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Petrographic and Engineering Properties of Loess

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Petrographic and Engineering Properties of Loess BNGINEERING MONOGRAPHS No. 28 United States Department of the Interior BUREAU OF RECLAMATION PETROGRAPHIC AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF LOESS by H. J. Gibbs and W. Y. Holland November 1960 $1.00 ~ BUREAU OF RfCLAMA nON l' Cr~~ DENVER UBf!ARY If t (/l I'I'II~'IIIII~/II"~III'920251b3 tl J t, \r , ;;"" 1; "," I. I ,' ;' ~'", r '.'" United States Department of the Interior 'Jo' 0 I .'.~!1 .~ j FRED A. SEA TON, Secretary Bureau of Reclamation FLOYD E. DOMINY, COMMISSIONER GRANT BLOODGOOD, Assistant Commissioner and Chief Engineer Engineering Monograph No. 28 PETROGRAPHIC AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF LOESS by H. J. Gibbs, Head, Special Investigations and Research Section Earth Laboratory Branch and W. Y. Holland, Head, Petrographic Laboratory Section, Chemical Engineering Laboratory Branch Commissioner's Office, Denver, Colorado Technical Information Branch Denver Federal Center Denver, Colorado ENGINEERING MONOGRAPHS are published in lirnit~d ~@ition~for till! tl!chnicA.l !t!.ff of the Bureau of Reclamation and interested technical circles in Government and private agencies. Their purpose is to record devel- opments, innovations, and progress in the engineering and scientific techniques and practices that are employed in the planning, design, construction, and operation of Recla- mation structures and equipment. Copies may be obtained from the Bureau of Recla- mation' Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado, and Washington, D. C. CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION. 1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF LOESS. 1 ORIGIN OF LOESS. 4 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF LOESS. 6 Type of Matrix. 7 Cementation. 8 Particle Shape. 8 Granular Components. 9 Grain Coatings. 9 OBSERVATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 9 Location of Engineering Studies. 9 Gradation. 11 Specific Gravity. 11 Plasticity. 11 Compaction. 11 Permeability. 11 Consolidation. 14 Shear Resistance. 14 RESEARCH FINDINGS FOR LOESS. 20 '.' Results of Plate Load Tests on Loess. 20 Results of Ponding Tests. 20 Example of Prewetting. 22 Behavior of Piles in Loess. 22 Results of Pile Driving Studies. 26 Results of Pile-load Tests. 28 Summary - Study of Piles in Loess. 28 DENSITY OF LOESS AS A CRITERION OF SETTLEMENT. 32 CONCLUSIONS. : . 35 LIST OF REFERENCES. 37 LIST OF FIGURES Number Page 1 Outline of major loess deposits in the United States. 2 2 Photographs of typical characteristics of loess deposits. 3 3 Photomicrographs of loess structure. 5 4 Location of major loess deposits in the Missouri River Basin. 10 5 Trends of gradation curves for loess. 12 6 Trends of plasticity characteristics of loess . 13 7 Trends of permeability for loess . 15 8 Consolidation characteristics of loess. 16 9 Generalized consolidation trends . 17 10 Shear tests of representative loessial soils. 18 11 Shear and volume change characteristics of dry and wet loess . 19 12 Plate-load tests for a typical loess deposit for comparison of material at natural moisture and prewetted conditions. 21 13 Records of ponding experiments at Ashton pile test areas . 23 14. Prewetting of loess foundation by ponding at Medicine Creek Dam. 24 15 Medicine Creek Dam foundation settlement installations. 25 16 Profiles and plans of test sites. 27 17 Gradation tests. 27 18 Method of making pile load tests. 27 19 Driving records. 29 20 Comparison of pile load tests for friction piles in loess. 29 21 Requirements for adequate supporting capacity of piles . 30 22 Requirements for practical placement of piles. 31 23 Natural density versus liquid limit relationship for loessial soils. 34 24 An example of subsidence of low-density loess after saturation from canal operation. 35 v INTRODUCTION This monograph summarizes knowledge and canals in these areas, the Bureau re- of the physical and physical-chemical prop- quired information on the characteristic erties of loess gained from Bureau of Rec- properties of loess, particularly those prop- lamation experiments, investigations, and erties which would be affected by moisture observations. Because of the unstable prop- change s resulting from the operation of erties of loess which may cause settlement hydraulic structures. This monograph dis- of foundations of structures, such knowledge cusses the origin of loess and presents de- of the limitations of loess for engineering tailed descriptions of the pertinent charac- purposes is important not only to the geolo- teristics of loessial soils including matrix, gist and soil mechanics engineer but also cementation properties, and particle shape. to design and construction engineers who It discusses physical properties including are required to build structures on loessial permeability, compaction, consolidation soils. and shear resistance characteristics, and summarizes the results of loading tests of The Bureau of .Reclamation has parti- footings and piles. A criterion for deter- cular interest in the engineering properties mining the critical nature of loess in respect of loess because of its requirements for to the probability of settlement is given on large hydraulic structures in loessial re- the basis of observations and tests in the gions of the western United States. To de- Nebraska-Kansas area. sign and construct such structures as dams GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF LOESS Loess is an earth material which covers are also weakly resistant to moisture move- vast areas of the central part of several ments as displayed by the erosion patterns continents of the world. The major loessial of natural drainage streams, as shown in deposits in the United States are shown on Figure 2c. the map in Figure 1. The most extensive loessial area is in Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Olr studies lead us to support the theory Wisconsin, illinois, Tennessee, and Missis- that the finely divided rock-powder silt of sippi. Other loessial deposits occur in which loess is primarily composed was pro- southern Idaho and Washington. The deposits duced by interaction of sever~l geologi~al of major concern to the Bureau of Reclama- processes, but mainly by abrasIOn resultl?g tion are in Nebraska, Kansas, Idaho,'and from movements of continental glaciers. Washington. With retreat of the continental glaciers, the silt was deposited along flood plains of riv- ~cause the particle structure of natural ers. This silt was then transported, sorted, loess is often very loose and contains appre- and redeposited by wind action. Loess is ciable voids, problems related to large con- composed primarily of fine, angular grains solidation under certain moisture and load of silt, fine sand, and calcite admixed with combinations, poor stability, seepage, and relatively small amounts of clay and clay erosion frequently arise. On the other hand, coatings on the larger grains. Some organic loessiql soils which have been reworked by matter occurs in the form of roots and root water action are usually in a more dense hairs. The particle arrangement in the soil state and exhibit better engineering proper- mass resulting from the wind-blown method ties. Likewise, loessial soils, which are of deposition is frequently very loose. There- remolded and compacted as construction fore, loess is susceptible to high degrees materials, also exhibit better engineering of consolidation. However, the dry loess properties. Naturally dry loess exhibits which exists in the arid regions of the mid- considerable stability permitting it to stand western states has high strength owing to on steep cut slopes, as shown in Figure 2a, the binding characteristics of the clay and provided the natural moisture contents are is often capable of supporting relatively not increased. Natural drainage troughs large loads without excessive settlement. where higher moisture contents accumu- It is easily collapsed by heavy loading and late display slumping and subsidence, as wetting, and the bond between particles can shown in Figure 2b, which illustrates a cri- be reduced to practically no strength by tical condition that can occur in hydraulic wetting. structures that eventually saturate portions of their foundations. Wetted loessial soils Loessial soils have been analyzed in 1 ~.~? (/) w ~ ~(/) a w ~ z ::::> W J: ~ Z (/) ~ (i) - 0 w a. a:: W => a ~IJ.. (/) (/) w 0 ..J ~ ,0 « ~ LL 0 W Z ..J ~ ::::> 0 2 'f STEEP SLOPES CONSTRUCTED IN NATURALLY DRY LOESS SHOWING CONSIDERABLE STABILITY ((1) - - -. , PX- A NATURAL DRAINAGE CHANNEL WHERE HIGH MOISTURE CONTENTS ACCUMULATE, CAUSING SLUMPING AND SUBSIDENCE TYPICAL EROSION PATTERN OF NATURAL DRAINAGE STREAMS IN LOESS (c) PHOTOGRAPHS OF TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LOESS DEPOSITS FIGURE 2 3 considerable detail by the Earth and Petro- which was cut from a similar undisturbed graphic Laboratories of the Bureau of Rec- sample of loess. This photomicrograph lamation.. The initial sununary of consolida- has a magnification of 30X, and shows the tion and related properties of loess observed relative size of the void spaces. The prep- by the Bureau of Reclamation* was reported aration of this thin section and other sec- by Holtz and Gibbs in a 1951 paper 1..1. tions was accomplished by impregnating a carefully cut specimen with a thermoplastic resin which acted as a binder during the Theundisturbed structure and the miner- grinding process. alogical characteristics of loessial soils have been observed. The internal structure of The majority of the silt grains in loess loess is shown in Figure 3. Figure 3a is a are coated with very thin films of clay. This photomicrograph of undisturbed loess soil clay is generally montmorillonite and forms taken with a magnification of 12X. This intergranular supports or braces within the photograph shows the loose arrangement structure. Calcite usually occurs in distinct of silt particles with typical numerous voids silt-sized grains throughout the loess in a and rootlike channels. The structure is finely dispersed state rather than as a ce- typical of natural wind-blown deposits of menting material. The thin clay coatings loess which have not been reworked. Figure and, to a lesser extent, the calcite, ap- 3b is a photomicrograph of a thin section parently bond the particles together. Upon *Numbers in superscript refer to publica- wetting, this bond is easily loosened caus- tions in the List of References.
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