid for the purchase intention of consumers.

5.4 Conclusion All in all, this research show the results on brand attitude and purchase intention caused by exposing consumers to a press release (positive or negative) about a celebrity (related or non related) exactly as I expected it to be. Both brand attitude and purchase intention are influenced by the type of celebrity and the type of information, whereby the effects are stronger in the related celebrity condition. Sports, and its endorsers, will not soon be forgotten.

6. References

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Whan Park, C., Deborah J. MacInnes, Joseph Priester, Andreas B. Eisingerich & Dawn Iacobucci (2010), Brand Attachment and Brand Attitude Strength: Conceptual and Emperical Differentiation of Two Critical Brand Equity Drivers, Journal of Marketing, 74(6): 1‐17.

Appendix

Appendix 1: Pilot test

(Condition Roger Federer / positive information ‐Example‐) Kort onderzoek Deze vragenlijst duurt ongeveer tien minuten. Er wordt met name gevraagd naar uw mening. Er zijn dus geen foute antwoorden mogelijk. Uw antwoorden zullen gebruikt worden om een vervolgonderzoek te ontwerpen waarin Roger Federer een rol zal spelen. U kunt nu beginnen aan de vragenlijst. NB de vragenlijst is dubbelzijdig afgedrukt.

Roger Federer Er volgen nu enkele vragen over Roger Federer. Omcirkel voor iedere vraag uw antwoord.

1. Hoe bekend is Roger Federer voor u? Helemaal Heel erg niet bekend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bekend

2. Hoe beroemd is Roger Federer voor u? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 beroemd beroemd

3. Hoe leuk vindt u Roger Federer? Helemaal Heel erg niet leuk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 leuk

4. Hoe aantrekkelijk vindt u Roger Federer? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 aantrekkelijk aantrekkelijk

5. Hoe knap vindt u Roger Federer? Helemaal Heel erg niet knap 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 knap

6. Hoe charmant vindt u Roger Federer? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 charmant charmant

7. Hoe aardig vindt u Roger Federer? Helemaal Heel erg niet aardig 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 aardig

Opmerkingen (optioneel): …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Roger Federer is internationaal toptennisser en wordt daarom het nieuwe gezicht van Adidas. Hieronder volgt een voorbeeld van een campagne. Op de volgende bladzijden volgen enkele vragen over deze reclame.

Er volgen nu enkele vragen over Roger Federer. Omcirkel voor iedere vraag uw antwoord.

1. In hoeverre associeert u Roger Federer met sport? Helemaal niet Heel erg 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. In hoeverre associeert u Roger Federer met Adidas? Helemaal niet Heel erg 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. Hoe geloofwaardig vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal niet Heel erg geloofwaardig 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 geloofwaardig

4. Hoe waarschijnlijk vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal niet Heel erg waarschijnlijk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 waarschijnlijk

5. Hoe overtuigend vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal niet Heel erg overtuigend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 overtuigend

6. Hoe leuk vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet leuk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 leuk

7. Hoe aantrekkelijk vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 aantrekkelijk aantrekkelijk

8. Hoe amusant vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 amusant amusant

9. Hoe interessant vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 interessant interessant

10. Hoe boeiend vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet boeiend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 boeiend

11. Hoe bekend vindt u het merk Adidas? Helemaal Heel erg niet bekend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bekend

12. Hoe leuk vindt u het merk Adidas? Helemaal Heel erg leuk niet leuk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hieronder volgt een persbericht over Roger Federer. Op de volgende bladzijde volgen enkele vragen over deze reclame.

Roger Federer zet zich in voor UNICEF 17 augustus 2010

Vandaag is tennisser Roger Federer door UNICEF International benoemd tot ambassadeur van de kinderrechtenorganisatie. In deze hoedanigheid zal de tennisser de komende jaren aandacht vragen voor het werk en de doelstellingen van UNICEF: ervoor zorgen dat elk land de rechten van kinderen respecteert en naleeft.

Het is een groot voorrecht om Roger Federer bij UNICEF welkom te mogen heten," aldus Anthony Lake, algemeen directeur van UNICEF International. "Met zijn grote bekendheid en betrokkenheid kan én zal Roger een warm pleitbezorger zijn voor het verbeteren van de situatie van vele kwetsbare kinderen in de wereld."

Roger: "Ik zet mij in voor UNICEF omdat zij wereldwijd als een sterke, onafhankelijke organisatie strijdt voor het welzijn van kinderen. Er zijn talloze projecten in vele landen waarin UNICEF het voortouw neemt. Als toegewijd vader weet ik hoe het voelt om je kinderen te willen behoeden voor alle narigheid zodat ze zich goed kunnen ontwikkelen en op kunnen groeien zonder problemen. Maar voor heel veel kinderen is dat helaas niet zo vanzelfsprekend. Ik vind het belangrijk dat ieder kind zijn leven op dezelfde manier kan beginnen, met dezelfde rechten en kansen. Ook al is er de afgelopen jaren wereldwijd veel bereikt op het gebied van de rechten van het kind, er is nog veel te doen en in mijn rol als ambassadeur zal ik mij met hart en ziel daarvoor inzetten.”

Roger’s eerste optreden als ambassadeur zal zijn op 20 september in New York. Hier zal hij het startschot geven voor de UNICEF Loop, waar kinderen geld bijeen zullen lopen voor betere gezondheidszorg voor kinderen in Zambia.

1. Wat vindt u van deze informatie? Heel negatief Heel positief 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Wat vindt u van het auto ongeluk? Heel negatief Heel positief 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. Deze informatie maakt Roger Federer Heel negatief Heel positief 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. Wat vindt u van deze informatie? Klein nieuws Groot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 nieuws

5. Hoe interessant vindt u deze informatie? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 interessant interessant

6. Hoe belangrijk vindt u deze informatie? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 belangrijk belangrijk

Tot slot volgen er wat algemene vragen.

1. Wat is uw leeftijd? ………

2. Wat is uw geslacht? m / v

3. Hoe sportief bent u? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sportief sportief

4. Hoeveel uur sport u gemiddeld per week? ……………………………………. uur per week.

5. Hoeveel uur sport kijkt u gemiddeld ter plaatse (in het stadion, langs de lijn, etc.) per week. ……………………………………. uur per week.

6. Hoeveel uur sport kijkt u gemiddeld op tv per week? ……………………………………. uur per week.

7. Wat is uw favoriete sport? ……………………………………. is mijn favoriete sport.

Appendix 2: Spreadsheet questionnaire

Condition Roger Federer / Positive information

Condition Roger Federer / Negative information

Condition Patrick Dempsey / Positive information

Condition Patrick Dempsey / Negative information

Appendix 3: Questionnaire Kort onderzoek Deze vragenlijst duurt ongeveer tien minuten. U krijgt een spreadpagina uit een tijdschrift te zien. Bekijk deze pagina in zijn geheel (advertenties, inhoudsopgave, teksten) nauwkeurig. Er zal gevraagd worden naar uw mening. Er zijn dus geen foute antwoorden mogelijk. Uw antwoorden zullen worden gebruikt in een onderzoek naar de pagina indeling van een tijdschrift. U kunt nu beginnen aan de vragenlijst.

Allereerst volgen er enkele vragen over de reclame op deze pagina.

1. Hoe leuk vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg leuk niet leuk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Hoe aantrekkelijk vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 aantrekkelijk aantrekkelijk

3. Hoe boeiend vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet boeiend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 boeiend

4. Hoe geloofwaardig vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal niet Heel erg geloofwaardig 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 geloofwaardig

5. Hoe waarschijnlijk vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 waarschijnlijk waarschijnlijk

6. Hoe overtuigend vindt u deze reclame? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 overtuigend overtuigend

7. In hoeverre associeert u Roger Federer met sport? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. In hoeverre associeert u Roger Federer met Adidas? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

We gaan nog even verder met de reclame. De volgende vragen gaan specifiek over het merk wat wordt geadverteerd.

1. Hoe leuk vindt u het merk Adidas? Helemaal Heel erg leuk niet leuk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Hoe aantrekkelijk vindt u het merk Adidas? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 aantrekkelijk aantrekkelijk

3. Hoe mooi vindt u het merk Adidas? Helemaal Heel erg niet mooi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 mooi

4. Hoe goed vindt u het merk Adidas? Helemaal Heel erg goed niet goed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. Hoe indrukwekkend vindt u het merk Adidas? Helemaal niet Heel erg indrukwekkend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 indrukwekkend

6. Hoe bevredigend vindt u het merk Adidas? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bevredigend bevredigend

7. Is het merk Adidas uw favoriete sportmerk? Helemaal Heel erg niet favoriet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 favoriet

1. Overweegt u Adidas producten te kopen? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Vindt u de Adidas producten ‘waar voor uw geld’? Helemaal Heel erg niet ‘waar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ‘waar voor voor mijn mijn geld’ geld’

3. Heeft u in het afgelopen jaar Adidas producten gekocht?

JA / NEE

4. Zou u producten kopen van het merk Adidas indien u deze nodig heeft?

JA / NEE

5. Stel u zelf voor dat u een tennisracket nodig heeft. Hoeveel geld bent u bereid te betalen voor een tennisracket van het merk Adidas?

…………… euro.

6. Stel u zelf voor dat u een paar voetbalschoenen nodig heeft. Hoeveel geld bent u bereid te betalen voor een paar voetbalschoenen van het merk Adidas?

…………… euro.

7. Stel u zelf voor dat u een zwempak/ zwembroek nodig heeft. Hoeveel geld bent u bereid te betalen voor een zwempak/ zwembroek van het merk Adidas?

…………… euro.

Tot slot volgen er wat algemene vragen.

1. Hoe sportief bent u? Helemaal Heel erg niet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sportief sportief

2. Hoeveel uur sport u gemiddeld per week? ……………………………………. uur per week.

3. Hoeveel uur sport kijkt u gemiddeld ter plaatse (in het stadion, langs de lijn, etc.) per week. ……………………………………. uur per week.

4. Hoeveel uur sport kijkt u gemiddeld op tv per week? ……………………………………. uur per week.

5. Wat is uw favoriete sport? ……………………………………. is mijn favoriete sport.

6. Wat is uw leeftijd? ………

7. Wat is uw geslacht? m / v

Dit onderzoek maakt deel uit van mijn afstudeerscriptie. Wanneer u geinteresseerd bent naar de resultaten hiervan, kunt u hier uw e‐mailadres geven. Uiteraard wordt dit apart bewaard van de resultaten. Anonimiteit blijft hierdoor gegarandeerd. Rond december verwacht ik het eindrapport op te sturen.