SPRING 2011 PAGE 1 TAARII Newsletter The American Academic Research Institute in

ISSUE NO. 6-1 SPRING 2011 © TAARII

ARCHAEOLOGICAL MEETING IN PHILADELPHIA

On February 26, 2011, TAARII there but have an abiding commitment the situation in the past few years. convened a half-day meeting to to Mesopotamian archaeology and Questions about permission and discuss the state of archaeology art or epigraphy; a few who have logistics for anyone wishing to initiate in Iraq, including current research already begun or will soon initiate research led to the recommendation activities by Iraqis and foreigners and field projects; two Iraqis who are now that they should establish joint the research priorities that American graduate students in U.S. universities; projects with SBAH or one of the scholars have as they resume and a few other graduate students from universities, with the agreement of fieldwork in the country. At their own the University of Pennsylvania and SBAH. It was emphasized that any expense, twenty-seven scholars met elsewhere. archaeological project in Iraq should in the University of Pennsylvania Dr. Donny George led the opening request permission from and report to Museum, some driving through a discussion on the organization the central offices of SBAH. snowstorm and others experiencing and staffing of the State Board of Besides Iraqi expeditions, which long delays at airports. The group Antiquities (SBAH), adding the news have resumed research in all areas included people who worked in Iraq that the security of ancient sites has of the country for the past few years, from the 1960s through the 1980s; now been given to the National Guard, there are several projects with foreign others who have not been able to work which marks an improvement over participation. Presently, Margarethe

In Memory of Dr. Donny George Youkhana October 3, 1950 – March 11, 2011

Dr. Donny George, former director of the Iraq Museum and later president of the State Board of Antiquities, died in Toronto on March 11, 2011. He was on his way to give a lecture on Mesopotamian archaeology, an activity that he has engaged in tirelessly for most of his adult life. As the most televised and quoted figure in the museum and the antiquities service after the looting of the complex in April of 2003, Donny gained innumerable friends and admirers in Iraq and abroad. His love of archaeology, his dedication to the antiquities service, and his generous and open character Dr. Donny George Youkhana resonated with everyone he met. (Photo credit: Micah Garen & Marie-Helene Carlton/Four Corners Media) PAGE 2 TAARII NEWSLETTER

Figure 1.1. Meeting participants include Irene Winter, Zaid Ibrahim, Figure 1.2. Henry Wright and Elizabeth Stone viewing Donny George Youkhana, and Abdul Ameer Hamdani satellite images van Ess of the German Institute is huge area centering on the marshes of positioned by remote sensing. It is an conducting a training excavation Thi Qar province, in which he located irony that some good can come from with Kurdish archaeologists in . and collected from more than 1,200 the looting that has taken place, since Another German team under Peter sites. In September 2010, Jennifer the pottery on the surface of sites is Miglus has conducted surveys since Pournelle and Carrie Hritz carried now much more representative of 2007 and is now excavating at a Neo- out a short feasibility reconnaissance the periods of occupation, and the Assyrian city in the Sulaimaniya in part of his area. Their aim is to assigning of dates to settlements will area. A Dutch expedition under reconstruct the ecological system in be far more accurate than before. Wilfred van Soldt began excavating the area through time, detailing the Several people spoke about a Middle Assyrian site called Satu reach of the Gulf and investigating publication projects. Richard Zettler Qale in the vicinity of Erbil in 2010, the nature and position of settlement and Jean Evans discussed progress on in cooperation with the University related to the edges of the ancient the Inanna Temple at Nippur. McGuire of Erbil. The University of Rome marsh. They hope to return for more Gibson mentioned not only his work Sapienza is fielding a joint Iraqi-Italian extensive research. to reduce his backlog at Nippur, but excavation at Tell Abu Tubaira near Ur, Elizabeth Stone reported on her also the book that Karen Wilson has beginning in the summer of 2011. ongoing project to assess damage to submitted for publication on Bismaya/ Abdul Ameer Hamdani gave an sites, which has led to the compilation Adab and her manuscript on Kish. overview of his post-2003 surveys in a of remarkable plans of buildings on Holly Pittman is heading up a group some sites as revealed in satellite to publish Donald Hansen’s findings at images. She and Paul Zimansky plan Tell al-Hiba/Lagash. Clemens Reichel to open excavations this summer in a described the online Diyala object joint operation with Hamdani at the database, which is finally going to be site of Tell Mathhuriya, an Ur III–Old available for scholars this year. Gibson Babylonian site near Ur. then described the TAARII project in There was an important discussion which he and Mark Altaweel have of the need for a coordinated effort been translating and editing Iraqi site to assess the damage to sites in the reports for publication in English in south, utilizing standard methods and international journals; among these recording to ensure comparability of are a report by Salah Rmeidh on Tell results. The sharing of satellite images Asmar and another by Hussayn Ali and location databases is essential to Hamzi on Tell Muqtadiya, both of this effort. It is assumed that the Iraqi which are in the Diyala region. SBAH and cooperating foreign teams The meeting broke up at 5 p.m., will be able to carry out such a program with everyone agreeing that we in the future, beginning with the data should meet again in a year. We thank now on hand related to more than Richard Zettler and the University of Figure 1.3. Excavations in the Early Dynastic Levels of the Inanna Temple 6,000 sites located by archaeologists Pennsylvania Museum for hosting the at Nippur, 1962 in the 1960s and 1970s and precisely event. SPRING 2011 PAGE 3

THE BA‘TH PARTY AND POLITICAL EDUCATION IN IRAQ

Joseph Sassoon, Georgetown University

Based on original documents of the of writing political reports); history of became overwhelmingly dominated by Ba‘th Party in Iraq, this paper attempts the Party (the life of Saddam Hussein’s personality cult. His to understand how the Ba‘th dealt and his epic battles); and national and slogans were repeated in meetings, and with ideological education, both for regional topics (Palestine, Qadissiyat quotes from his writings and speeches its members and the general public. Saddam). In the mid-1990s another were used as subjects for seminar The Party Secretariat and its branches theme was added: The Party and research papers. Whenever any of across the country paid tremendous Religion. As part of these courses, Party the President’s books was published, attention to cultural education and members had also to undergo guidance branches had to order hundreds of political indoctrination, which became in al-thaqafa al-‘amma (general copies and distribute them to members. synonyms during the Ba‘th era. This culture). These cultural courses were Saddam Hussein’s personal interest indoctrination had an impact on culture not, however, very different in content in culture and poetry cannot be in two ways: through al-thaqafah al- from the political education. underestimated as he saw himself as hizbiyyah (political education) and al- The Party and its different a writer and a poet, and thus felt a thaqafa al-‘amma (general culture). organizations invested tremendous kinship with artists of all kinds. By the In other words, Ba‘thification of the efforts in building and running cultural year 2000, artists in Iraq were divided masses was no less important than events. Party publications played into three groups depending on their indoctrination of Party members, and as an important role, not only in the output and seniority and were given the Eighth Regional Conference of the indoctrination of Ba‘th cadres but of the monthly stipends according to the Party in 1974 stated, special attention Iraqi people in general. The Party also category they belonged to. should be paid to “educating the masses devoted significant resources to opening In conclusion, the object of political in general and the youth in particular libraries in branches across the country, education, similar to communist about the national culture …, and and donated a wide range of books. regimes, was to produce better Ba‘thists immunizing them from foreign theories In addition to visual media such who were able to grasp the Party line and ideas that do not fit our [the Ba‘th] as monuments and statues, the and, in turn, make it comprehensible to national and humanitarian goals.” regime used jidariyyat (murals) to the wider public. There is no doubt that Indoctrination was epitomized most indoctrinate people. These jidariyyat during the 35-year-rule of the Ba‘th, of all in courses run by the madrasat had the dual purpose of spreading the lines between cultural education al-i’dad al-hizbi (the Party preparatory the Ba‘th’s message and enforcing and political education became totally school) which was set up to develop the personality cult of the President, blurred, and this obviously deeply Party cadres. Courses were organized which became an integral part of the affected education and literature in Iraq along four major themes: ideological Party’s cultural undertakings. In fact at all levels. Jil Saddam or “Saddam’s (such as concepts of unity and one could argue that by the 1990s, the generation” had been imbued with the freedom); organizational (the internal Ba‘th Party ideology and its emphasis indoctrination of the Ba‘th Party in structure of the Party and the etiquette on political and cultural education every direct and indirect way.

DISSERTATION PRIZE ANNOUNCEMENT The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq (TAARII) announces bi-annual prizes for the best U.S. doctoral dissertations on Iraq. One award of $1,500 will be made for the best dissertation on ancient Iraq and one award of $1,500 will be made for the best dissertation on medieval or modern Iraq. Dissertations defended during the 2009–2010 and 2010–2011 academic years are eligible. The competition is open to U.S. citizens at any university worldwide and any student at a U.S. university. Nominations and submissions should come directly from dissertation advisors. Advisors should submit a PDF copy of the dissertation manuscript and a letter explaining the importance of the dissertation. Please send all nominations/submissions, along with contact information for dissertation authors, by July 1, 2011, to The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq, [email protected]. Electronic submissions are required. Queries may be addressed to Dr. Beth Kangas, Executive Director, at [email protected]. PAGE 4 TAARII NEWSLETTER

THE CIVIC CENTER PROJECT (1960–1964)

Pedro Azara, Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Barcelona

After nearly thirty years as a British feet until the early twentieth century third largest producer of crude oil, protectorate, Iraq gained (nearly) because the Ottomans kept it as a small, and has, arguably, the greatest global complete independence in 1948 provincial town. oil reserve). However, the extraction (although, formally, it had achieved it In 1917, under the British occupation, and marketing was handled by a in 1932). Monarchy was adopted as its the appearance of the city center was private company, initially, the Turkish political system, with a king who had modified with some urban planning, Petroleum Company (renamed the been named by the British in 1921 to such as the opening of the arcaded Iraq Petroleum Company in 1929), grant some autonomy to Iraq, at least Al-Rashid Street. But it was not until created by the Turkish-Armenian in appearance. the establishment of the Development industrialist and financier Calouste Iraq had become part of the Arab Board1 in 1950, which operated until Gulbenkian, with strong participation empire in the seventh century, the sixties, that Baghdad underwent from the British Anglo-Persian Oil and the Ottoman Empire as of the significant transformation at the hands Company. Profits were distributed sixteenth century. Given the rivalry of architects. disproportionately: 80% for the between Turks and Arabs, the Arab While versions differ somewhat on company and 20% for the protectorate. side of the empire vegetated until the the origin of the planning of Baghdad, In 1953, this distribution was late nineteenth and early twentieth it seems that it was the result of significantly modified. Suddenly, the centuries, when the German Empire, several factors: impoverishment of Iraqi government began receiving 70% with whom the Ottoman government the peasantry of the south, ruined by of the profits (which today reach 95%). maintained good relations, achieved drought or by the devastating floods This sudden injection of funds enabled concessions to build a rail line that of 1954, and then by a mass migration the launch of the previously mentioned would link Berlin with Istanbul and to slums of mudbrick or reed houses major infrastructure projects. Baghdad, along with a number of on the outskirts of the captial. There It was in 1955 when the type stations and accommodations for was also general discontent over an of projects undertaken by the travelers. The line would cross the excessively Western policy, contrary Development Board changed course. entire country and connect the West to that practiced by Egypt (which had The architect Rifat Chadirji (who still with the Persian Gulf, and from there become a reference at that time in the alternates residence between London to India, thereby avoiding dangerous Middle East). The young King Faisal and Beirut) was known by King Faisal navigation. II (cousin of Jordan’s King Hussein, II. He attempted to convince the king The city of Baghdad was rebuilt by who succeeded to power precisely in of the importance of commissioning Caliph al-Mansoor in the eighth century 1953, on coming of age, perhaps to “prestigious” public projects from according to a circular town plan that escape, in part, from the tutlage of great international architects (the first reproduced the celestial planimetry of his uncle ’Abd al-Ilah, regent from generation of Iraqi architects, trained the day of the foundation. This plan 1939), ordered activation of a body for in the United Kingdom was still too was soon abandoned because it did not the rapid promotion of infrastructural young). The son of Iraqi Prime Minister allow organic growth. Indeed, until it improvements in agriculture (irrigation Ali Jawat, Nizar, was an architect was razed by the Mongols, Baghdad and extensive crops), health (hospitals), working in Walter Gropius’ studio became a world center of culture and and education, together with the in the United States. Nizar, Gropius, home to the world’s first university in improvement of electricity production Chadirji and Jawdat, persuaded the the thirteenth century. There are few through the installation of reservoirs king to change his course. A list of architectonic traces of that medieval and power plants. renowned international architects was splendor. All that remains today, still Apparently, financing was not a established by Chadirji: Wright, Le well preserved, is the first university problem. From the early twentieth Corbusier, Gropius, and Aalto were building (the Madrasa Nizamiyah). century onwards, Iraq emerged as the best known. Dudok, Ponti, and Baghdad would not get back on its an oil power (even today, it is the Doxiadis, among others, also entered SPRING 2011 PAGE 5 the running. All of them except for on the part of the architects, except of the Graduate Niemeyer, who, in his words, refused Doxiadis who, up until 1960, was able School of Design, to build the new U.S. to cooperate with a dictatorial regime, to construct 20,000 houses (for three embassy in the Iraqi capital. Well built accepted the assignments entrusted to classes) and twenty-six villages, and by the company Shahin & Janabi, the them: cultural facilities projects (an restore 30,000 buildings in five years embassy was, without doubt, Sert’s best opera house for Wright, Gulbenkian (at a cost of 1 million dollars), and get project.10 Museum of Fine Arts for Aalto), paid for every job. Baghdad possessed a General Plan, educational (university for Gropius), Requested changes, contracts that created by the English studio of sports facilities (Olympic facilities for went unsigned,5 increased costs due Minoprio, Spenceley & MacFarlane Le Corbusier), along with a wide range to the changes requested by the Iraqi in 1956. This group of architects of public facilities (Head Post Office government,6 increasing difficulties was also commissioned to plan and for Aalto, Police Headquarters and the in payment, the coup of July 14, coordinate the city’s Civic Center: Palace of Justice for Dudok, Ministry 1958, that overthrew and killed King a comprehensive public extension of Urban Planning for Ponti, etc.). Faisal II, starting a new architectural (219,317 m2), located in the center of Not all projects were direct orders. policy that favored social facilities the capital. Within the Civic Center Public tenders were also organized, and housing at the expense of others were to be several important buildings, to which prominent international deemed unnecessary (the Opera including Alvar Aalto’s Museum of architects were invited to participate House, for example, which the present Fine Arts, designed to house the private in the tenders for the headquarters of government wants to relaunch today), collection of Calouste Gulbenkian, the National Bank of Iraq. Gio Ponti forced the architects, from the early which the Iraqi government thought was appointed to the international sixties, to abandon little by little would be donated to the city, although competition jury for the headquarters the projects.7 The letters that went it ended up, finally, in Lisbon; and the of the Baghdad Electricity Services back and forth are a testament to the Post Office Building as well as W. M. in 1960. In the case of Le Corbusier, growing irritation and dismay at the Dudok’s Palace of Justice;11 Office of whose election was primarily the work continuing gradual changes requested the City Police Headquarters; and the of Abdul Rahman al-Jalili, a former and the lack of honoraria. Thus, in building for Cadastre or Land Registry. minister and administrator of the 1958, the Ministry for Development The buildings would be separated by Development Board,2 they required called for a reconsideration of the gardens and a car park, all relatively his advice for various public works: entire Civic Center area, assigned to low (three or four floors, as Dudok a Civic Center, Government Center, Aalto and Dudok, and asked them to pointed out to Aalto).12 The area the Universities of and Basrah appear in Baghdad. Aalto stated: “I do included other buildings that would (in 1965, sometime after the fall of not want to get any ‘diva honorarium,’ be allowed to deteriorate until their the monarchy). He was also invited in but a certain feeling of freedom is destruction in the seventies, when the 1960 to participate in the tenders for necessary.”8 Furthermore, most of the center finally became urbanized, as the offices of the Baghdad Electricity architects chosen belonged to what is well as some monuments such as the Services,3 although, as Le Corbusier often called “the first avant-garde.” In Aidaroosi, Kholani, and Seraj el-Din wrote to Xenakis, “Baghdad is on the the late fifties they were in the twilight mosques. The Gailani mosque was other side of the world.”4 of their careers. Wright died in 1958 located nearby. Some of the streets The relationship between foreign at the age of ninety-two, without bordering the central civic area evoked architects and the Iraqi government being able to develop the Opera House its importance: streets of King Ghazi, was not easy. Despite the journeys project, and Le Corbusier in 1965 King Faisal II, and Queen Aliyah. they undertook, both to submit would die without the work on the On October 3, 1958, Anthony documentation for the projects, and Olympic facility even having been Minoprio sent a letter to Aalto in to oversee the start of the work and started.9 which he notified him that the contract give lectures (taken great advantage of Sert’s presence in Baghdad initially with his studio as “co-ordinating by the first generation of young Iraqi was due to different causes. Sert was consultants” had been canceled, “on architects, trained abroad) — the first not selected by the Iraqi government. the grounds that funds are not available Faculty of Architecture in Iraq dates As has been well demonstrated by for the public buildings in these back to 1959 — the projects suffered architectural historian Josep Maria centres. The immediate emphasis is to from the political instability and the Rovira, it was the U.S. government be placed on such matters as housing, lack of knowledge of Iraqi reality that commissioned Sert, then the dean water supply, irrigation, sewerage, PAGE 6 TAARII NEWSLETTER etc.”13 The effects of the coup d’état architect), the post office (PO), and the structure and quite high, supported by the pro-Soviet colonel Abd al-Karim Museum of Fine Arts (FA) by Aalto, by columns, composed of “conical Qasim, on July 14, 1958 (symbolic date and the Land Registry (Tapu) and the umbrellas” similar to palm trees, that alluding to the French Revolution), had Palace of Justice (Courts), both by inwardly form a vaulted ceiling. This become noticeable: the institutional and Dudok.16 In the center of the scheme, covering appears to be a very extensive representational projects were stopped there is an unidentified building. continuous pergola with irregular or underwent budget cuts, although for The Iraq Times of January 13, 1961, boundaries, into which various patios the time being they were not canceled. wrote: open (identified by the abbreviation Sq, On September 18, 1960, the company Harvard Dean Here to Design Civil possibly meaning “square”). It casts Minoprio, Spenceley & MacFarlane Centre in Jamhuriyah Street: this a shadow on the Civic Center plaza, was thrown out and replaced by Jose- centre will house a large number of crossed by irrigation channels and Luis Sert as coordinator of the Civic departments with which the people fountains. The building itself, perhaps Center, which greatly pleased Dudok are in constant touch such as the situated in the center of the covered (it was he who had suggested the Iraqi Amanat al-Asimah, the Law Court, area, displays platforms and access government name Sert as head of the the Directorate General of Police, the ramps in front and a parking area for Civic Center). Directorate General of Tapu and the vehicles. Two sketches remain from this Directorate General of Awqaf. Nothing seems to enable the commission. They were found All the buildings mentioned were identification in the sketch of the and displayed in the retrospective already allocated to Dudok, except one, building’s façade on an open space exhibition dedicated to the architect the Amanat al-Asimah: the Town Hall. with channels. Nevertheless, we that was organized in 2004 at the Joan Who was to build this building? Let may interpret a rectangle in the Miró Foundation in Barcelona. At us recall that the Civic Center area center of the pergola as a building that time, those drawings could not included a number of mosques (and (no abbreviation of Sq indicates that be interpreted correctly. Thus, Josep buildings that were to be demolished). it is a courtyard), since it is located Maria Rovira wrote, “There is no The Iraq Times announced that Sert in the same place where Minoprio, commission or report for this project, was going to design the Civic Center. Spenceley & MacFarlane placed the or at least we have not found one. Just Indeed, in one of the sketches there Town Hall. It is possible that what Sert two small sketches preserved in the are rectangles marked with the letters was sketching, in fact, was the new SC [Sert Collection] illustrate what Sq, which are probably the initial headquarters of the Amanat al-Asimah, must have been a proposal to offer the letters of the English word “square.” i.e., the municipality (we may also be politician of the day on the occasion of There is what seems to be an irregular dealing with the new market, the plan the commission for the U.S. embassy in stream, but it must be the outline of the for which is located in one of Sert’s Iraq.”14 In 2008, a traveling exhibition motion of walkers, indicating that the sketches, but more likely it resembles devoted to projects by international public space can be traversed linearly a representative building — due to the architects in Baghdad in the fifties,15 (Prom should be an abbreviation of the façade — than a market, but certainly made it possible to identify an outline English word “promenade”) across the this view reflects more a prejudice that of the Civic Center, i.e., the central area entire Civic Center. an objective fact). of the city, and suggest that it was the In the second sketch, the course Although Sert completed the U.S. first fruit of the commission that Sert mentioned does not appear, but there Embassy in Baghdad, nothing remains received as coordinator of the Civic is a spine-shaped structure: a long of the Civic Center project. Aalto’s Center. building? A ditch, perhaps? Wavy lines, and Dudok’s projects did not prosper, Indeed, in a sketch, Sert clearly faintly drawn, seem to suggest the flow albeit, years later, a Gulbenkian gallery locates the projects by Aalto (marked of water. Of course, Sert does not limit was built in Baghdad, which bears with the name of Aalto, written out in himself to making Aalto and Dudok little resemblance to the draft by Aalto. full) of Dudok (identified by the letter agree, but was involved in the design Similarly, Sert’s outlines were not D), and locates the existing mosques of public space. applied, and nothing more was heard (although he reverses their location). In The top of the more schematic sketch of the building that Sert seemed to be a second sketch, he locates al-Rashid shows a section or an elevation of an sketching for the Civic Center, whether Street, the unnamed New Avenues unknown building. This is a block it was City Hall or not. Moreover, (New Av), some existing mosques, with a saw-toothed upper profile, well Sert was only in charge of the center a new market (not attributed to any aerated, located under a large flat roof for a few years, and the absence of a SPRING 2011 PAGE 7 contract and honoraria complicated the Iraqi government after the 1958 coup. Helga Baghdad would be necessary because the city work. Mattson, Aalto’s secretary, sent a letter to planning, as Mr. Minoprio told me, is partly The Iraqi political situation Sert, on February 7, 1962, which asked his characteristic depending on some qualities opinion about the desirability of continuing to of the preliminary projects” (Alvar Aalto since 2003 has destroyed many work smoothly with the Directorate General Archives, Jyväskylä-Finland-Box AA43). of the municipal archives, and all of Housing in Baghdad, the Ministry of 8 Alvar Aalto letter to J. A. Douglas, chief documentation on international projects Works and Housing: “It seems to us that there architect in Baghdad, August 6, 1957, Alvar in the fifties and sixties in Baghdad may have been some difficulties already. Aalto Archives, Jyvaskyla (Finland), safety has been lost. Not long ago, the great Hitherto the ministry has failed in effecting AA43. In a letter to Nouraddin Muhiaddin, perspectives, painted in watercolours a considerable part of their payments ‘to us Building Director General, Aalto said that he by Wright, with their particular vision in due course.’ For three years we have been had been waiting to be paid for four years. He of the opera on the island of Edana, expecting the settlement of our bill,” (Alvar would receive an initial payment of 14,000 Aalto Archives, Jyväskylä-Finland Box were used as wrapping paper in a Iraqi dinars October 17, 1962 (Alvar Aalto AA51). Sert, February 19, 1962, answered Archives, Jyväskylä-Finland-Safety AA43) Baghdad market. They were rescued, Aalto he had not signed any contract with 9 The location of Le Corbusier’s Olympic but nobody knows where they were the Department of Housing, Ministry of site changed at least twice, going from side deposited. Only a stroke of luck would Works and Housing. On November 16 the to side of the river Tigris. The stadium itself permit us to know what Sert planned same year, Ellen M. Osborne, secretary to the was finally designed and built between 1961 dean of Harvard University, José-Luis Sert, for the Civic Center. It costs nothing, and 1966 by renowned Portuguese architect returns to the topic: “Did not sign this office however, to dream that the Town Hall Francisco Keil do Amaral, a consultant to any contract with the Ministry of Works and of Baghdad may have been the work the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, for Housing in Baghdad” (Ibid., Box AA32). of Sert. which collection Aalto designed the Museum 6 On January 21, 1957, the Development of Fine Arts in Baghdad (AZARA, Pedro, This article has been possible thanks to Board commissioned Dudok to carry out “Le Corbusier and George Marc Présenté. the most valuable information sent by Dr. the Palace of Justice and the Directorate Saddam Husein Sports Facilities (1955–65, Ghada Siliq (Department of Architecture, General of Police, located in the so-called 1979–83),” Ciudad del espejismo. Bagdad, Faculty of Engineering, Baghdad Civic Center. Dudok accepted the double de Wright a Venturi, DC biannual journal University). commission on February 14 and stated he of Architectonic Review, Department of could go to Baghdad in April. On April 15, Architectonic Composition, ETSAB-UPC, Note: Aalto’s and Dudok’s archives the Iraqi governmental body expressed its Barcelona, 2008, p. 190, n. 8). Mina Marefat concerning projects in Baghdad are surprise that Dudok had not referred to any states that Rifat Chadirji notified her that the unpublished, as are those relating to the honoraria. Was he thinking of working for stadium was built by “Portuguese architects” work of Le Corbusier in Iraq, hence, the free? Ten days later, Dudok replied: it is (Mina Marefat, “Mise au point for Le occasionally imprecise localization of the impossible to foresee a percentage without Corbusier’s Baghdad Stadium,” Docomomo documents. knowing what the projects consist of. This 41/16 [2009]: 39–40). suggests deficient information by the Iraqi 10 The U.S. embassy, designed by Sert, is institution, or Dudok poorly understood the located on a long, perpendicular site abutting commission. The projects, added to which 1 The Development Board included the the Tigris River, in what, from the days of was The Cadastre (Tapu) Department, Prime Minister, Ministers of Finance, and President Saddam Hussein, was developed conclude on April 17, 1958, a year after Development, five Iraqi notables (H. E. Sayid as a high-security governmental area, which the commission. The following year, on Jalal Baban, H. E. Sayid Abdul Majid Allawi, has been greatly expanded since 2003, as January 28, 1959, the Development Board H. E. Sayid Abdul Jabbar el-Chalabi, H. E. Dr. the “Green Zone.” Sert’s American Embassy manifested its displeasure because the cost Abdul Rahman el-Jalili) an Englishman (Mr. consisted of a set of four buildings (the of the projects had tripled, to which Dudok M. G. Ionnides in Industry), and an American Embassy, the Ambassador’s House, Offices, replied that the increase was due to the (Mr. C. H. Nelson, in irrigation). and the block housing for the embassy staff), increase of the program requested. The Iraqi amid gardens cooled by water channels and 2 Le Corbusier, letter of May 29, 1957, governmental body requested that the project ponds. The embassy was only used for a few written in Paris (Paper P4-2-36, Fondation be entirely revised four months later (May 3, years because of the break in diplomatic Le Corbusier, Paris). 1959). (All of the information about Dudok in relations following the 1967 Middle East 3 Paper P4-5-98, Fondation Le Corbusier, Bagdad — unpublished until now — is found war. The U.S. Interests Section, run by Paris. in the Dudok Archives, in the Netherlands the Belgians, occupied the virtually empty 4 Le Corbusier, letter to Xenakis, March 2, Architecture Institute of Rotterdam, The complex until 1972, when the section was 1959 (Document P 4-1-275, Le Corbusier Netherlands). moved to the Masbah area under a Polish Foundation, Paris). 7 In a letter to Director General of Public flag. The embassy building then became Iraqi 5 An interesting exchange of letters between Buildings, of March 21, 1958, Alvar Aalto, property, after lengthy negotiations about Aalto and Sert reveals the difficulties and as to a certain lack of coordination in projects compensation. After the fall of President growing suspicions aroused by the new commissioned, wrote that, “A conference in Hussein, at the end of the Second Gulf War, PAGE 8 TAARII NEWSLETTER the U.S. embassy occupied a nearby palace. help from the Spanish government, the Iraqi 13 Alvar Aalto Archives, Jyväskylä, Box Today, the U.S. government has built a vast government’s demand to have a exclusive say AA24. fortified, low-rise “city,” a city within the on use of buildings (following what the City 14 Josep Maria Rovira, “Civic Centre,” in city near the old embassy. Sert’s complex Council raised, for that matter) has meant Sert 1928–1979, Mig Segle d’Architecture: suffered extensive damage during the that currently, the proposed restoration of Complete Works (Barcelona: Fundación Joan Second Gulf War. In late 2008, the Barcelona the complex has been shelved or forgotten. Miró, 2004), p. 218. City Council proposed the restoration of 11 Anthony Minoprio wrote Dudok that the the complex as a Cervantes Institute or a 15 Civic Center (probably in this case is not City of Mirages: Baghdad, from Wright to new Spanish Embassy and ambassador’s the area but a specific building, possibly Venturi, College of Architects of Catalonia, residence. The existing embassy, on the east the Town Hall) and the Palace of Justice Barcelona & Casa Árabe, Madrid, 2008– side of the Tigris, suffered serious damage were the most important buildings of the 2009 (publication of the same title, edited in April 2010 due to a suicide bomber. The complex, and that the “Development the by Pedro Azara, and for a special issue current Iraqi government gave the former Board would like to build in stone” (Letter of DC magazine. Biannual magazine U.S. Embassy land to the Baghdad City of September 3, 1957, File Dudok, DUDO Architectural Criticism, Department of Council and the buildings to the Ministry of 0130, 212M.124, Netherlands Architecture Architectural Composition of UPC-ETSAB, Justice. The City of Baghdad and the Iraqi Institute, Rotterdam). 2008). government accepted the proposal of the City of Barcelona, which did not require anything 12 Letter of November 14, 1957 (Alvar Aalto 16 This identification is already in Pedro in return. The economic crisis, the lack of Archives, Jyväskylä, Safety AA9). Azara, editor, op. cit., n.1, p. 210.

TAARII PRESIDENT MCGUIRE GIBSON WINS AWARD

Please join TAARII in congratulating our President, McGuire Gibson, on his receipt of the Jere Bacharach Award for Distinguished Service by the Middle East Studies Association (MESA). On November 19, 2010, at the annual MESA meeting in San Diego, Professor Gibson accepted the award with a standing ovation. The text of the award reads:

THE MIDDLE EAST STUDIES ASSOCIATION

is pleased to present the

2010 Jere L. Bacharach Service Award

to

McGuire Gibson

In recognition of his exceptional service to the field of Middle East studies,

With great admiration for twenty-six years of service to the Council of American Overseas Research Centers, particularly his role in founding the American Institute for Yemeni Studies and The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq,

For his work training Iraqi archaeologists, preserving and protecting Iraq’s cultural heritage, and promoting scholarship on modern Iraq,

For his commitment to keeping the public informed about the losses to our shared world heritage caused by war and the importance of scholarly knowledge and record keeping,

And with deep appreciation for the generosity and savoir faire that delights all he encounters,

It is an honor to recognize archaeologist, linguist, fieldworker, archivist, humanist, spokesman, teacher and colleague extraordinaire, McGuire Gibson, whose wide-ranging expertise and intrepid efforts have benefited us all. SPRING 2011 PAGE 9

IRAQ IN CONTEXT: ENVIRONMENT, TECHNOLOGY, AND HUMANITARIANISM IN THE POST-2003 FIELD

Bridget L. Guarasci, University of Michigan

At this year’s Annual American international community was essential the influence of thirteenth century Anthropological Meetings in New in establishing the court both because calligrapher and illustrator Yahya Orleans in November 2010 a group of the nature of the crimes rose to the al-Wasiti on Jawad Salim, who is young scholars sought to reinvigorate level of genocide and also because Iraqi considered the founder of modern an anthropology of Iraq. The panel, actors were deemed ill-prepared for the art in Iraq. Al-Bahloly’s work “Iraq in Context: Environment, task. Despite the heavy international demonstrated how the Baghdad Group Technology, and Humanitarianism influence, Çubukçu pointed out that the for Modern Art, under the leadership in the Post-2003 Field,” attempted court was constituted as a national body of Jawad Salim, drew upon thirteenth to recalibrate contemporary based upon the preexisting foundation century symbols to abstract modern anthropological engagement with Iraq of domestic law. The result was a Iraqi life towards a general idea of and with the war by grounding analysis Tribunal “produced, staged, scripted, the human. Iraqi meditations on the in the ethnographic and archival. Each and directed by occupying forces” but human, Al-Bahloly asserted, provide a of the six panelists conducted research performed by Iraqi actors in the court counterpoint to human rights renderings in Iraq or in Iraqi communities since the itself. The final image of the court and of the human and therefore a model for beginning of the recent war. Seeking Human Rights Watch reports about the re-thinking what constitutes humanity. to contextualize Iraqi experience of Tribunal absented the role of the U.S. In her comments on both papers, Ilana the war and its political implications, government and international agencies Feldman noted that while the settings of the panel situated the conflict both in its creation. Çubukçu asked, “What the papers are different on the surface, historically and regionally. Specifically, kind of human rights politics does this both struggle with the idea of the panelists asked how the experience of absence register?” In response, she human in relationship to human rights. life and war inside Iraq were caught up argued that the politics of human rights In both the contemporary period and in parallel political processes that took asserted the universal, fundamental in the mid-twentieth century, Feldman shape in other historical moments or rights and responsibilities of humanity asked, what are the consequences for outside of current national bounds. over and above the autonomy of thinking about the universal from the The papers engaged Iraq by Iraqi citizenry. In the end, she found, vantage point of Iraq? examining questions of environment, the Tribunal underscored foreign Turning from the human, the next set imagination, humanitarianism, and political power and the denial of Iraqi of papers engaged the ways in which technology. Ilana Feldman, Stefania sovereignty. Iraq had been imagined historically and Pandolfo, and Nadia Abu El-Haj acted Saleem Al-Bahloly also offered today. Zainab Saleh’s paper, “Thoughts as discussants and reviewed pairs a meditation on the human with on the Fall and Execution of Saddam of papers through their own area of his paper “Modern Art in Iraq, the Hussein,” offered a personal meditation expertise. Ayça Çubukçu opened the Philosophy of History and the Human.” on contemporary Iraq. Saleh described dialogue with her paper, “Iraq, the Traveling from the present-day back her own experience of the fall and Missing Subject.” Çubukçu argued to the mid-twentieth century, Al- execution, juxtaposing her reaction that practices of international law and Bahloly investigated Iraqi concepts with that of her British relatives and human rights negated Iraqi sovereignty of the human constructed with the friends a generation older. Watching in the way that they prosecuted Saddam emergence of modern art in Iraq. He the statue pulled from its Firdos Hussein for war crimes. She specifically argued that modern artists searched for Square mount she posited, “Was examined the particular role of Human symbols underwriting the existence Saddam’s removal that straightforward Rights Watch in establishing the of distinctive Iraqi cultural forms in and obvious?” She set her own Iraqi High Tribunal, which tried and the figure of al-insan, the human. ambivalence against the excitement of executed Saddam Hussein for crimes Their quest brought them back to her aunt and uncle’s generation who against humanity. Human Rights the Mongol invasions six hundred anticipated returning to Iraq again after Watch, which played a major role in years before when artists tried to the deposition of Saddam Hussein; the creation of the Tribunal, argued capture “civilization” in formation. a dream that was shattered in the that international expertise from the Al-Bahloly’s analysis focused on aftermath of 2003. Saleh’s life in Iraq PAGE 10 TAARII NEWSLETTER under censorship, war, and violence come to terms with the destruction of preparation for the park, international appeared utterly distinct from the life forms?” teams of experts trained Iraqi her relatives recalled, one of political Katayoun Shafiee’s paper, scientists to conduct field science. As activity, optimism, and ambition. “Reassembling Iraq-in-Context: internationals administered the park “These stories,” she asserted, “used Mobilizing Petro-politics in Iraq and from afar, outside of Iraq, these Iraqi to make me wonder if my parents’ Iran,” also considered the petroleum scientists were deployed deep into the generation and my generation shared industry in Iraq. Shafiee called for an heart of the marsh, territory that was the same place.” analysis that followed the oil flowing extremely dangerous to navigate in Where Saleh engaged generational between Iraq and Iran. From 1901 to post-2003 Iraq. I argued that national differences in the post-war imaginary 1954, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company park planning instituted a politics of of twenty-first century Iraq, Mona produced oil in southwest Iran. life in Iraq that favored the ecological Damluji’s paper, “Petroleum’s Starting in the 1920s the company over and above the human. Promise: Public Relations and Visual was the largest shareholder in the Nadia Abu El-Haj concluded the Culture in Iraq (1951–58),” returned to Iraqi Petroleum Company. Engineers panel by commenting on the final the mid-twentieth century to consider of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company papers. Each paper, she said, offered a how Iraqi Petroleum Company therefore acquired and honed expertise fantasy of sovereignty, a fantasy of how (IPC) films projected a definitively by working above the subterranean a new Iraq, both in the mid-twentieth modern imaginary to an Iraqi public petroleum expanse, in a region that century and today, would participate in worldwide. Damluji argued that spanned both countries. The power the international community and share the production and distribution of of the twentieth century transnational its values. At the beginning of her IPC films in the 1950s produced a oil company, Shafiee argued, was comments, El-Haj summarized what the technology of corporate and state worked out in the political policies panel had intended: the importance of power that equated the colonial project and strategies for managing labor in re-positioning the field of scholarship of oil extraction with the postcolonial and between these two countries. The around Iraq not only in the discipline narrative of nation-building. The circuitry of oil, she asserted, traced not of anthropology, but also in the context company’s explicit priority was only an energy system but an emerging of a war that most people believe has the production of -language politics of the Middle East region ended. The panel “Iraq in Context” documentaries for Iraqi audiences; wherein corporation and governance offered one such opening for scholarly films were produced for Iraqis by were mutually constitutive. engagement with Iraq that grapples Iraqis, but were heavily shaped by My paper, “The National Park,” with the trauma, politics, and the power British producers and scrutinized similarly focused on technologies of of war and violence as experienced by by IPC censors. IPC films and control but turned to environment as Iraqis both in the mid-twentieth century photographs, Damluji asserted, were an area of key concern. I argued that and in the present moment. meant to cultivate in Iraqis a sense in the 2003 effort to restore the Iraqi of belonging to a modern nation at marshes as a post-war symbol for a a critical national juncture, equating new political era of governance, the Newsletter Submissions, developments in infrastructure and marsh environment became terrain on Comments, transportation with the growth of the which global organizations, foreign petroleum industry in Iraq. As in the governments, and private businesses & Suggestions creation of the Iraqi High Tribunal, actualized the reconstruction mandate To submit articles, images, at this earlier moment international of liberalizing the Iraqi economy. or announcements in either expertise was also instrumental in Like Çubukçu, I followed a group of English or Arabic , p l e a s e creating an entity that was meant to actors, Iraqi exiles, who consulted the email Katie Johnson at be definitively Iraqi. In response to Bush Administration well before the [email protected] for submission Damluji and Saleh, Stefania Pandolfo war in order to plan the reconstruction details. The deadline for the fall highlighted each paper’s contribution aftermath. The national park in issue of the TAARII Newsletter is to the analysis of political trauma and the marsh was one project of the August 1, 2011. the destruction of cultural forms in movement. Through environment, Iraq For all other inquiries, comments, and Iraq. She asked: “What does it mean was reintegrated into global systems suggestions, please visit our website, to bear witness in an experience of finance and expertise as mandated www.taarii.org. of political trauma? How does one under United Nations Conventions. In SPRING 2011 PAGE 11

PRESIDENT’S REPORT

McGuire Gibson

TAARII is passing through a time the Middle Eastern community in the Neo-Assyrian site near Sulaimaniya. I of change, especially because we Detroit area. She has had experience in have also heard that a Dutch expedition have lost one Executive Director and oral history, which makes it easy for is also working or about to work replaced her with another. As I reported her to further our Oral History Project. there. And, in the fall, two American to the board meeting held at MESA, While at the University of Arizona, scholars carried out a preliminary study Dr. Stephanie Platz has decided to she obtained valuable administrative in southern Iraq, aimed at initiating a take a position with the MacArthur skills in working for the Center for long-term project. There are also Iraqi/ Foundation. Actually, it is amazing that Middle Eastern Studies and in the Italian and Iraqi/American projects we retained her services for as long as offices of MESA. In addition, she planned for the area near Ur. we did, given her superb abilities. Any managed an adult education program I must end on a sad note. One of successor would have to strive to live for Afghan refugees in Pakistan. She my oldest friends and colleagues, Dr. up to the expectations that Stephanie has organized conferences and has Selma al-Radi has died in New York created in the post. To make the written successful grant proposals. In after a long illness. We first met in transition to a new Executive Director addition she has taught in anthropology the museum in Baghdad in 1964. go smoothly, Stephanie continued to departments for much of the past Shortly after, she was the government work for us even after she took up decade. All of this experience was representative with the Abu Salabikh her new position, and the necessary critical in our choosing of her as the expedition of Donald Hansen and then accounting procedures, reports, and new Executive Director. She will be was transferred to Nippur, where we fellowship competitions have gone located in Grand Rapids, Michigan, worked alongside one another for more without a hitch. and the mailing address of TAARII than six months. She was one of the In December, we advertised has been changed to reflect that. The key people setting up the exhibitions the position and received sixteen TAARII phone (773-844-9658) will in the new Iraq Museum in 1966–67. applications, which we then reduced to remain the same since it is a cell phone. She went abroad for her M.A. and a short list of three, who were brought Beth is married to an Iraqi poet, Ph.D., and then worked for almost to Chicago for interviews. After Fadel Khalaf Jabr, whom she met in three decades in Yemen, where she was careful consideration, the position Yemen; they have two children, a boy a transformative figure in archaeology was offered to Dr. Beth Kangas, Elaf and a girl Malaika. and monument reconstruction. But she who has accepted it, and has begun Our temporary quarters in Amman remained always an Iraqi. She rushed her duties as of February 15, 2011. are gradually receiving additions to back to Baghdad after the 1991 Gulf She has already spent a weekend in the library. Another twelve boxes will War to check on her family and to help Chicago, working over procedures be sent out soon. Many are gifts from in assembling a list of about 5,000 with Stephanie, and she has proven to the library of Dr. Irene Winter, who has objects that had been stolen from be a quick study. We are once again in enriched our collection with art and regional museums by looters. Again in very good hands. archaeology books on Iran, an area that 2003, she went back to assess damage Beth is an anthropologist with a we would not otherwise have. at the Iraq Museum and to offer her doctorate from the University of We continue to monitor the situation help in checking to see what was Arizona based on fieldwork in Yemen. in Iraq closely, hoping to establish missing. She was a spokesperson for Her research has focused on health- ourselves physically in Baghdad Iraqi antiquities and culture even after related issues. I first met her in as soon as possible. A number of her illness made it difficult. Anyone Sana‘a in the late 1990s, but I cannot foreign researchers have carried out who knew her will agree that with say that I knew her well prior to our projects in Iraq, although we are her passing, a major force has left the hiring interview. She has had first- not allowed by our funder to let our stage. hand experience of the workings of American grantees to use the money an overseas center in Yemen, so she in Iraq. Several foreign teams have For information on how to become knows what such organizations do. begun archaeological projects in the a TAARII member, visit She has also studied and worked in north, with one German group doing www.taarii.org. Jordan, Egypt, and Syria, as well as in something in Erbil and another on a PAGE 12 TAARII NEWSLETTER reconstruct ancient settlement and land 2011 U.S. FELLOWSHIP RECIPIENTS use systems in the marshes, particularly the Hawr al-Hammar. The study will not John Bowlus, History, Georgetown University only provide insight on marsh resource “-Ceyhan Oil Pipeline and Oil Transportation exploitation in early cities, but will in the Middle East, 1957–1977” also detect archaeological sites and Dr. Jean Evans, Archaeology, Bryn Mawr College features before they return to the hidden “The Lives of Sumerian Sculpture” landscape once water is present again in the marshes. Dr. Carrie Hritz, Archaeology, Penn State University “Cities in the Marsh: Settlement and Land Use in the Matt Saba Former Marshes of Southern Iraq” Saba’s project focuses on the assemblage Matt Saba, Art History, University of Chicago of artifacts excavated from the Dār al- “The Dar al-Khilafa of : Architecture, Ornament and the Khilāfa palace at Samarra, the capital of Aesthetics of Wonder in Abbasid Iraq” the Abbasid Dynasty of Iraq from a.d. 836–892. Although the Dār al-Khilāfa Brandon Wolfe-Hunnicutt, History, Stanford University is the largest excavated residence “The End of the Concessionary Regime: Oil and American Power of the Abbasids, no comprehensive in Iraq, 1958–1972” studies of the building have been done. Additionally, the significance of its form and ornamental program to audiences in John Bowlus 2900–2350 b.c.). It critiques earlier Abbasid Iraq remains unclear. Through In the aftermath of the Suez crisis interpretations of and provides new extended research of finds from the in 1957, Western governments, oil perspectives on the hundreds of statues palace that are housed in Berlin and companies, and the Iraqi government of human figures brought to temples London, Saba will reconstruct and attempted to build a pipeline from and dedicated as gifts for the gods by describe the fragmented ornamental Kirkuk, in the oil fields of northern individuals who, although an elite class, program of the Dār al-Khilāfa. The Iraq, to Ceyhan, a Mediterranean port were not royal. The study promises to study, which draws on both artifacts in southern . However, the change the current understanding of and texts, illuminates the development pipeline remained unconstructed until the relationship of the image to the of what Saba calls the “aesthetics of 1977. Bowlus will conduct research divine and to the original donor and wonder” in Abbasid Samarra. in archives in England and France will allow us to think dynamically about the society of Early Dynastic to complement archival research in Brandon Wolfe-Hunnicutt Washington, D.C., and Turkey in order Mesopotamia. Building on the findings of his to trace the history of the Kirkuk– dissertation, Wolfe-Hunnicutt will Ceyhan Oil Pipeline. The project will Carrie Hritz conduct archival research in England shed light on the significance of oil In the late 1990s, Iraqi governmental and Lebanon on a group of Iraqi transportation and oil-transit states in projects drained the marshes of southern technical experts that played an the history of the Middle East. Iraq and relocated its inhabitants. important role in the social process that The draining revealed entire relict culminated in the 1972 nationalization Jean Evans landscapes on the surface in the form of of the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), Evans will revise for publication her archaeological tell sites, channels, and a consortium of western multinationals. book-length study presently entitled agricultural fields. Hritz will use remote His research explores the relationship The Lives of Sumerian Sculpture. This sensing datasets and GIS (Geographic between technical expertise and study provides an object biography of Information Systems) technology political power, and contributes to temple sculpture from Early Dynastic integrated with past archaeological our understanding of the history and Sumer (present-day southern Iraq; ca. survey and excavation data to politics of oil development in Iraq.

These fellowships are funded by the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs through a sub-grant from the Council of American Overseas Research Centers. SPRING 2011 PAGE 13

ASSYRIANS IN IRAQ’S PLAINS: GRASS-ROOT ORGANIZATIONS AND INTER-COMMUNAL CONFLICT

Alda Benjamen, University of Maryland, College Park

This article will analyze the emergence A Historic Background: Assyrian the Assembly of Syriac Language, and struggle of Iraqi civil society using Civil Society Under the Ba‘th Rule which later joined the Scientific Assyrian organizations as a case in (1968–1991) Iraqi Academy with their magazine, point. The term Assyrian will be used Following two coup d’états in July Mujma‘ al-lugha al-Surīāniyya (“The to refer to the Nestorian, Chaldean, and 1968, the Ba‘th political party Assembly of the Syriac Language”); Jacobite Christians collectively. The succeeded in consolidating its power and the Assyrian Cultural Club, which focus will be on a region located in in the Iraqi political sphere.2 Although existed before the formation of this law. the northeastern portion of the Ninawa leading without significant opposition, Its magazine was entitled Murdinnā governorate called the Nineveh Plain. it was still wary of its two main political Aturāyā (“Assyrian Literate”). Shapira This area is comprised generally of opponents, the Iraqi Communist Party posits that these organizations were ethno-religious minorities including and the Kurdish Democratic Party.3 not permitted to use their ethnic name, Assyrians, Yezidis, and Shabaks. Hence, the Ba‘th invited the ICP to Assyrian, but their linguistic title, Although the Nineveh Plain has been become part of the National Patriotic Syriac, hence the Assyrian Cultural studied extensively for its ancient Front and appeased the KDP with the Club was accused of being chauvinistic Assyrian and Christian archaeological manifesto of March 1970 that set the by the authority and its members were 6 artifacts, the area’s social, cultural, and precedent for the establishment of persecuted. political significance have been largely Kurdish self-administration.4 By luring As early as the mid-1970s, the ignored until recently when Assyrian the ICP and the KDP, the Ba‘th party Assyrians saw the reversal of these political organizations rallied for its hoped to discover their strength and promised strategies. The turnaround formation as an Administrative Unit as eventually obliterate them. coincided with the subsidizing of per Article 125 of the Iraqi Constitution. Although the Assyrians were not the political opponents of the Ba‘th 7 Concurrently, the Kurdistan Regional a direct threat to the Ba‘th political regime. As the Assyrians’ strategic Government (KRG) has voiced its party given that they did not have significance in oppositional groups intent to include this area as part of its autonomous political representation was no longer a reality, the Ba‘th regional administration. This “tug of during that period, their significance “generosity” towards the Assyrians war” between the central government, was realized through their membership was automatically withdrawn. All the KRG, and the local political groups within the ICP and the KDP. As a result, established Assyrian civil society of the region is currently threatening the in 1973, Law 251 was issued, giving organizations were either closed down independent civil society organizations the Syriac-speaking citizens (i.e., or directly controlled by the state, and in this region, as political, economic, and the Assyrians) cultural and linguistic the media venues became propagandist 8 social pressures have constrained the rights.5 The establishment of civil tools of the state. further development of civil society. A society organizations was permitted Civil Society Re-established (KRG): new wave of civil society organizations on the basis of social, cultural, artistic, 1991–2003 is appearing in the Nineveh Plain, and linguistic objectives. A number of which are directly tied to and funded Assyrian academics were able to take With the establishment of a “no-fly” by the KRG and in competition with the advantage of this opportunity. They zone following U.S.-led attacks in 1991, independent existing ones. not only formed organizations but a region autonomous of the restraints The data for this paper were vigorously published newspapers and of the Ba‘th regime and protected by gathered in a field mission to Iraq magazines, and also produced radio coalition forces developed in northern in 2007, followed by subsequent and television programs. Some of Iraq.9 Although the region reinforced online and phone communications the significant organizations formed the “distinct Kurdish ethnonational with various organizations until included: the Union of Syriac Literates identity,” there was room for the the summer of 2010. They will be and Writers, with its seasonal magazine emergence of Assyrian civil society analyzed from within the theoretical entitled al-itihād (“The Union”); the organizations alongside Kurdish ones.10 framework of nation-building and Cultural Organization with its magazine The resulting Kurdish and Assyrian feminism.1 Qālā Surāyā (“The Syriac Voice”); voluntary associations were formed in PAGE 14 TAARII NEWSLETTER an unprecedented manner, including result, eight secondary schools and the Assyrians, the Nineveh Plain the Assyrian Student and Youth Union thirty-eight elementary schools now are constitutes the heartland of their (renamed ChaldoAssyrian Student Youth teaching every subject in Syriac, and historic homeland. Its proximity Union in 2003),11 the Assyrian Women’s numerous other schools teach Syriac to ancient Nineveh along with Union, the Assyrian Aid Society, and the only as a language.17 Until 2004, the various historical artifacts found Assyrian Cultural Center. schools were completely funded by near their villages, and religious Perhaps the most successful Assyrian the Assyrian Aid Society and its sister monasteries dating back to the first civil society organization during that branches. Currently, the Ministry eras of Christianity, strengthen period was the Assyrian Aid Society of Education (KRG and Central their connection to the location. For of Iraq (AAS-I). The organization was Government) provides partial support instance, Assyrian inhabitants of the established by a group of refugees, to the Syriac educational system. Nineveh Plain proudly display family rather than elitists, to address the In sum, although Assyrians were still trees that go back more than seven 21 needs of Assyrian refugees who had being persecuted and marginalized generations. This continuity, coupled escaped to the borders of Iran and (specifically by members of the with the surrounding architectural 18 Turkey following the U.S.-led attacks Kurdistan Democratic Party), this culture, adds to their collective memory in 1991.12 By distributing food and period in comparison to the Ba‘th rule and strong association to their towns financial aid, AAS-I became one of the and the upcoming “liberation of Iraq” and villages, considered Iraq’s oldest 22 first five humanitarian organizations can be regarded as the heightened phase (e.g., ). The Nineveh Plain in the country to work in coordination of Assyrian civil society’s capacity and is also home to other ethno-religious with the United Nations’ agencies.13 As performance. minorities, including Shabaks and the no-fly zone was officially imposed Yezidis and a small number of Arabs, Status of Iraq’s Civil Society 23 on northern Iraq, humanitarian work , and Turkomans. Post-“Liberation:” Taking a Closer expanded and advanced elevating this Thus, on October 22 and 23 of 2003, Look at Assyrian Civil Society organization’s commitment from the Assyrian academics, politicians, and in the Nineveh Plain supply of basic food necessities to religious and civil society leaders rebuilding indigenous Assyrian villages A) Nineveh Plain: Background, gathered in a conference in Baghdad destroyed by the Ba‘th regime during Significance, and Recent and agreed upon the formation of the its nationalization campaigns (i.e., the Predicaments as an administrative unit, allowing the Assyrian Democratic Anfal campaign), thus reviving the With the fall of Ba‘th rule following Movement to state the following in the language and ensuring the survival of the U.S. invasion and occupation of 14 conference’s public declaration: and identity. Iraq in 2003, civil society began to The main financial support for re-emerge. Within a short period of The conference stressed the need to AAS-I was provided by Assyrians in time, over 4,000 registered and 9,000 designate an administrative region the Diaspora, and sister organizations unregistered organizations were for our people in the Nineveh Plains that sprang up in the early to mid- noted all across the country. Textual with the participation of other ethnic 1990s on almost every continent, publications, radios, and twenty and religious groups, where a special law will be established for self- adopting its name and objectives. It television channels became available, administration and the assurance of further worked in solidarity with other broadcasting the country’s diverse administrative, political, cultural rights civil society organizations, notably 19 voices. The Assyrians participated in towns and villages throughout Iraq, the ChaldoAssyrian Student and actively. Organizations which had where our people reside.24 Youth Union, the Assyrian Women’s been established in Iraq’s Kurdish Union,15 and the Assyrian Democratic north such as the ChaldoAssyrian In the following years other Assyrian Movement (ADM), to push for the Student and Youth Union and which political parties, including Sarkis formation of Syriac educational schools had worked underground in Mosul Aghajan, the finance Minister of the throughout the KRG. Their efforts University20 began to officially extend Kurdish Regional Government, also 25 were met with success, and in March their branches to Baghdad, Kirkuk, and supported this claim. of 1993, an official law permitting specifically, the Nineveh Plain. After the completion of the Iraqi the teaching of Syriac was passed.16 The Nineveh Plain foresaw a constitution, it became evident that the With success at the elementary level, rapid development of civil society Nineveh Plain administrative claim was the educational system was carried organizations and is of a special constitutionally possible, according through to secondary schools. As a significance to the Assyrians. For to Chapter Four, Article 125, entitled SPRING 2011 PAGE 15

“The Local Administrations,” of the in June 2006, the second attempt of community and an implied sense of Iraqi Constitution: establishing a police force had gained citizenship.38 More importantly, it the central government’s approval.31 takes for granted the existence of a This Constitution shall guarantee the administrative, political, cultural, Instead the KRG has funded a private state, which protects its rights and civil 39 and educational rights of the various Christian militia comprised of 1,200 liberties. nationalities, such as Turkomen, locals in the Nineveh Plain, supposedly The last virtue — the existence Chaldeans, Assyrians, and all other to provide protection. However, among of a state — is perhaps what is most constituents, and this shall be regulated the duties of the Christian militia is problematic for the working of a civil by law.26 ensuring loyalty to the KRG.32 In society in the Nineveh Plain. The However, the draft constitution of the 2005, during the first national elections political status of the Nineveh Plain is KRG, as per Article 2, included the the KRG was blamed for blocking still contested. Where does it officially 40 Nineveh Plain’s portion of Ninawa the ballots and election boxes from belong? The central government governorate (i.e., Al-Shaykhan, , reaching the towns of Baghdeda, and the Assyrian residents of the Karamlesh, Bartela, Ba’shiqa, and plain will assert that it is officially Tell Kayf, Qaraqush, Ba’shiqa) in its 33 regional boundaries, thus beginning the Behzan. In summary, a recent part of the Ninawa governorate and “Nineveh Plain predicament.” report by Human Right’s Watch, “On hence under the administration of the Article 2 of the KRG draft Vulnerable Ground,” indicates that the central government (e.g., civil society constitution along with Article 35 of KRG has employed two strategies in organizations were registered officially the latest draft (June 2009), which its attempt to incorporate the Nineveh in Mosul city in 2007). Yet, the KRG mimics Article 125 of the Iraqi Plain in its region. First, inducements includes it in its boundaries and Constitution allowing for the formation with minority communities are used to asserts it under its political influence. of an administrative unit (referring to ensure their cooperation. In this case, Thus, the status of civil society it as an “autonomous region”) within money is utilized to build a “system organizations in the Nineveh Plain is the regional government, are prime of patronage” by creating another civil at times ambiguous. Their associations, examples of Norman’s nation-building society that competes with the existing activism, resistance, and very existence theoretical framework, where the one. Second, those who challenge the should be scaled in relation to the majority tries to expand its perceived KRG agenda are subjected to harsher political and security situations their measures that include intimidation, country and region are undergoing. national identity to the outskirts of its 34 believed territory and “nationalize” threats, and arbitrary arrests. Civil society organizations in the the national minorities.27 According to The marginalizing of civil society Nineveh Plain can be divided into W. Norman, all majority nationals are organizations will be demonstrated in eight categories:41 student and youth interested in assimilating or integrating the following sections. unions; women’s unions; human rights national minorities within their identity, associations; cultural, educational, and and eventually extending their national B) Civil Society in the Nineveh social groups; media and broadcasting; community (territory) to encompass Plain (2003–Present): Emergence, charity organizations; religious groups all of the state in which they constitute Resistance, Success and institutions; and labor unions.42 the majority.28 This is specifically Before analyzing civil society These organizations were mainly significant with majorities who hold organizations in the Nineveh Plain, formed to provide general services ethnic conceptions of their identities.29 it is best to address two significant for their communities, as well as to The KRG’s nationalization methods questions. What are the general virtues maintain and develop their cultural and resemble those used by the Ba‘th of civil society? And does civil society national identities. On a smaller scale, regime’s pan-Arabism campaigns. in the Nineveh Plain uphold such they supplied a pseudo-governmental Although less coercive methods characteristics? Civil society, or the system which people were able to are employed, they nonetheless sphere between the household and the rely on in times of desperation (e.g., aim to undermine the rights of state, is the arena of potential freedom churches and political bodies). national minorities and their self- and “uncoerced human association.”35 Among the most active in this determination.30 Other supporting It is constituted of autonomous region, in terms of association, examples carried out by the KDP in organizations and citizens involved mass mobilization, resistance, and the Nineveh Plains include stopping in voluntary association.36 It entails production, were the student and the creation of the Nineveh Plains qualities of civility and tolerance.37 youth organizations and the cultural, local police force in May 2005 and, It also assumes the idea of political educational, and social groups. PAGE 16 TAARII NEWSLETTER

A large number of cultural, • www.khoyada.com: official website significant pertaining to the transfer of educational, and social groups The group had also been successful final university examinations to centers developed all over the Nineveh Plain. in mobilizing Assyrian students and in the Nineveh Plain. It was argued that They constituted the majority of youth to resist biased policies against over 1,000 Assyrian university students 43 Assyrian civil society organizations in its body. For instance, in the 1990s, it refrained from attending lectures at the the region, with an average membership boycotted University Student Council University of Mosul out of fear for 52 of 200 people. Some of these groups elections in the KRG in order to their safety. Although this request 53 were extensions of existing main attain special voting permits and elect was denied at first, pressure from organizations initially originated in independent individuals to represent some parliamentarians, city council the KRG, like the Chaldean Cultural it in the Student Council, as was representatives, religious figures, and Organization-Alqosh branch. Others permitted for Kurdish students in the student strikes lead Dr. al-Dīwāchī had re-emerged after decades of University of Baghdad. The boycott to reverse his decision and allow suppression, like the Union of Syriac was successful. On another occasion, examinations to be administered off 54 Literates and Writers (originally during the 2005 Ramadan observation campus in the Nineveh Plain. established in 1972). The majority took period, Assyrian female students at their first breaths after the fall of Ba‘th the University of Mosul received C) Civil Society in the Nineveh Plain rule in 2003. leaflets given out by an extremist (2003–Present): Obstacles and The most significant student and group Mūjahidīn Mūsul al-Hudabā’, Struggles youth group was the ChaldoAssyrian instructing them to wear Islamic veils. The survival of the Assyrian civil 44 Student and Youth Union (Khoyada), University guards urged and reminded society organizations in the Nineveh established on May 12, 1991, in students to wear the veils, though no Plain was threatened by two trends: northern Iraq. Its main objectives action was taken by the administration. (1) ethnic and religious cleansing 45 included: uniting Assyrian students In response to the religious intolerance against them, and (2) their political and and working toward democracy and Assyrian female students had to face, economic marginalization. the development of society; amending 1,500 members of the ChaldoAssyrian First, ethnic and religious cleansing discriminatory educational curriculums; Student and Youth Union along with campaigns were carried out by radical giving a voice to students and ensuring students of Mosul University went on and fundamentalist Islamic groups equal employment opportunities (e.g., strike for one week and demonstrated shortly after the U.S.-led invasion of military, and police forces); expanding against the lack of response from the Iraq. The ethnic and religious purging Syriac schools and establishing Syriac president of the university. As a result, of the Assyrians as Christians can branches at university levels; and the Minister of Education took action, be categorized under the coercive ensuring that Assyrian students were and the president of Mosul University, “nationalization” strategies, aiming allowed fair representation in various Sa‘d Allah Tawfīq was removed.48 to create a uniform Iraqi society that 46 student bodies. On May 2, 2010, two buses follows the Muslim faith. 55 This This trans-regional organization transporting Assyrian students “Islamization” campaign not only successfully branched out to various from the Nineveh Plain (Baghdeda) limited the types and locations of parts of the country after the toppling to Mosul University were hit by activities, but it has also threatened of the Ba‘th rule, extending its explosives leading to the death of a the existence of some groups. This membership to approximately 2,000 student, Sandy Shabīb Zahra,49 and a campaign’s impact was observed students and youth. It was one of the bystander, and the wounding of over on many levels, starting from the most easily accessible civil society 150 students.50 Following this incident, destruction of churches to the organizations, and it employed various the ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth beheadings of religious leaders to forms of media and publications in Union was once again instrumental in abductions, rapes, killings of civilians, disseminating information about its negotiating with the district and city and the ethnic cleansing of certain goals. Some of these outlets were: council representatives, of Baghdeda areas.56 The Center for Women’s • Mezalta (“The Parade”): official and Mosul respectively, and with Empowerment in Telkef (which is newspaper, available in text the president of Mosul University, a branch of the Assyrian Women’s publication and online47 Dr. Abī Sa‘īd al-Dīwachī. 51 The Union) refrained from hanging their • Nabu: published in -Baghdad ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth group’s name outside of their building, • Arbaello: published in Ainkawa- Union submitted numerous proposals fearing the presence of al-Qa’ida Erbil to the various administrators, the most members in their city. Furthermore, SPRING 2011 PAGE 17 the high number of internally displaced Youth Union of Bartilla refused to educational daycares for children. Assyrians escaping central and accept the political funding, preferring In strategically aligning themselves southern areas of Iraq to the Nineveh an independent status. As a result with the Assyrian Democratic Plain contributed to the elevation of the of these two circumstances, ethnic/ Movement, the Assyrian Women’s economic crisis in the area. religious and political marginalization Union gained access to the central The second threat to Assyrian civil caused a decrease in their membership Iraqi Parliament and the Kurdish society organizations was the political level, bringing it down to seventy-five National Assembly (KNA). Although and economic disenfranchisement people. Assyrian national issues were more of such organizations by the KRG. A newer group with a slightly often advocated before women’s rights, The KRG in this case was adopting different name but the same mission the past president of the AWU, Ms. progressive nationalization methods by as the ChaldoAssyrian Student and Pascal Esho Warda, became Minister supporting marginal organizations and Youth Union was the Syriac Chaldean of Immigration and Refugees in the sectarian identities, through the supply Assyrian Student and Youth Union.59 Iraqi interim government. Pascal Esho of funding and material possessions.57 It received financial assistance and Warda had been a strong international As a result of KRG’s divide and rule material possessions (in 2007 its voice for Iraqi women.64 As a minister, policy, a new wave of “civil society” members were paid 60 U.S. dollars she played a critical role in supporting organizations had emerged in the monthly, had a free building with Assyrian females of Mosul University Nineveh Plain as of 2006. These offices, but was not registered), during the hijab intimidation crisis.65 newer organizations were supplied while older groups who chose to Their previous president, Galawesh with economic, political, and material remain politically independent were Shaba (known as Galeta Shaba), had enticements (e.g., monthly wages and sidetracked and struggled to survive.60 since been appointed to the KNA. facilities). Moreover, international NGO funding Although the private sphere in The Bartilla branch of the seemed to be controlled by larger Iraqi Assyrian circles was becoming ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth political blocks that diverted funding more “feminized,” Assyrian women Union in the Nineveh Plain is to Iraqi NGOs closely related to still felt the wrath of patriarchy. On representative of the effects of these them. For instance, the Ur Center for International Women Day, March two threats (ethnic/religious and Awareness of Civil and Democratic 8, 2008, ‘Abīr ‘Eso a member of the political marginalization) on its Rights in Nineveh saw many of their AWU’s branch in Baghdeda stated: organization. From their inception in submitted proposals approved, but I can tell you frankly that I have not 2003 to the end of 2005, they were given without their consent to Kurdish acquired my rights from this life. I the only student body in Bartilla. NGO organizations closely related to have been oppressed by men and the 61 Most of their efforts were focused on the KDP. community. Maybe some females have the advancement of technology (e.g., been able to acquire their rights, but use of computers, Internet) since it D) Civil Society and Issues of Gender in my opinion, a woman must be able was lacking in their town. Their main Relations: Women in the “New Iraq” to sustain herself so that no one can obstacle was the lack of economic The most established women’s control her. But how? This is a difficult funding; this, however, did not stop organization within the Assyrian question to answer because neither students from joining their group, community was the Assyrian Women’s the state nor society offers a chance bringing their membership up to 350 Union (AWU). Founded in 1992 for women to work and be someone independent.66 people.58 From 2006 to the fall of 2007, in northern Iraq, branches of the ethnic/religious and political obstacles AWU were located in most Assyrian Civil society was not the assumed began to be noticed. Ethnic/religious villages and urban cities around diverse and equitable “haven” discrimination caused increased the country, attracting over 1,000 welcoming all. emigration of the Bartilla residents members in 2007.62 AWU’s objectives In addition to that, the Assyrian from Iraq. At the same time, political and activities were in line with Al- women’s movement was facing other and economic disenfranchisement gave Ali’s suggestions, gearing towards battles. Due to the stress for female rise to new student groups created modernization, development, and representation in politics led by the with political agendas and funded by education and political participation.63 U.S., women were being utilized by the KRG via the Minister of Finance, To assist women in participating in the political parties to satisfy the set criteria. Sarkis Aghajan (ethnically Assyrian). public sphere and the workforce they This adversely affected the women’s The ChaldoAssyrian Student and had turned parts of their centers into movement, according to the AWU. AWU PAGE 18 TAARII NEWSLETTER members in Telesqof, for instance, were breathing room it needs to grow. And 8 Ibid., pp. 53–54. 9 called to the church for a meeting and although civil society is as patriarchal Natali, Kurds and the State, p. 64. 10 asked to fill out membership forms and repressive towards females as the Ibid. 11 The Assyrian Student and Youth Union for a political party. Another member, private and political spheres, females are able to mobilize. Given the was renamed ChaldoAssyrian Student and who was a sewing instructor for an Youth Union in 2003, in accordance with the emergence of the Assyrian Women’s AWU project in Telesqof, was offered Chaldean Assyrian Syriac General Conference 300 U.S. dollars a month if she left the Union, it is clear that Assyrian women held in Baghdad on October 22–24, 2003. Due AWU and joined the non-independent are slowly “feminizing” civil society. to the urgency of the political situation in women’s union in that town. But as ethnic and religious cleansing Iraq, the conference delegates agreed upon the This political hindrance was and nationalization campaigns are compound label “ChaldoAssyrian” to unite especially prominent in the Nineveh threatening to eradicate the Assyrians Assyrians of various denominational labels constitutionally. Retrieved on December 7, Plain, and nationalization campaigns very existence in Iraq, the fate of Assyrians and their civil society seems 2007, from: http://zowaa.org/news/news/ noted earlier also affected the AWU. english/pr4eng.pdf. to hang in balance. The Syriac Chaldean Assyrian 12 F. Aprim, Assyrians: From Bedr Khan to Women’s Union (Baghdeda) was an Saddam Hussein Driving into Extinction the example. This group was established 1 I would like to thank Professors Amir Last Aramaic Speakers (United States: Xlibris in April of 2006 and not registered as Hassanpour and Amir Harrak from the Corporation, 2006), pp. 239–50. 13 of August 2007. It openly professed University of Toronto, along with my advisor Retrieved on December 12, 2007, from to receiving monthly wages (starting Professor Peter Wien from the University of http://ww.assyrianaid.org/aasi.htm. 14 Ibid. The Anfal campaign that is usually from 115 U.S. dollars) in addition to Maryland for their insightful commentary associated with the Kurds also targeted other operating a center fully paid by the and guidance in preparing this paper. I would also like to thank Professor Sargon Donabed non-Arab residents of the northern provinces, KRG.67 Moreover, independent groups from Roger Williams University who shared such as the Assyrians. Over a hundred such as the AWU periodically dealt his unpublished Ph.D. thesis, and along with Assyrians villages were reportedly destroyed with intimidation from the Kurdish Ryan Misler from the University of Maryland, along with numerous historic churches. Democratic Party that mingled in their provided helpful commentary. Further, thousands of villagers were forced affairs and coerced their members in the 2 C. Tripp, A History of Iraq (New York: to relocate to urban centers and in certain Nineveh Plains to leave the group, since Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 186– villages, mass killings of Assyrians were noted. For Assyrians and the Anfal campaign they claimed, “the AWU is opposed 91. 3 see Sargon Donabed, “Iraq and the Assyrian to joining the Nineveh Plains to the M. Farouk-Sluglett and P. Sluglett, Iraq since 1958: From Revolution to Dictatorship Unimagining: Illuminating Scaled Suffering KRG.”68 Assyrian women were also (London: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 2001), p. and a Hierarchy of Genocide from Simele strained psychologically. They were 126. to Anfal,” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of expected to juggle their occupations, 4 Drawn from the al-Bazzaz Plan, the Toronto, 2011); Aprim, Assyrians, pp. 214- households, the deteriorating situation agreement promised political self-rule and 238; Human Rights Watch, “Genocide in of the country, physical safety, and, cultural expression within the boundaries Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds,” of course, gender segregation. This of this region. It also added to the Kurdish (1993), pp. 315–17. 15 See for example the internal by-laws of the was a fate they shared with other Iraqi region in the North a new province called ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth Unions as women, who in some cases became the ; D. Natali, The Kurds and the State: Evolving National Identity in Iraq, Turkey, per the fifth conference conducted in Nineveh, matriarchs of their households as their and Iran (New York: Syracuse University Karamlesh, in 2003. Also, the Assyrian husbands were killed or gone missing, Press, 2005), p. 57. See also A. Shapira, Al- Women Union’s by-laws as per the Fourth 69 without having the same rights. Ashoriyon fi al-Fiker al-Iraqi al-Mu’asir. General Conference. Conducted in Duhok, Derasat masala: fi al a’aqliya al-iraqia tejah August 10–12, 2006. 16 Conclusion al-aqaliyat (London: Dar al-saqi, 2001), Natali, Kurds and the State, p. 64. 17 p. 33; Tripp, History, pp. 189–93. Interview conducted on August 29, 2007, In this preliminary work on the 5 For a portion of the Revolution Command in Duhok. 18 Assyrian community and its grass root Council Decree No. 251 (April 26, 1973) See Aprim, Assyrians, pp. 252–63. 19 organizations, it becomes evident, U.N. Comm. on the Elimination of Racial T. Abdullah, Dictatorship, Imperialism, using the Assyrian case, that the main Discrimination [CERD], State Party Report: Chaos: Iraq Since 1989 (Nova Scotia: impediment to these organizations has Republic of Iraq, p. 32, U.N. Doc. CERD Fernwood Publishing, 2006), pp. 106–07. 20 been the centralized and (generally) /C/240/Add.3 (April 1, 1996), available at ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth Union oppressive state and its nation-building http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/ – branch (interview conducted, on August 26, 2007, Bartella, Nineveh Plain, campaigns. After the fall of the Ba‘th CERD.C.240.Add.3.En?OpenDocument. 6 Shapira, Al-Ashoriyon, pp. 42–53. Ninawa). party, civil society has found the 21 7 Ibid., p. 53. Ibid. Also, various residents, including my SPRING 2011 PAGE 19 host in Alqosh, were able to go back over 33 Declaration of the Assyrian Democratic 48 ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth Union, seven generations of ancestors who had all Movement regarding National Elections, Telkef branch (Interview on August 29, 2007, inhabited this town. January 31, 2005 (www.zowaa.org); AINA, Telkef, Nineveh Plain, Ninawa). 22 Y. Babana, Alqūsh ‘br al-tarīkh (Baghdad: “Assyrians Prevented by Kurds.” 49 http://www.ankawa.com/forum/index.php/ Office and Printers of the East, 1979). 34 HRW, 2009, p. 9. topic,412483.0.html. 2 3 ISDP (2007), “Proposing the 35 Walzer, 1991, p. 293. 50 See http://www.middle-east-online. Operationalization of Art. 125 Solution: 36 E. M. Wood, “The Uses and Abuses of com/iraq/?id=92096, http://nytimes. Establishing the Nineveh Plain Administrative ‘Civil Society,’” in The Socialist Register, com/2010/05/03/world/middleeast/03iraq. Unit,” Retrieved on December 10, 2007, from edited by R. Milliband, et al., pp. 60–84 html?_r=1, and http://www.aina.org/ http://www.iraqdemocracyproject.org/pdf/ (London: Merlin Press, 1990), pp. 61, 63. news/20100516185823.htm. NPAU-policybrief.pdf. 37 E. Shils, “The Virtues of Civil Society,” 51 http://www.ankawa.com/forum/index.php/ 24 Assyrian Democratic Movement (2003), Government and Opposition 26/1(1992): 16; topic,411022.0.html. “Chaldean Assyrian Syriac Conference,” A. R. Norton, “Introduction,” in Civil Society 52 Phone interview, August 17, 2010. Retrieved on December Retrieved on in the Middle East, Volume 1, edited by 53 http://www.ankawa.com/forum/index.php/ December 7, 2007, from http://zowaa.org/ Augustus Richard Norton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, topic,410923.0.html news/news/english/pr4eng.pdf. 1995), pp. 10–12. 54 Phone interview, August, 17th, 2010. See 25 Zinda Magazine, “Five Parties Memo 38 S. Roy, “Civil Society in the Gaza Strip: also http://www.zowaa.org/nws/ns7/n090510- on Draft Kurdistan Region Constitution,” Obstacles to Social Reconstruction,” in Civil 3.htm; http://www.ankawa.com/forum/index. November 20, 2006. Retrieved on December Society, Volume 2, pp. 222–23. php/topic,412792.0.html; http://www.ankawa. 7, 2007, from http://www.zindamagazine. 39 Shils, “Virtues,” p. 9. com/forum/index.php/topic,410443.0.html; com/html/archives/2006/11.20.06/index_ 40 Muhammad Muslih asks a similar question http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/Arabic/ thu.php#goodmorningassyria. Also see M. in his analysis of Palestinian civil society, Religion/?id=3.1.381544803; http://www. Lattimer, “In 20 Years There Will Be No “Civil society in relation to whom?”; M. ankawa.com/forum/index.php/topic,412346. More Christians in Iraq,” The Guardian, Muslih, “Palestinian Civil Society,” in Civil msg4595330.html#msg4595330; and http:// October 6, 2006. Retrieved on December 10, Society, Volume 1, pp. 243–68. www.aina.org/news/20100510201538.htm. 2007, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/ 41 Over twenty organizations were 55 Although this could be contested because story/0,,1888730,00.html. interviewed. the majority of Iraqi Muslims do not seem to 26 Iraqi Constitution. Retrieved on December 42 Four labor unions exist in the Nineveh be pushing this agenda. 10, 2007, from http://www.export.gov/iraq/ Plain: Teacher’s Union, Worker’s Union, 56 See, for example, the Forced Migration pdf/iraqi_constitution.pdf. Engineer’s Union, and Agricultural Engineer’s Review (June 2007). “Iraq’s displacement 27 W. Norman, Negotiating Nationalism: Union (phone communication with Nineveh crisis: The search for solutions,” Taneja P. Nation-building, Federalism, and Secession Center for Research and Development, (2007). “Assimilation, exodus, eradication: in the Multinational State (Oxford: University December 20, 2007). It appears that these Iraq’s minority communities since 2003.” In Press, 2006), pp. 24, 34. unions are branches of the main national Minority Rights Group International, U.N. 28 Ibid. labour unions of Iraq. For instance, the Assistance Mission for Iraq, Human Rights 29 Ibid, p. 39. Baghdeda branch of the Teacher’s Union went Report (November 1–December 31, 2006) 30 Declaration of the Assyrian Democratic on a temporary strike in solidarity with all and Annual Report of the United States Party regarding National Elections, January, other teachers’ unions across the country on Commission on International Religious 31, 2005. Retrieved on December 11, December 16, 2007. They demanded a wage Freedom (May 2006): Washington, D.C. 2007 from http://www.zowaa.org/news/ increase to match that of the teachers in the 57 The role of sectarian identities will not be news/arabic/decleration_chaldoassyrian_ KRG. Retrieved on December 17, 2007, from analyzed in this paper. discrimination_31012005.pdf. Also AINA, http://www.andawa.com/forum/index/php/ 58 According to the 1997 census Bartilla had “Assyrians Prevented by Kurds from tpic,152633.msg2930891.html#msg2930891. 29,787 residents, 42% or 12,500 of them were Voting in Northern Iraq,” January 31, 2005. 43 Seven civil society organizations belonging Assyrian. Demographics retrieved on April Retrieved on December 11, 2007, from http:// to this category were examined. 2008 from http://www.iraqdemocracyproject. www.aina.org/releases/20050131003708. 44 Khoyada in Syriac means “union.” It is org/pdf/Ethnic%20Cleansing%20of%20 htm. Other articles also posted in Zinda what the ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth ChaldoAssyrians-1.pdf. magazine’s February 2, 2005 issue. Union is commonly referred to. Their website 59 The English translation of their name is Retrieved on December 11, 2007 from is also called www.khoyada.com. “The Union of Syrianic Caldanic Assyrian http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/ 45 For a complete list of objectives, see Students and Youth,” as it appears on their archives/2005/2.1.05/index_tue.php. the internal by-laws and program of the English internal system (by-laws). 31 ISDP policy briefing, “Creating a Nineveh ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth Union, as 60 In an interview conducted with the Syriac Plain Local Police Force,” September 2007. per the fifth conference conducted in Nineveh, Chaldean Assyrian Student and Youth Union, Retrieved on December 13, 2007, from Karamlesh, in 2003. on September 4, 2007, they admitted to http://www.iraqdemocracyproject.org/pdf/ 46 ChaldoAssyrian Student and Youth Union, receiving monthly wages of $60 U.S. dollars Minority%20Policing%20-%20policy%20 Central Committee (Interview conducted on on average and owning a free center courtesy brief.pdf. August 27, 2007, in Ainkawa, Erbil). of the KRG. This center seems to be shared 32 HRW, 2009, pp. 27–28. 47 http://www.khoyada.com/mezaltaa.htm. with the Syriac Chaldean Assyrian Women’s PAGE 20 TAARII NEWSLETTER

Union, who are in turn paid $115 U.S. dollars 64 For instance, during Women’s International 2007, in Baghdad, Nineveh Plains. monthly (interview conducted on September Day, she attended a women’s conference in 68 Interview with Galeta Shaba, president 4, 2007). Both organizations were not India; http://www.hindu.com/mag/2008/04/06/ of the AWU, Ainkawa, Erbil, conducted registered as of September 2007. stories/2008040650150500.htm. September 4, 2007. The intimidation was 61 Interview conducted in Baghdeda, Nineveh 65 See Figure 2.2 for Ms. Warda’s response targeted towards the Bartela branch in the Plain, on August 28, 2007. letter. Nineveh Plains. 62 Interview conducted on August 27, 2007, in 66 Retrieved on March 13, 2008, from http:// Ainkawa, Erbil. ankawa.com/forum/index.php/topic,173982. 69 Retrieved on April 24, 2008 from http:// 63 N. Al-Ali, “Gender and Civil Society in the msg3071175.html#msg3071175. www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ Middle East,” International Feminist Journal 67 Interview with Syriac Chaldean Assyrian article/2008/04/22/AR2008042203239_ of Politics 5/2 (2003): 216, 221. Women’s Union conducted on September 4, pf.html.

BOOK REVIEW

Dr. Mudhafar A. Amin, Iraqi Academic and Former Ambassador

Sponeck, H. C. Von, A Different Kind of War: The U.N. Sanctions Regime in Iraq, New York: Berghahn, 2006. (319 pages)

Hans C. von Sponeck, a U.N. career The remaining five chapters discuss the kwashiorkor — that were unknown diplomat with over thirty years of work of the U.N. agencies in Iraq and in the 1980s as public health hazards experience, was hand picked by the Iraqi government. appeared on epidemic scales. former Secretary General of the As a result of Iraq’s invasion of As a result of pressure from the world United Nations, Kofi Annan, to head neighboring Kuwait on August 2, community against these conditions, the U.N. Office of the Humanitarian 1990, and refusal to withdraw, the the U.N. Security Council passed on Coordinator in Iraq (UNOHCI). The U.N. Security Council, under the April 14, 1995, U.N. Resolution 986, UNOHCI coordinated the work of leadership of the U.S., adopted a which laid the legal framework for the U.N. Children Emergency Fund series of resolutions. These began with the Oil-for-Food Program. Sponeck (UNICEF), the World Food Program Resolution 660 of August 5, 1990, arrived in Baghdad in November 1998, (WFP), the U.N. Development which imposed total sanctions on two years into the program. The United Program (UNDP), the U.N. Education, Iraq and the freezing of its assets all Nations and the government of Iraq had Science and Culture Organization over the world. Following the U.S.- begun joint preparations for the fifth (UNESCO), the World Health led war of January 1991, the Security phase of another six months of the Oil- Organization (WHO), and the Food Council adopted Resolution 687 of for-Food Program. and Agriculture Organization (FAO). April 15, 1991, which allowed the During the seven years of the Oil- Sponeck’s predecessor, Dennis continuation of economic sanctions and for-Food Program (from December Halliday, had just resigned from his was tied to the new U.N. demands for 10, 1996 to November 21, 2003), post in protest over the politics of the disarmament. the source of funding was entirely sanctions and their devastation of the Sponeck states in his book that while Iraqi. The Iraq Central Bank had to Iraqi population. Sponeck had to pick he believed that Iraq deserved to be surrender its functions to the treasury up the pieces and continue the work punished for its unlawful invasion of of the United Nations. Oil income had of the U.N. humanitarian program Kuwait, he objected to the fact that to be deposited into the so-called Iraq in Iraq, which the whole population the sanctions were directed against Oil Account at the Banque Nationale of Iraq depended on for their food the innocent Iraqi people rather de Paris (BNP). The budgets that the survival. than at the rulers of Iraq who were Security Council approved for each Sponeck’s book is a detailed record responsible for this tragedy. He calls six-month phase were inadequate to of his daily work inside Iraq as well as the years following the 1991 Gulf War meet the needs of the Iraqi population. inside the U.N. in New York. The book “catastrophic” for Iraqis. Malnutrition Iraq under the sanctions was prohibited is divided into six chapters. Chapter 1, and morbidity escalated rapidly. from trading with its neighbors or which covers more than half the book, Communicable diseases — such as anyone else. Iraq was only allowed deals with the Oil-for-Food Program. measles, polio, cholera, typhoid, and to sell limited quantities of oil on SPRING 2011 PAGE 21 the international market under U.N. hours a day. Clean, drinkable water 1991/92, which covered the north and supervision. Humanitarian supplies was not available and most of the south of Iraq. This aggressive policy, had to be imported under tight U.N. sewage system eroded and broke which covered most of Iraq’s skies, was Security Council controls. No local down. The farmers were not able to to destabilize the conditions in Iraq. products, including food, could be produce even half of what they used to, because of lack of pesticides, Chapter 4 deals with the United purchased under the Oil-for-Food fertilizers and modern machinery. Nations Special Commission, which Program, even though the source of The average income of government was searching for biological and funding was Iraqi oil revenue. On top employees did not exceed $5 a month chemical weapons in Iraq. Upon of that, the two previous Gulf Wars had and unemployment reached more than his arrival to Iraq, Sponeck learned ravaged the oil industry. 50% among the labor force. that UNSCOM was a privileged In his book, Sponeck asks the Chapter 2 deals with the U.N. commission, treated much more important question: Who is responsible Compensation Commission, which generously than the rest of the U.N. for the suffering inflicted on the Iraqi was established in May 1991 as a agencies. At the head of UNSCOM population? With unusual courage subsidiary body of the U.N. Security was the Australian Ambassador for a U.N. diplomat, Sponeck holds Council. This happened a few months Richard Butler, who set his own the following accountable: the U.N. after the eviction of the Iraqi forces rules, disregarded his colleagues, Security Council’s five permanent from Kuwait. U.N. Security Council and relied on the full support of the members, especially the governments Resolution 674 (1990) held Iraq U.N. Security Council, especially the of the U.S. and U.K. governments; the liable for “loss, damage or injury as U.S. and the U.K. representatives. other ten non-permanent members; a result of the invasion.” It also asked On December 16, 1998, the U.S. and the U.N. secretariat; the Secretary states to compile data “regarding their U.K. air forces attacked Iraq for four General; the Iraqi government; the claims, and those of their nationals nights in “Operation Desert Fox,” international community of nations; and corporations, for restitution or inflicting heavy human and material and the nongovernmental organizations financial compensation by Iraq.” damages. The UNSCOM staff left (NGOs). He blames the U.N. Security The beginning of the Oil-for-Food Iraq hours before the attack, locking Council and Iraqi government for Program in December 1996 was their premises and taking the keys. being aware of the human conditions also the start of payments into the Rumors circulated that they left in Iraq, yet doing nothing to alleviate compensation fund managed by the behind dangerous materials such the human catastrophe. UNCC. The U.N. Security Council as chemical and biological agents. As a direct result of the inhumane had never done this before. Judicial When a large team of experts and sanctions regime, the people of Iraq court functions and executive diplomats finally received approval suffered a miserable and impoverished authority for implementing a general from the U.N. headquarters to open life, with more than 1 million deaths. verdict had hitherto not been seen the doors, they entered to find a The standard of living went down to as part of the Security Council’s viable biological sample as well as a the average of the poorest countries in mandate. The same applies to mustard gas (VX). The origin of these the world, such as Malawi and Niger. the secretive manner in which in elements was in doubt. The team, with The literacy rate dropped from 80% in which the UNCC carried out its Sponeck among them, also discovered 1987 to less than 50% in 1998 and for affairs, blocking participation by all a meticulously prepared evacuation females to lower than 45%. Primary countries not current members of plan dated December 16, 1998, the and secondary school enrollment the Security Council, including Iraq, day “Operation Desert Fox” began, declined, despite the annual rise in who was the financier and a main suggesting that Chairman Butler and the population. Child mortality had party in the compensation process. his UNSCOM colleagues in New increased to between 100 and 120 Whether the U.N. Security Council York and Bahrain knew the start-date deaths per 1,000. Malnutrition was rife had the right under international law of the operation, betraying the lack of among children and adults in the cities to define compensation amounts and neutrality of the institution appointed as well as in the countryside. Sponeck determine the timing of deductions to help resolve a conflict. details that: is the subject of continuing debate Chapter 5 deals with the government There wasn’t a well-equipped hospital among jurists. of Iraq, its people, and their rights. operating in the whole country. Another unauthorized action were Sponeck details his meeting with the Electricity became a luxury and the no-fly zones established by the former president Saddam Hussein. it will operate no more than four U.S., U.K., and French governments in He contrasts the past image he had PAGE 22 TAARII NEWSLETTER of a ruthless dictator who killed and preconceived agenda. But neither of the State Department in Washington, tortured his people and invaded his the rapporteurs devoted much time to D.C., and the Foreign Office in London neighbor in cold blood with the man the Security Council’s responsibility had begun to do the same, but for in front of him, an elegant man, who for the human rights situation in Iraq, different reasons. They had become discussed with him the sanctions, world concentrating instead on the violations angered by Sponeck’s outspokenness affairs, and the situation in the Middle of the Iraqi government. and critical observations. In 1999, East and the Iraqi struggle. Sponeck The next chapter deals with the Sponeck states, he knew he had to was surprised when Saddam looked at U.N. Sanctions structure. Sponeck make a choice between what he stood him and said: describes the sanction structure as if for as a U.N. civil servant and what I want to thank you twice, once for the U.N. Security Council had built a the policymakers in the U.N. Security your conscience and the concern you large “U.N. Sanction House” using its Council wanted to achieve with his have for the Iraqi people and secondly, own designs exclusively. It declared help. On February 10, 2000, Sponeck for the hope you are giving to the Iraqi itself the owner and passed on most wrote to Secretary-General Kofi people that they are not alone in the of the bills to Iraq, who had to pay Annan, asking him to release him from struggle. them whether they agreed or not. his position. In the letter, Sponeck The next section of the book deals The single sanctions strategy for Iraq expressed his deep concern over the with the state of human rights in Iraq. was to link comprehensive economic continuation of a sanction regime In June 1991, the United Nations sanctions to a military embargo in Iraq despite the overwhelming appointed Max van der Stoel, a and disarmament. This linkage held evidence that the fabric of Iraqi society former Dutch foreign Minister, to the civilian population accountable was swiftly eroding. be the first Special Rapporteur on for the acts of armament of their Sponeck’s book is not an easy Iraq for the U.N. Commission on government and therefore became a read, especially for those unfamiliar Human Rights. Until he was replaced tool for the punishment of innocent with the sanctions or the intricate in 2000 by Andreas Mavromatis, people for something that they have workings of the United Nations and a foreign secretary of Cyprus, van not done. UNSCOM, UNMOVIC, especially the Security Council. The der Stoel unwaveringly tried to UNIOP, UNOHCI, and UNCC — the book is a technically detailed and in- bring about changes in the human main U.N. implementers of sanctions- depth analysis dealing with a very rights situation in Iraq through his related programs — were subsidiary complicated subject, which some reporting and by pressuring the Iraqi to the U.N. Security Council. Had it may find hard to follow and even to government for change. Unfortunately existed, constructive oversight would comprehend. his approach failed, which brought have included the assurance that these Yet, the book is also a masterpiece, him in a direct clash with the Iraqi subordinate units cooperated fully in a well-documented record of a country authorities. Van der Stoel also did the interests of a coherent approach. under thirteen disastrous years of an not take Sponeck’s advice to make From the beginning of November 2000, inhumane sanctions regime imposed by changes in his aggressive and one- Iraq cooperation with UNMOVIC and the U.N. Security Council and enforced sided approach; they met only once IAEA appeared to be adequate and, by the U.S. and supported by the U.K. and there was no interaction between in hindsight, should be considered Sponeck demonstrates the suffering of the two U.N. diplomats. Mavromatis satisfactory. For Iraq to prove to a the innocent Iraqi population and the viewed human rights in a context justifiably suspicious international reasons behind the devastation. He other than just government violations. community that it had no active WMD points out the main culprits: the U.N. He thereby avoided a confrontational program turned out to be mission and the government of Iraq. relationship with Baghdad and found impossible. “Absence of evidence” was Sponeck, with his integrity, Saddam Hussein’s government more not accepted as “evidence of absence,” straightforwardness, and human values, receptive to cooperation. Marvomatis but used instead as a justification for clearly illustrates the daily suffering decided to go beyond the limited going to war. and the heavy toll paid by the Iraqis. He mandate that he had been given. He Sponeck ends his book by has produced a book of historical value, continually reminded the international summarizing his thoughts and beliefs well documented and superbly written. community that economic sanctions as he is about to follow in the footsteps It is an excellent text for students of also perpetuated the lack of human of his predecessor, Halliday. He had history and politics and specialists on rights in Iraq. This reassured the begun to seriously question his role in the United States, Iraq, and the United Iraqis that he sought to not have a the U.N.’s Iraq operation. He says that Nations. SPRING 2011 PAGE 23

REFLECTIONS ON INVISIBLE WAR

Dr. Mudhafar A. Amin, Iraqi Academic and Former Ambassador Gordon, Joy, Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010. (359 pages)

Joy Gordon’s well-researched and supported by the British government, enormous weight in determining the documented book focuses on the U.N. connected the removal of sanctions to parameters of the economic restrictions sanctions regime imposed on Iraq from disarmament, and established “No-Fly- or, in other words, the total sanctions 1990 to 2003 and the role of the United Zones,” which divided the country into policies imposed on Iraq. States in creating, maintaining, and three regions. The U.S. administration In order for the U.N. Security Council enforcing the sanctions. At every turn, set up a policy of “containment” against to oversee the strict implementation of the United States shaped the fundamental the government of Iraq and refused to the comprehensive sanctions regime, decisions and resolutions that the Security deal with it on any level. the Council passed Resolution No. Council passed related to Iraq sanctions In her quest to explore the question 661, creating the Sanctions Committee, and disarmament. Gordon reveals in a of how a human catastrophe of this which became known as the 661 very clear and simple style the details magnitude came about, Gordon Committee. In fact, it was designed by of the U.S. policy that resulted in provides details and factual examples the U.S. to serve its objectives in stifling impoverishing Iraq and the steps that on how the sanctions operated and the Iraqi economy and making sure were taken to achieve these goals. Her how they affected the Iraqi population. that Iraq could not rebuild its economy book sheds new light on this important With the narrow exception of medicine and bring back its infrastructure to a historical crisis. and conditionally food, Iraq under working condition. The committee’s In January 1991, despite the the sanctions could import nothing, fifteen members were representatives imposition of sanctions, Iraq had not export nothing, and receive no funds. of the Security Council members, withdrawn from their invasion of The restrictions on imports hurt this the five permanent plus the ten non- Kuwait. A coalition of countries led by country that was heavily dependent on permanent members. Its work was to the U.S. conducted a massive bombing imports; the restricted or undermined administer the implementation of the campaign against Iraq. The coalition oil sales destroyed this economy that Oil-for-Food Program. But, in fact, and air force flew a total of 118,000 sorties was heavily dependent on oil sales for as Gordon asserts, the committee played and dropped more than 170,000 bombs, its gross domestic product (GDP). a major role in hindering the arrival of aimed at nearly 800 targets. The targets In her book, Gordon addresses the much-needed goods to Iraq.The 661 included not only military sites, but question: Whom is actually to blame Committee, like the Security Council also Iraq’s infrastructure and industrial for this humanitarian catastrophe in itself, operated as a political body in a capacity. Although the war lasted only Iraq? number of ways that gave the members forty-two days, the massive bombing Gordon singles out the U.S. disparate and competing agendas and campaign resulted in widespread government as the major player in gave way to self-interest rather than devastation of all service facilities shaping and implementing all policies standing on principles or standards. The and the collapse of economic activity concerning Iraq from 1990 until it procedures of the committee had the in Iraq. The overall cost to Iraq of the waged the last war in March 2003. effect of maximizing restrictions and destruction from the 1991 Gulf War The U.S. exercised singular influence minimizing humanitarian exemptions has been estimated at $232 billion. The over every aspect of the structure at each juncture. The U.S. aggressively final result was relegating Iraq to what and extent of the sanctions. Using a opposed all attempts to establish can be called a “pre-industrial stage.” variety of means, the U.S. determined precedents or any other procedures The U.N. Security Council the outcome of many of the most that would provide consistency and resolutions, under Chapter VII of basic issues, and did so in the face predictability. At its inception in the U.N. Charter, which imposed the of vehement, widespread opposition August 1990, the 661 Committee sanctions regime, demanded Iraq’s within the U.N. Security Council, adopted a practice of decision making disarmament of all Weapons of Mass as well as from many sectors of the by consensus, effectively giving each Destruction (WMD), that is, nuclear, U.N., and in the face of broad, intense member state a veto power over every biological, and chemical weapons international community criticism. decision, which was utilized by the U.S. and long-range missiles. The U.S., The U.S., often joined by Britain, had and to a lesser degree by the U.K., and PAGE 24 TAARII NEWSLETTER led to the paralysis of the work of the Russia, China, and France along with WMDs, which prolonged the sanctions committee. other non-permanent members of the on the Iraqi people. The committee worked in secret and U.N. Security Council, as well as U.N. Despite the claims of the U.S. and had no spokesperson to explain its agencies and NGOs, tried to reform the others, the Iraqi government undertook decisions. There was no accountability rigid rules of the sanctions and make several important efforts to meet or transparency and other member the flow of needed goods to Iraq easier. the needs of the Iraqi population. states had no access to the minutes The U.S., backed by the U.K., resisted The government instituted a system of the meetings. More importantly, these attempts at reform. When it was of rations after the sanctions were Iraq was barred from participating in forced to make some changes, the U.S. imposed in 1990, which helped keep the any form or shape in the work of the undermined the process by creating population alive. It also initiated efforts committee. All these unusual practices difficulties and delays. to increase domestic food production. allowed the U.S. to shape the initial For the first several years of the In addition, although much of the terms of the sanctions regime and to sanctions regime, no one in the U.S. health care system collapsed during determine its duration, as well as to Congress had any awareness or interest the sanctions, the state nevertheless impose its will in many regards on the in what is happening in Iraq or had implemented, with the help of UNICEF implementation of the sanctions by the any actual knowledge of the U.S. role and WHO, several vaccination Security Council 661 Committee. in the sanctions which was creating campaigns targeted at children. The There was little consistency in the widespread human suffering. There was state also permitted the expansion of the work of the committee. It approved certainly no sign that anyone in either private sector in health care. one item allowed into Iraq at one time. house of Congress knew that the U.S. In addition, the government responded The next time, it would reject the same government was blocking everything quickly to restore basic services to the item, claiming “dual use” or put it on from tractor tires to ambulances to extent possible within the country’s hold with no explanation at all. The women’s clothing, or that there was massively damaged infrastructure. It U.S. blocked or put on hold the imports even a process for humanitarian repaired the water and sewage plants, of materials such as spare parts, or even exemptions. This ignorance was in electric power stations, bridges, goods like eggs, pencils, powered milk, part because the State Department roads, airports, telephone lines and tomato paste, salt, and materials to often presented a distorted picture of communications, refineries and oil produce plastic bottles for juice. The the humanitarian situation in Iraq and pipelines – although at times partially reasons given were that these materials of the U.S. role, maintaining that the and temporarily – by cannibalizing parts could be used to “manufacture weapons Iraqi government was exaggerating from damaged units and making risky of mass destruction” or “enhance claims and that Saddam Hussein was makeshift repairs. Under the Oil-for- Iraq’s infrastructure.” Of the 125 items to blame. U.S. diplomats regarded the Food Program, Gordon states, there were blocked by the 661 Committee, Japan sanctions as the responsibility of the indications that the government of Iraq blocked one, the U.K. blocked nine, U.N. and wanted to ensure that the put the imports to good use. However, and the U.S. blocked 115. At times, U.S. was doing what it could in order the Iraqi government had its own failures goods would arrive in Iraq but could to direct the organization in the right within its structure and practices because not be used because they required way so that “Saddam’s apologists don’t of corruption, centralization, and the complimentary parts that had been get the upper hand.” reliance on oil income, imports, foreign blocked. For example, the committee U.S. administrations accused the professionals, and advanced technology. would approve tractors, but put the Iraqi regime of being responsible for Also, the dictatorial regime with a tires on hold. the harm done to its people under one-party system could not respond As the social and economic structure the sanctions. They accused the Iraqi effectively to the changing circumstances of Iraq deteriorated throughout the regime of building palaces and buying of the sanctions. 1990s, there was a growing dispute over weapons instead of spending the The United States consistently who was to blame. The perversity and money on its people. They claimed blocked proposals for a cash component irony of the sanctions regime, imposed the regime did not distribute the food that would have allowed funds from under the auspices of international and medicines equally to all regions of the Oil-for-Food Program to be used law, is that it might have created more Iraq (meaning depriving the Kurds in to buy locally produced goods and to human damage than Saddam Hussein’s the north and the Shi’a in the south). hire Iraqi labor, both of which would persecution of ethnic groups and The administrations also blamed the have generated work and income for human rights violations combined. Iraqi regime for refusing to get rid of the population. The collapse of Iraq’s SPRING 2011 PAGE 25 industrial capacity — and the economy Iraqi government skimmed about 10% The sanctions regime on Iraq, as it as a whole — triggered massive from import contracts and, for a brief was designed, interpreted, and enforced unemployment, the disappearance of time, received illicit payments from oil by three U.S. administrations and Iraq’s middle class, and a decline in the sales, amounting from 1996 to 2003 dozens of U.S. officials was tantamount standard of living so extreme that, just to about US $2 billion. By contrast, to war crimes in its willingness to see to survive, engineers drove taxis and in fourteen months of occupation, the appalling things done in the name of families sent their children to beg on U.S.-led occupation authority depleted security. Regrettably, no domestic or the streets. $18 billion in funds, a good deal of it international criminal court is likely to The Geneva Conventions offer a clear on questionable contracts with little have jurisdiction to pursue a prosecution statement of the international recognized justification, but much of it was just against a government for its actions norms for conduct during armed conflict. an outright giveaway of cash. In one within the Security Council. In the They provide protection for goods and transaction — the transfer of $8.8 end, history, and the rest of the world, materials that are “indispensable to the billion — more funds disappeared will not judge the United States by its survival of the civilian population.” than in thirteen years of Iraq’s trade rhetoric or the intention of its leaders, Under this provision, “the starvation with Jordon, Turkey, Syria, and Egypt but rather by its policies and the of civilians as a method of warfare is combined. magnitude of the suffering they have prohibited.” Yet this is precisely what Having garnered control of the wrought. Gordon’s book, with its clear the United States did from August 1990 predominant institution of global explanation and in-depth analysis based through March 1991 in blocking Iraq’s governance, the United States showed on well-documented research, highlights requests for permission to import food no wisdom in its use. The tactics came the role of three U.S. administrations in under the “humanitarian circumstances” easily enough: the closed meetings, creating the human catastrophe that was exemption in Security Council the arm-twisting for votes, the endless inflicted on the Iraqi society. The United Resolution 661. delays, and the opaque bureaucratic States’ dominant and unchallenged Many critics of the sanctions have procedures. But at the same time, the control of the U.N. agencies and maintained that these policies were United States could not see a way especially, the Security Council, allowed “genocidal” under both the Genocide out of its own dilemma, and this then it to follow its own agenda against the Convention and the Rome Statute, became the U.N.’s dilemma as well. will of the international community. At as Dennis Halliday, the former U.N. As the criticism grew, few within the outset, Gordon’s book resembles Humanitarian Coordinator, announced the U.S. administration or Congress Hans Von Sponeck’s book, A Different when he resigned his position in questioned the legality and sanity of Kind of War: The UN Sanctions Regime protest of the sanctions regime and the bankrupting an entire nation for the in Iraq. However, it differs in its focus practices of the U.N. Security Council. purpose of containing one tyrannical on the role of the U.S. rather than on Throughout the sanctions regime, man. The U.S. administration the U.N. Security Council. The book’s U.S. practices were extreme and harsh, stubbornly saw itself as alone in its richness of facts and clarity of style and often unilateral, going well beyond moral leadership, never grasping the provide an informative – although sad the mandate of the Security Council’s significance or thoroughness of its – journey into the human suffering of resolutions, and well beyond the will isolation and marginality within the an ancient civilization. It is one of the of the rest of the Security Council world community. few books by a Western writer that members. The U.S. was excessive in The moral claim of the United States deals objectively with the former Iraqi preventing Iraq from dealing with the — that it was punishing a wrongdoer government, stating both the negative outside world. Yet, at the same time, — was undermined by the consistent and positive aspects. Joy Gordon’s book it allowed a huge smuggling of oil and practice of equating Saddam Hussein is an excellent read and a good text for illicit trading with Jordon and Turkey, with Iraq. The United States embraced students of international relations, the because these countries were U.S. the notion that depriving an entire U.N., U.S. and Iraqi history and politics, trusted allies and helped the U.S. wage population of plywood, telephones, international organizations. It provides the 1991 war against Iraq. On many light switches, and glue was a good necessary analysis for current and future occasions, the U.N. staff notified the way of punishing Saddam and bringing U.S. government officials to learn from 661 Committee of violations, but they about his downfall. Perhaps at some the country’s past aggressive political were ignored by the U.S. and no actions level U.S. policymakers justified this practices in order to avoid repeating the were taken. collective punishment as some notion human tragedy inflicted on an innocent Under the Oil-for-Food Program, the of collective responsibility. population by a single superpower. PAGE 26 TAARII NEWSLETTER

TAARII’S OFFICERS OF THE BOARD

McGuire Gibson, President Magnus Bernhardsson, Vice President James Armstrong, Secretary Stephanie Platz, Treasurer Waiel Hindo, Advisor to the Board

Figure 2.1. Sert’s Embassy, discussed in Pedro Azara’s article, as it looked in ON THE WEB 2003. (Photo credit: McGuire Gibson)

Be sure to check out our website, www.taarii.org/events, for any upcoming lectures or events! Language Announcement TAARII is now on Facebook! Join our page (The American Academic As readers may be aware, TAARII is Research Institute in Iraq [TAARII]) and receive regular updates about events, committed to producing a bilingual lectures, and other related news! newsletter in English and in Arabic. We regret that we are now printing our newsletter in English only. We FELLOWSHIP OPPORTUNITIES are seeking funds to resume printing a bilingual newsletter and to include The annual deadline for submission of applications to the U.S. Fellows full Arabic translations of English- Program is December 15, 2011, for projects beginning as early as March 2011. language newsletters on our website. The annual deadline for the Iraq Fellows Program is December 15, 2011. We appreciate your patience and Applications from U.S.-Iraqi collaborative teams are welcome on a ROLLING understanding in the meantime. basis. Teams of individual U.S. and Iraqi scholars wishing to collaborate may request up to $14,000. For additional information, please visit the TAARII website: www.taarii.org. To submit a collaborative proposal, contact info@ taarii.org.

• INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS •

American Schools of Oriental Research University of Maryland, College Park University of California, Berkeley New York University University of California, Santa Barbara University of Notre Dame University of Chicago University of Pennsylvania Museum Columbia University Portland State University Duke University-University of North Carolina Consortium Rutgers University for Middle East Studies Smithsonian Institution George Washington University State University of New York, Stony Brook Georgetown University University of Texas, Austin Harvard University University of Utah Hofstra University Williams College Indiana State University SPRING 2011 PAGE 27

TAARII LIBRARY GROWING

Dr. Hala Fattah recently donated many books from her library and that of her father, Mundhir. This gift greatly strengthens our historical holdings in Arabic and foreign languages.

As the library grows, books are included in an online catalog, labeled, and stamped with our logo.

TAARII has over 600 books and 100 journal titles in Arabic, English, and various European languages.

Research affiliates have access to our growing library.

NEW TAARII PROGRAM: Research Affiliates in Jordan TAARII is pleased to announce the creation of a Research Affiliate status, for U.S. scholars working on Iraq while based in Amman, Jordan. As increasing numbers of American researchers undertake Iraq-related research in Jordan, TAARII aims to support their needs and work and to include them in the broader TAARII community. TAARII Research Affiliates will have access to a range of benefits, including: • Access to TAARII’s growing research library and collections • Access to the Internet, phone, and fax • Temporary accommodation at the rate of $25 USD/night • Kitchen and laundry facilities • Meeting space for interviews or small conferences Please note that because the TAARII residence is small, it is suitable for short-term stays only and must be reserved in advance. To apply for Research Affiliate status, please submit a brief project statement, together with a CV, to beth@taarii. org. There is no deadline and scholars can apply for Affiliate status at any time, on a short-term or long-term basis. TAARIIPAGE 28 TAARII NEWSLETTER The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq 3923 28th St., #389 • Grand Rapids, MI 49512 Ph. (773) 844-9658 • Fax (773) 288-3174 www.taarii.org

In this Issue Archaeological Meeting in Philadelphia 1 In Memory of Dr. Donny George Youkhana 1 “The Ba’th Party and Political Education in Iraq” Joseph Sassoon 3 “The Baghdad Civic Center Project ABOUT TAARII (1960–1964)” Pedro Azara 4 TAARII has been formed by a consortium of universi- ties, colleges, and museums, which comprise its insti- TAARII President Wins MESA Award 8 tutional membership. Each institution names a person to “Iraq in Context” Bridget L. Guarasci 9 act as its representative on the Board of Directors. In- President’s Report 11 dividual Members elect additional Directors. The Offi- “Assyrians in Iraq’s Nineveh Plains” cers, along with two members of the Board of Directors, Alda Benjamin 13 comprise the Executive Committee, which is charged “Book Review” Mudhafar A. Amin 20 with assuring academic integrity, organizational over- “Reflections on Invisible War” sight, and financial and programmatic accountability. Mudhafar A. Amin 23 TAARII is a non-governmental organization and is incorpo- Announcements 26 rated in the state of Illinois as a not for profit organization TAARII Library Growing 27 and has 501(c)3 status with the Internal Revenue Service.