SPECIAL ARTICLES Housing Needs in New Suburbs of Indian Metropolii Case Study of , Hemalata C Dandekar Sashikant B Sawant

This article, a survey of three localities in a rapidly expanding suburb of Pune, differentiated classwise, illustrates the segmented utilisation of livelihood opportunities, services and facilities by the residents of the region. More importantly, the article attributes the suburb's robust growth to its timeliness in meeting the emerging housing needs of the upwardly mobile middle class living in the heart of the Pune city and also suggests, that its relatiiely low infrastructural cost may be an incentive attracting the retired members of middle class households of Murnbai.

AS Indiancities continueto expandat a tion, since legislation had been passed to between 1971 and 1991 (illustratedin seemingly inexorablepace in terms of prohibit the establishment of new indus- FiguresIband1c) xl:asconcentratedalong populationgrowthandphysicalsettlement tries in Bombay, industrial estates were fourgrowthcorridorsstretchingalong road on the land,it is useful to obtaininsight established around Pune in , connectorsout of the city (Bombay-Pune onthemechanisms through whichvarious , resulting in growth of industries highway,Pune-Satararoad,Pune-Sholapur socialstratainthisrapidlygrowingurban and related housing around the city. By road,andPune-Nagarroad).It was also communityare meetingtheirneeds for 1971 Pune had expanded both spatially occurringalongKarveand Paudroad to housing,physicalinfrastructureandagood (Figure 1) and had achieved metropolis the south-eastfollowing the availability qualityof life. Thispaperreportson some status with a population of 1.14 million of primeagriculturelandwhich was flat, of thefindingsfroma studyexecutedby people. In the following decade metro- accessible,and availablefor privatesale theauthorsinKothrud,a rapidlyexpand- politanPune addedmore thanhalf a million andpurchase.Othersurroundingareasin ing suburbof Pune, which sheds some people to reacha populationof 1.69 million the city peripherywere unavailablefor light on this process. in 1981, and by 1991 it was a city of 2.49 privatesale and urbansettlement as they million people. The 1991 Census esta- areearmarkedformilitaryanddefence use. PUNE'S GROWTH:A BACKGROUND blished Pune as the eighth largest and one Initiallyinour research designwe wanted Located in ,one of the of the fastest growing metropolises in to obtainspecific empiricalinformation leading states in with respecttR India. Pune thus offers a good case study regardinglocationand trendsof housing industrialisationandurbanisation,thecity of how, as cities in India continue to grow, constructionin the city and to correlate of Puneprovides an excellentlocation in variouspopulationsassimilate and acquire this informationwith that of investment whichto studytheconsequencesof rapid the necessities of urban habitat. bythePMC in physicalinfrastructuresuch urbanisation.Its last 20 of assewer,water,electricityandroads.The years rapid KOTHRUD IN THE CONTEXT OF OVERALL foreshadowthe urbani- objectivebeing to see howdemand for and expansionmay GROWTHOF PUNE sationto be anticipatedin othersimilarly supplyof these amenities were interre- industrialisingcities in India. Situated In our initial efforts to obtain a picture lated. However we were unable to get along a growthcorridorstretching120 of Pune's overall growth, we found that disaggregated,wardwisedata on numbers miles (180 kms) to the mega city of city data regarding housing starts, city of housingstartsfrom the PMCor on any Bombay,Punegrewrelativelysl6wlyuntil infrastructureprovision in terms of sewer, aspectof infrastructureinvestment. As we 1941.After-partitionrefugeesfromPaki- water, roads and lighting, was not readily were able to obtain informationon the stan were settled in campsandcolonies available from the Pune Municipal Cor- registrationof co-operativehousingsoci- around Pune and increased defence- poration (PMC). The data in the corpo- eties for the city fromtheregistrarof co- relatedworkduringthesecondworldwar rationrecords which were made available operativeswe mappedthisinformationto helpedto swell thepopulationof the city to us were both imcomplete andin a forum provideus some indicationof the extent as seen in 1951. With the Panshetdam that did not allow for disaggregated and locationof formalisedhousing con- disasterof 1961,whenhousesin thewards wardwiseanalysis. Ourpreliminaryanaly- structionin the city.3Since much of the of Puneon the rightbankof Muthawere sis therefore utilised census information new construction of housing units is washedaway,peoplewereforcedtomove on population growth wardwise in the occurringin theorganisational framework outof the old coreof thecityandtowards city. This mappingof populationdatafrom of a co-operative,we thoughtthat the the government-formed colonies in the census required re-calculation to re- informatiopon co-operativeswouldpro- Erandavanaand Parvati. Subsequently, flect changing ward boundaries over the vide us some substitute comparative someof thesefamilies shifted to thenewly period under study.2 It revealed that the informationon shelter constructionin formingsuburbsin Kothrudand the south growth of Pune's population during a various wards of the city. Ourfindings alongthePune-Bangaloreroad.In addi- period of rapid suburban development (Figures2c and 2d) providea time series

Economic and Political Weekly November 14, 1998 2919 FIU11REIa: POPULATIONDENSITY IN peripheryhave risen and that they are THEKOTHRUD SURVEY PITNFCi"' (I,)I twice or thricethe values formallyregis- Little information is tered with the This empirical readily sub-registrar.7 map- available in the public domain which \from Bombay pingandanalysisof datathat were avail- reveals details of the needs of residents able to us on housing.and settlement in of the such in activ- newly expanding parts city althoughreflecting changes only as Kothrud. Little is documented in any 2.3t3 in formalsector :5 ity housing,empirically detail on the ways that they meet their corroboratedthatthe Kothrudsuburbwas needs for and other social and indeed an area of intensified It housing activity. infrastructure.The PMC is the seemedclear that the lackof avail- physical given implementing agency for the Poona de- able overalldata, a moredetailed under- which are of the of con- velopment plans generated by standing process housing the town planningdepartment, a unit which solidationwas warrantedandmightreveal is fromthe PMC < 2() personsper .251persons1 to 4 the assimilation Based on our organisationally separate process. and is administratively under the state preliminaryanalysis of overall growth It is located in the central of Pune and that the government. patterns city given building, distinet from the municipal suburbof Kothrudhad been singledout which houses all the for attention in the media and in the corporation building divisions. Thus, the Guiness Book Records as one of the implementing plan- of ning departmentdoes not have adirect line mostrapidlyurbanising areas inAsia,we acre [per acre of information on the status of implemen- decidedto concentrateourstudyon this tation of their The suburb. plans. implementing agency, the PMC, currentlydoes not have r 101 to 250 persons .550 persons per Ourgeographicalanalysishadrevealed records for its and as is of computerised building u per acre *acre that, typical otherrapidlygrowing The records are cities in Indiathat haveroomto engineering departments. Old expand in that are both not (1) Wards,(2) Gultekadi,(3) Bibavewadi, in a of the new kept registers readily (4) Parwati,(5) Dhanakawadi,(6) Shiwajinagar, the periphery, greatdeal available to researchers and in a form growthinresidentialconstruction in Pune kept (7) Erandavana, (8) Kothrud, (9) Hingane, that would make it difficult to yield data (10) Mundhawa,(11)Ghorpadi,(12) BundGarden, has occurredaround main roads leading that would allow for disaggregated (13) .(14) Dhanori,(15) , out of the Has this resultedin resi- city. wardwise of revenue from, and (16) WadgaonSheri,(17) Bopodi,(18) Aundh, dentialsuburbsfromwhich workers were analysis on, infrastructure (19) , (20) Hadapsar, (21) Kondhave, considerabledistancestowork, expenditures physical (22) Wanowri, (23) Kirkee Cantonment, commuting investments. The political considerations (24) Poona Cantonment: we wondered?And giventhatmost roads of elected chief are overloaded hours how municipal officials, engi- during peak neers and site implementers (who can mapping of housing regis- were these commuters their co-operatives managing obtain non-regulated income from the tered in the city of Poona from 1961 to to work?Suburban journey development discretionary power of their office) often 1991. As these figures illustrate, during is of interestas new at particular growth complicate free access to information. the 1981-91 period Kothrud area experi- theperipherycan bothaccommodate new Given this lack of available enced the in terms of readily quan- greatest pressure migrantsandallow thosein thecongested' titativeinformationon the natureand extent construction of new housing inner to moveout to moreconducive co-opera- city of the demand for infrastructure,and the tives.4 Correlating the registration of environments. we wondered,were Who, rate, and of its societies in Pune with the number in the where had these deployment speed provi- housing living suburbs, sion, we decided to obtain a more limited of tenements intended to be built in these residents,comefrom,andwhatwere they and focused source of empirical informa- registered housing societies provided us so as to in the finding compelling stay tion through the instrument of a survey additional indication as to the density of suburbs?Suburban growth' is also worth to be administered to some resi- as reflected in because such new settlements typical settlement, co-operative studying dential areas in the Kothrud area. units, experienced in the city offer an for administra- housing opportunity city The survey was designed to reveal infor- overall. Figures 3c and 3d illustrate that tionto and offer plan guidegrowth.They mation on access to, and availability of, the Kothrud area experienced the greatest the to for potential provide proactively housing and physical infrastructurefrom density of housing units constructed in the amenitiesas well as for the rationalising the perspective of consumers of city ser- form of formally registered housing co- technical of needed planning physical vices. This information would help us operativeconstruction.5 infrastructuresuch as roads,waterand ascertain what aspects of the need for The growth of Pune has resulted in sewerlines so as to createsafe andclean urban infrastructurein a rapidly growing increasedlandvalues as declaredformally residentialenvironments. this Although can be, and are, met the existing to tinationity administration. Thehe informa- to createmore habitable resi- city by opportunity public sector institutions, and to help us tion regarding the land deals is noted in dential environmentsis often lost from understandif mechanisms were 4c and 4d.6Und that differing Figures erstanding eitherthe inability,or the lack of will of used elements of in these declared of land costs are by differing society figures the planning,implementing,andpolicy- their needs for urban amenities. below actual we meeting generally prices paid, makingmechanismswhichoperateatthe three different residential from interviews with builders Accordingly, obtained city level, we felt thatan examinationof communities in Kothrud were selected and landvaluers in the city their estimates the of and processes growth physical andsurveyed. (1) DahanukarColony, one of the land prices actually paid for land infrastructure of the last development of the earliest, middle and middle across the city. These are as illustrated in two in upper decades the Kothrudarea would class salaried Figure4e whichindicates that land prices serve to shed some on the internal housing colonies, housing light professionals.It is one of the firstcolonies throughoutthe city core as well as its of this dynamics phenomenon. to be laid out and providedwith water

2920 Economic and Political Weekly November 14, 1998 FIGURE Ib: PUNE CITY DENsiTy OF POPULATION(1971) FIGURE IC: PUNE CITY DENSITY OF POPULATION(1991) (Per sq kiis) (Per sq km)

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Below l()()() E 10,00() - 20),00.0 S 20,0()0 - 50,000 1 50.000 - 1,00,000 IXAbove 1,00.000 froman adjacentindustrialdevelopment teams of the social status of the respon- size larger (only 19 per cent) of house- intheKothrudarea.Availabilityofasource dents reveals that the DahanukarColony holds have less than 3 members; 59 per ofwaterallowedearlyconstructionby indi- families were largely well-to-do, or upper cent have 3-5 members, and 21 per cent vidualplotowners.Currentlythecolony middle class (88 per cent) whilst the Jai have 5-10 members) but also, as is noted is close to fully utilise its area;(2) The Bhavani slum had the fewest families in later in this paper, residential area in this originalvillageof Kothrud,i e, Kothrud thiscategory(5 percent)andmost families settlement is on an average much smaller gaothan,formerlyafringevillageof Pune in the low status category (33 per cent). than other two locations. but now urbanised.It is an area that The caste composition of these house- Socio-economic characteristics of continuesto displaymanycharacteristics holds as assessed by the surveying team households: As regardsearning members of its villagerootswithnarrowintercon- confirms a relationshipbetween caste and in a family, a majority of the households nectingalleys,traditionalsingleandtwo status in thatthere are many brahmin(52 had only one earning member in the fam- storeyhousinginterspersedwithsomenew percent)andmaratha(24percent) families ily. It was particularlyhigh in JaiBhawan multi-storeyconstruction;(3) The Jai in DahanukarColony andonly few sched- slum with 74 per cent of families having Bhavanislum,a longestablishedsquatter uled castes families (4 per cent). Whereas only one breadwinner. In contrast, settlementin Kothrudwhichwas one of in the Jai Bhavani slum only 2 per cent DahanukarColony has 59 per cent fami- theearliestdeclaredslumin theareaand are brahmin; 57 per cent families are lies with single earner and a higher per- thereforebecameeligiblefor,andhasbeen marathaand 12 per cent scheduled caste. centage of families, than the other two providedwith,basicphysicalinfrastruc- Survey findings: The questionnaire groups, with 2 earners (34 per cent). Five turebythePMC.Theintentof thesurvey probed various aspects pertaining to percent of its families also have 3 earning wastoexaminehowthreedifferentpopu- Kothrudresidents' access to city ameni- members. Also DahanukarColony has a lation groupswith differingsocio-eco- ties and infrastructure,and their family population which is much more educated nomiclevelsweremanagingtomeettheir income, occupation and modes and pat- than the other two settlements. Forty per needs for city services in a newly and terns of commuting. The survey gathered cent of DahanukarColony's populationis rapidlyurbanisingcontext.We therefore informationon how residents in new city either postgraduate,or has college or ITI selectedthreesites wherethe processof suburbs obtain needed housing, water, training,while itsequivalentintheGaothan settlementof thesethreegroupshadbeen sewer,electricity,transportandothersocial and in Jai Bhavani slum, is 13 and 4 per long-standingandonecouldobservewhat services. The surveyedpopulationof 1,515 cent respectively. The economic advan- mightbea long-termbalanceof activities households reflected a range of income, tage of having two or more earners in a andphysicalrealityin each of the three education, class, migrationand residency familywithhighereducationlevel is clearly locales.Asurveyof 1,515households,535 status, and social/political connections. manifested in the substantially largerand in DahanukarColony,375 in thegaothan DahanukarColony has the greatest per- higher quality housing in the Dahanukar and 605 in the Jai Bhavani slum was centage of families with less than three Colony and in the variety of household carriedoutduringSeptemberandOctober members; 56 per cent have a family size belongings to be noticed within these 1994.8The surveyed householdswere of 3-5 members and only 9 per cent have homes. predominantlyHindu with the largest families rangingfrom 5-10 members.The The fact that urbanhouseholds tend to Muslimpopulationbeing7 percentinthe Jai Bhavani slum has the most densely be nuclear families is corroboratedacross gaothan.The assessmentof surveying settledconfiguration.Notonly is thefamily all social classes. Nuclear families consti-

Economic and Political Weekly November 14, 1998 2921 FIGURE 2a: CITY OF PUNE: NUMBER OF CO-OPERATIVE HOUSING FIGURE 2b: CITY Of PUNE: NUMBER OF CO-OPERATIVE HOUSING SOCIETIES IN (1961) SOCIETIES (1971)

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2922SOCEcooiES14)SCETE,andPoiiaWelNovmbe 19918

:V * 15 0 1 2K,MS tuted 6 1-63percent in all the threegroups. More than 80 per cent of the Kothrud pal corporation boundary and were rent- The percentageof joint families was simi- gaothanresidentsare from Pune city, with ing out their residences in the gaothan, larly ranging from 29-32 per cent in each almost half from Kothrud itself. This is waiting to see how the municipal rules group. One person families, comprised expected as the gaothan is a settlement of related to Floor Space Index (FSI), land- 7-8 per cent of the surveyed households. long time residents of the location. What use, property taxes and utilities provided The survey of the sample population's is somewhat surprising, however, is the by the corporationwould change over the access to housing, city amenities and fact that almost 20 per cent residents of next few years. Few of the tenants ap- physicalinfrastructure,andthe understand- Jai Bhavani slum gave Kothrud as their peared to have paid any rentaldeposit. A ing of their differing commuting modes, previous place of residence before moving quarterof the tenants informed that they shopping patterns and demands on ser- in to their present homes. Almost 70 per had paid around Rs 10,000 as deposit - vices provides insights to the supply and cent of the Jai Bhavani slum residents are a relatively modest cost for to a rentalunit. demandfor urbaninfrastructure disaggre- from Kothrud or Pune city. The slum, Size of housing and economics of house- gated by socio-economic class. It also among all the threelocales, has the largest holds in the three locations: Theeconomic sheds some lighton thepolitical patronage percentageof residents (20 per cent) who status of the threegroupsis reflected rather at the municipal level to deliver housing are from other parts of Maharashtra.But consistently in the size of the houses in and security of tenure to those in squatter in all three locales the percentage of resi- the three settlements. Most of the settlements. dents who are from outside Maharashtra DahanukarColony residents (96 percent) From where do suburban residents is relatively small in the range of 6-7 per own units that are larger than 400 sq ft come? Almost half of the residents who cent. Thus, Kothrud's growth is serving with 19 per cent owning units largerthan are now settled in Kothrud were either the needs of a predominantlylocal popu- 3,200 sq ft. In contrast, 90 per cent of Jai living in Kothrud or in Pune city before lation of Pune and to some extent that of Bhavani slum dwellers live in units less moving to their present homes. In addi- migrants from other regions of than 400 sq ft in the gaothan 72 per cent tion, another27 per cent had moved from Maharashtra. occupy houses of that size. Economic otherpartsof to their present Whydo they come to live in Kothrud? stratificationis also apparentin the family homes. Thus, more than three-quartersof Fourty per cent families in the gaothanand belongings in these threegroups.Although Kothrud's suburbandwellers have moved 46 per cent in Jai Bhavani slum say that in all groups most families have at least in from Pune district itself. Another 6 per they are living in Pune for the better one bed in the house, the contrastbetween cent have shifted in, from , 15 per opportunities that the city offers. Eleven DahanukarColony and Jai Bhavani slum cent from other partsof Maharashtra,and per cent residents of Dahanukar Colony is very apparent as regards expensive only 7 per cent were from places outside preferredPune as a location good forpost- household items, which was as follows in Maharashtra.Thus, the survey indicates retirementstage. They representeda con- respective settlements:refrigerator,90 per that Kothrud's population is largely local stituency that has moved to Pune for its cent and 2 per cent; dining table, 83 per or is composed of regional migrants to the cultural offerings and good quality of cent and 1 per cent; sofa set, 87 per cent city. amenities andlifestyle. On the other hand, and 6 per cent; washing machine, 66 per Almost one-third (30 per cent) of 30 per cent of families in the Jai Bhavani cent and 1 percent. Only exception is TV, Dahanukar Colony residents consist of slum admit that scarcity of land at their which were owned by 73 per cent of individuals who resided in the core of old previous residence brought them to the households in Jai Bhavani slum, 81 per Pune city. The housing units available in city. But the reasons for chosing Kothrud cent in the gaothan and 98 per cent in theDahanukarColony satisfy the demand as a plate of residence vary significantly DahanukarColony. However, video play- for housing emanating from the internal between the Jai Bhavani slum dwellers ers are not yet so pervasive; 27 per cent growth of city's population. It also pre- and the middle-class DahanukarColony households in DahanukarColony owned sents an opportunityto cash on the higher residents.A sizeable sectionof Jai Bhavani one video player but only 5 per cent in landvalues of in the city's core and enables slum'(38 per cent) mentions low land the gaothanhouseholds andless than I per to buy more spacious residential space on value in the area as the grounds for selec- cent in Jai Bhavani slum. Convenience the city's periphery.Another 27 per cent ting Kothrud.Whole 51 percent residents and utility items such as gas stove and fan of Dahanukar Colony residents are from of DahanukarColony value the relatively were more equitably present in Dahanukar other partsof Pune city. Thus, more than quietenvironmentof Kothrud,26 percent Colony, gaothan, Jai Bhavani slum as half(57 percent)oftheDahanukarColony said that theopportunityto obtain a larger, follows: gas stove, 99 percent, 77 percent, residents are residents of Pune city and spacioushousemadethemoptforKothrud. 55 per cent; fan, 98 per cent, 8 per cent, almost 70 percent are from Kothruditself The quiet environment of' Kothrud is a 58 per cent respectively. or from the Pune city proper.Close to 10 significant attribute for only 28 per cent Cost of housing and source of filnac'- per cent of DahanukarColony residents of Jai Bhavani slum residents. ing: Almost 40 percent of the Jai Bhavani hail from corroborating our residents inlormed thatthey paid less than Bombay, A'-'KRIBUJTEIS)F; HO)USIN(; perception and reports trom builders and Rs 20,000()to buy their homes. Another 25 architects that Kothrud attracts large in- Whiatkind of honmeownership does one per cent revealed that they paid less thani vestments in housing fromBombay. Also, obhserve?Almost 90)per cenl o'f lamilies Rs 40,(000 and 15 per cent claimed that withtherisein realestate pricesin Bombay, inDahanukarColonyand in theJaiBhavani they paid up to Rs 80,00(). Only 7 percent Punehas come as a prolitable proposition. slumown theirhomes. InKotlhudgaothan, paid more than this for hoimeownership. Retiredfamilies have found that by selling however, renters(52 percent) andowners ,Incontrastlew of lthlfIamiliesiin l)ahaiiukar their ownership units, or even tenancy (48 per cent) were almost equal in num- Colony (3 per cenii) paid less than rights, in B3ombay,they can buy in Pune bers.This is abecausethe Kolhrudgaothan Rs 80,00() for their homes, 21 per cent for the same price area twice or thrice that at the lime of the survey was in transition. paid Rs 80,(XH)-1,600))00,while almost of Bombayandyet havemoneyto invest Many original residents had moved out hall (46 per cent) paid trom I,60,00)()to and live on its interest. and built houses just beyond the munici- 3,20,000. Another 18 percent paid above

Ecomnomicand Political Weekly November 14. 1998 2'923 FIGURE 3a: CITY OF PUNE: NUMBER OF TENEMENTS IN CO-OPERATIVE FIGURE 3b: CITY OF PUNE: NUMBER OF TENEMENTS IN CO-OPERATIVE HOUSING SOCIETIES IN (1961) HOUSING SOCIETIES (1971)

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2924 Economic and Political Weekly November 14, 1998 thisamount. To financetheir home expen- haveprivatebathingareasin theirhomes Garbage disposal is another service in diture,62 percent of the slum families hut not all of these havepipewatercon- which the survey reveals quite distinct drewresourcesfrompersonalsavingsand nections.In the Jai Bhavanislum vir- patternsand differences between the three an additional4 per cent obtainedthem tuallyall the wateris obtainedfrom PMC groups. Around 4 per cent of the Jai fromprivateloans.Some of respondents providedcommonpipes.Incontrast,vir- Bhavani slum respondentsstatedthatthey (18percent)obtainedfinancein the form tually all of the families in Dahanukar throw their garbage outside their house of loansfrombanks and a relativelysmall Colony have privatetoilets and bath- while the rate of this for the other two numberof families(3 percent)obtained roomswith piped waterin their indivi- groups was less than 1 percent. The PMC mortgagesfromLIC,HDFC or MHFC. dualhousing units. Thus, in aggregate garbage dust bins are used by 95 per cent But in DahanukarColony, as is to be almosthalf the familiesinthesurveyhave of the slum dwellers andgaothanresidents expectedwith individualshaving access theirownwaterconnection,another43per but by only 22 per cent of the Dahanukar to formalsources of money,only 33 per cent have access to commonwatertaps Colony residents, 77 per cent of whom centof homepurchaseswas financedby providedbythePMC and over 95 percent subscribe to a private garbage collection personalsavingswhile 27 per cent was have access to PMC providedsewerage agency which collects garbage door to obtainedfrombank loans, 25percentfrom andalmost80 percent to PMCdrainage. door and disposes it of. The Dahanukar HDFCand another5 percent fromLIC Almost all the familieshad a separate Colony residents pay less than Rs 10 per andMHFC.Thus,30 percentof families electric connectionin their homes. month for garbage collection whilst in the inDahanukarColonyobtainedmortgages Thusit seemedthat basic serviceswere gaothan and Jai Bhavani slum most (9 per fromformallendinginstitutionsoffering availableto most of the familiesin the cent and 99 per cent) pay nothing for use homeloans. The DahanukarColony data survey. As was anticipated,given that of the PMC collection containers. indicatesthatschemesto expandhousing they obtainwaterfrom PMC provided Redressing problems with services: financeare havinga positive impactin commonwatertaps,most(98percent)of Predictably, many of the slum dwellers enhancingmiddleclass familiesability to theJai Bhavani slumdwellers did notpay (42 per cent) experience problems with pay for home ownership. the PMC for theirwater.Those that do sanitary facilities and find the space in Agencies throughwhich informationon pay,byandlargepay directly to thePMC. their houses inadequate(44 percent). The housing is obtained: Information regard- Ten and 12 per cent of the colony and channels throughwhich these threegroups ing availablehousingis obtainedprima- gaothanresidentsrespectivelypay the of city residents are able to get their rily throughrelativesor friendsand ac- ownerof thehousetheyarelivingin.The problems in service delivery addressed quaintancesin all these settlements.This rate at which the wateruse was charged tended to vary by their socio-economic is particularlytrueof the poorerresidents also varied.A meterrate was paidby 67 strata. In the total surveyed population of Jai Bhavanislum.Here 82 percent of per cent of the DahanukarColonyresi- almost a quarterof the families reported thefamiliesobtainedtheirhousethrough dents,54 percentof the gaothanandonly that they have been able to solve their personalnetwork;through friends (41per 12percentof theJai Bhavani slum. Another problems by going to their municipal cent)andthroughrelatives(40 percent). 20 percent and 25 percent residentsin corporator. However, in Dahanukar The correspondingfigurefor gaothanis the colony andthe gaothanrespectively Colony this channel was used by only 4 64 percentandDahanukarColonyis 57 paida flat rate for their water. percent of the responding families, whilst percent. For DahanukarColony house- The systemof electricconnection and in Jai,Bhavani and gaothan it was 44 per holdsrelativesarea less significantchan- paymentis much morestandardisedand cent and 23 per cent respectively. Thus, nel of information(20 percent),relation- rationalised,perhapsbecause the com- the perceptionthatthe 'patronage'of local ships and contacts through work and pany,MaharashtraStateElectricalBoard corporatorsis quite significant in the slum business (18 per cent), and newspaper (MSEB),is a state governmentagency. is corroborated by our survey findings. advertisements(16 per cent) play an Thenumberof householdsthat do notpay Only 18 per cent of surveyed population equallyimportantrole.Thus,the survey forelectricityis lower,lessthan1percent approached the PMC for solutions, and indicatesa rationalisationof the housing of respondentsin DahanukarColony, 6 here too 11 per cent of the Dahanukar marketin the upperincomegroups. percent in gaothan,andless than 9 per Colony respondents opted for this choice centin the Jai Bhavanislum.A majority whilst the percentages were 21 per cent AND INFRASTRUCTURE AMENITIES of thosethatpayareassessedby a meter and22 percentrespectively forthegaothan Whatkind of sewer, water and sanita- measurementof consumption,theirper- and the Jai Bhavani slum. Few used the tion facilities are enjoyed by the subur- centagebeing99 percentin the colony, services of a neighbourhood middle-man banresident?Sewerageanddrainagefor 87 percentinthegaothanand79 percent to solve their service delivery problems, the surveyed population is provided in the JaiBhavani slum.By andlargethe the figures being 2 percent for the colony, primarilyby thePMC.All of Dahanukar paymentsaremadedirectlyto theMSEB 8 per cent for the gaothan and 5 per cent Colony and 97 per cent of the gaothan office(98 percent,80 percent and82 per for the Jai Bhavani slum. Overall 13 per and93 percent of the Jai Bhavanislum cent for the colony,the gaothanand the cent of the respondentsclaimed they were hasthePMCseweragesystem and 81 per slumrespectively).Predictably,the aver- able to solve service problems with col- cent of DihanukarColony,75 percentof age paymentsby the Jai Bhavanislum lective action within their settlement. .the gaothanand 78 percent of the slum householdsaremuchlower(lessthanRs40 However, this type of mobilisation and hasthe PMCdrainage system.The PMC permonthfor 55 percent of its residents) 'self-help' initiative was found largely in providescommontoiletfacilitiesto prac- thanthe colonywhereonly8 percentpay Dahanukar Colony where more than 28 ticallyall the Jai Bhavanislum families less thanRs 40 permonthwhile 76 per per cent of problems were solved through andto norethanone-thirdof the families cent paybetweenRs 80 and Rs 320 per collective action. Higher education levels (35 per cent) living in the gaothanarea. month.In the gaothan64 percent of the and incomes in DahanukarColony have Mostof theJai Bhavanifamilies (90 per populationpaybetweenRs 20 andRs 160 resulted in 'a great deal of community cent)andgaothanfamilies(89 percent) per month. organisation.This has been facilitatedby

Economic and Political Weekly November 14, 1998 2925 FIGURE 4a: LAND VALUES IN PUNE CITY (1951) FIGURE 4b' LAND VALUES IN PUNE CITY (1961)

. .. KUWM~~~r?

'-~ /'"'Y'~tt,,.? m,~st

L-

c .. I1 0?r, ~J.c?

Source: Office."O ? ?? 14~?Sub-Registrar's ? lRI rrr ~

FIGURE 4C: LAND VALUES TN PUNE CiTY (I197 1) FIGURE 4d: LAND VALUES IN PUNE CItY (1985)

SouceSb-egstars ffce

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acolonynewsletterproducedon a volun- thehigherendof constructionwith several per cent of housing being higher end teerbasis. Dahanukar Colony hassignifi- single family bungalows,a majorityof reinforcedconcreteconstruction. The units canteconomic resources to collect money walkupfourstoreyapartments and some were largelyrow housingwith common andbuyservicessuch as garbagecollec- of the more recentunits formingthem- partitionwalls. As the Jai Bhawanislum tion.In the gaothan9 percent of respon- selvesinto clusters of 'gated'communities was a declared slum, the PMC's slum dents reportedsimilarcollective action with a watchmananda checkpointat the upgradationdivisionhad completedthe whilstonly 3 percent reportedit in the entrypoint to the cluster.Almost all the work of upgrading68 per cent of the Jai Bhavanislum. The variousmeans by units in DahanukarColony are of re- approachlaneswith a cementsurface and whichrespondentsattempted to solvetheir enforcedconcrete (92 per cent) or load 8 percent were asphalted.But almost a service problemsappearedto be fairly bearingbrick(7 percent),andin 63 per quarterof the approachlanes remained satisfactory.When asked if they were cent of cases these units areapproached untarred.In the gaothan,69 per cent of successfulin gettingredress,50 percent by anasphaltor cementroad. At the time the roads were asphalted,14 per cent of the DahanukarColonyrespondents, 51 of the survey37 percent roadswere still cementedand 17 percentuntarred.Thus, percentof the gaothanresidents,and 61 untarredbutsubsequentsiteobservations it was apparentthatin all threecontexts percent of the Jai Bhavanirespondents havenoteda greatdealof upgradationof effortsto varyingdegrees had been put saidtheywere successfulin gettingtheir these roads.In the Jai Bhavanislum one into upgradationand construction of servicedelivery problemsresolved. founda rangeof housingstock - at the housingunitsandroadsurfaces. Most (68 low end some 2 percent of dwellingof percent)of the colony was classifiedas QUALITYOF LIFE kachhahuts,another15 percent of semi- welldrainedwhilethe remaining hadwater Quality of housing and surrounding pucca construction,30 per cent pucca logging problem. In the gaothan and environment:As one would anticipate, constructionwith cement mortar,39 per especiallytheslum,therewere farfewer thehousingin DahanukarColonywas at cent of load bearingbrick and some 13 well drainedand clean roads(21 percent

2926 Economic and Political Weekly November 14, 1998 and 3 per cent respectively) and a high FIGUIREI4e: LAND VALUESIN PUNE CITY (1951) incidenceof. streetscategorisedas pol- lutedwith garbageandroaminganimals (37percentand 47 percentrespectively). In additionsome 2 per cent and II per centrespectivelyof the respondingunits were highly polluted with human and animalexcreta. Theambiencein theDahanukar Colony withrespectto noise pollutionwas con- siderablybetterthan in the othertwo sites withinterviewers reporting in 49 percent of cases no trafficnoise. Remainingdid face the traffic noise of two- or three- wheelers.Onlyin 5 percent of cases was there noise of cars,trucksand buses. In contrast,andas is to beexpectedsince the gaothanis locatedat the heart of cross trafficin Kothrud,only14percentof units surveyedreportedexperiencing no traffic < 15 15-35 3 35-75 iH 75-155 noise while 41 percent sufferednoise of I 155-315 3a 315-625 EE >625 two- or and 39 cent three-wheelers, per Source: Sub-Registrar'sOffice. of car,truckand bus. In addition,5 per cent of unitswere impactedby soundsof while the figureswere lower for the gaothan robustin therangeof servicesand internal industriessuch as grainmills and light (73 per cent) and the slum (64 per cent). activity and growingmore so with the manufacturingplants.The Jai Bhavani Commuting distances, modes and ex- passageof time. Largenumberof indi- slum was reportedto have similarlevels pense: Differences between the three viduals(88-94percent)surveyedarenot of noise pollution.The slum alsohad the residential areas are particularlyapparent travellingmorethan 10 kms per day on highestlevel (10 percent)of noise from in the mode of transport used by their any regularbasis for work or education. small industrieswhich can be attributed respectiveresidents.A substantiallygreater A substantialsectionof thoseliving inthe to thefact thatsome housing is muchmore number of families in the Dahanukar gaothanandin the Jai Bhavani slum bicycle dense and crowded,impactof noisecar- Colony (86 per cent) thanin the other two or walk to theirplace of work.The use ries over a greaternumberof units. groups own cars and motorised two of two wheelersis particularlyprominent Shopping range: A significant observa- wheelers which they park in designated in the upper middle-class Dahanukar tion across all three sites is that there is spaces neartheirhomes. The Jai Bhavani Colonyresidents.Thosecommutinglonger a rangeof shoppingservicesto meet the residents depend by and large on non- distances,such as to industrialestates in demandfor varyingqualityof goods. In motorisedbicycles. Most of the individuals ,ChinchwadandBhosare,taketwo all threelocalities, therespondentsnoted surveyed travel less than 10 kms during wheelersto the bus orrailwaystationand thattheymeettheireveryday needseither the day. A larger percentage of the continuefurther viapublic transport.Thus, at the door or in the nearbystreet.One DahanukarColony residents (7 per cent) commutingdistanceforthemiddle-class observesin the DahanukarColony vari- travel somewhat longer (10 to 20 kms) in this area is considerablyless thanfor ous stores providingvegetables, sweets, distance for work. Predictably, the Jai similarpopulationsin mega cities like groceriesand other foodstuffs that the Bhavani slum dwellers walk or bicycle Mumbai.That'swhycities like Puneare middleanduppermiddle-classresidents their way to their destinations. The use of increasinglypreferred by themiddleclass. demand.Similarly,in the centralaccess Pune Municipal Transportbuses is about Interestingly,Kothrudhasserved to meet laneof thesluma rangeof small hutsand equal between 14percent gaothanand the theemerginghousing needs of the popu- street vendors (in the evening) selling slum to 16 per cent Dahanukar Colony lationbelongingtothecityproperandthat vegetablesand provisionsat a cheaper residents. If w6 add the use of the state the migrationto thesuburbhas primarily rateaffordableto theslum dweller.A sub- transportbuses we find thit in all three been local andregional.The housingin stantialnumber of residentsreportthat settlements the use is about 18 per cent. the middle-classDahanukarColonyand theygo to the city or other locationsfor Public transportis thus providing service the workingclass Jai Bhavanislum has periodicpurchases of highervaluegoods inequal measureto all three social groups. been largely financedthroughpersonal such as appliancesandjewellery.How- The use.by individuals of motorised two savingsandprivatefinancialinstitutions. ever, the stores in the Kothrudarea are wheelers is substantially higher'in the Thus, housingin the areais still within increasinglyprovidingmore and more colony (18 per cent) relative to 7 per cent the reachof the averageto middle-class sophisticatedrangeof goodsandservices in the gaothan and the slum. family.Thereis considerablesatisfaction so thattheextentof commutingto thecity withthe of the CONCLUSIONS quality housing, shopping, for services and shoppingget consider- cityservices,andqualityol'life thatexists ably reducedin future. The survey on the housing and infra- inthe area.Redress for failureinservices Residentsof all threelocaleswere sat- structurestatus of three varied communi- are obtained through varied means. "isfiedwith the rangeof goods and the ties in the Kothrud suburb of Pune city Appealingto the local corporatoris seen shoppingfacility availablein the area. serves to illustrate empirically various as an effectivemeansby those in the Jai Mostof theDahanukarColonyresidents aspects of rapidurbanisationin metropoli- Bhavanislum whilecollectiveorganising (90 percent)foundthe pricesaffordable tan areas. This emerging suburb is quite and self-financingthe requiredservices

Economic and Political Weekly November 14, 1998 2927 such as garbage collection is resorted to and other suburbsin comparablecities 4 We assume in this mappingandinterpretation that the intent by those in the Dahanukar Colony. suchas Bangalore, wouldbe usefulto pro- to construct,as representedin the registrationof the housing society, does Although we wished to look at the role vide empiricaldataso as to decipherthe result in actual construction. of the town planning department and the internaldynamicsuniqueto Indiancities. 5 Maps showing co-operative house building PMC in the and activity were prepared by Vilas Patil, PhD shaping growth develop- Notes ment of Kothrud,the paucity of informa- candidate, department of geography, Pune [Since of these three localities were University,underthesupervisionof Shashikant tion we were able to obtain from the PMC populations Sawant. notequalandour resources and time were limited, in terms of implementation expenditures 6 land deal has to be with the representativesampleswere surveyedratherthan Any registered andinvestmentprecludedmakinga cause- a full census. Detailed sketches office of the sub-registrar.In the registration taking showing form area and cost of the land is to effect analysis of what was driving the housing units in the gaothan and Jai Bhavani required suburban We are therefore left slum were and for Dahanukar be given. growth. prepared Colony, 7 land-valuesweretakenfrom an with a more observational and anecdotal they were obtained. In Jai Bhavani slum every Mapsshowing fifth house was in the unpublished MPhil dissertation entitled, obtained our field surveyed, gaothan every LandValuesandLand-use of Poona understanding through second and in DahanukarColony every tenth.] 'Changing work and our in-depth interviews of resi- City, 1951-1985' completed by Annuradha dentsandbuilders.The PMC and I Census of India 1991,series 1,paper2 of 1991, Datar under the supervision of Shashikant develop- Provisional Totals: Rural-Urban Sawant. ment have an indirect role Population plans played Distribution,ProvisionalPopulationTable 4, 8 Thesurveywasconductedunderthesupervision in shaping the nature and type of growth. Populationof Urban Agglomerations,Cities of Hemalata C Dandekar and Shashikant Given the fact that40 percent of the popu- and Towns, 1991, p 263. Sawant.Fifteenstudentsin the MA geography lation does not taxes one of 2 For this purposewardwisepopulationfigures class were trainedin administeringthe survey pay property were taken from census and and as the the sources of revenue for the PMC- reports maps supervised they completed survey. major showing censusward boundaries were taken Doctoral students helped in pre-survey resources of the PMC are quite limited. from census officer. Areas of the wards were preparationincluding developing sketchmaps However, the survey has enabled us to measured with the help of a planimeter. to enable us to establish a sampling frame. ascertain some, albeit limited, numbers Populationwas divided by area to arrive at They also helped in supervision of students of for ward. These and facts about the kind of ser- density population every duringfield work. The questionnaireprobed housing, densities were plotted on the maps showing variousaspectspertainingto Kothrudresidents vices and quality of life obtained in this census-wardboundariesfor several decades. access to housing, city amenities and emerging suburbof Pune. Some of these 3 As soon as a co-operative housing society is infrastructureand family income, occupation, findings perhaps can be generalised to formed, it is registeredwith the registrarof commutingmodes, shopping patternsand use co-operatives.The office of the registrarof co- of services in the area. Studentswere trained suburban in other metropolitan growth operatives is the most reliable source of to completethe coding of datawhichhad been cities elsewhere in India. Additional com- informationon co-operative housing building collectedby them.Thiswas thenprofessionally parativeinformationabout suburbsin Pune activity within Pune city. entered into computer readable files.

CHALLENGING DALITSAND THE DEMOCRATIC UNTOUCHABILITY REVOLUTION Dalit Initiativeand Experiencefrom Karnataka, Dr Ambedkarand the DalitMovement South India in ColonialIndia editedbyS R CHARSLEY and G K KARANTH GAILOMVEDT Thisvolume,the first in a new series, constitutes Thisis a thoroughanddetailedworkin whichthe an importanteffort to understandthe variegatedpatternof dalitorganisationandstruggle is set the iD paradoxicalsituationof the Dalitsand to capture against complexmosaicof pre- the realitiesat the grassroots.The contributors IndependenceIndianpolitics. describe the status of rural untouchablecastes Journalof Contemporary Asia * * and study their efforts to challengethe daily 1994 352pages Rs395(cloth) * Rs 200 (paper) humiliationsthey face. They revealthe vitalityof Dalit movements and the contributionthey are THESOCIALCONTEXT makingto reshapingIndiansociety.Amongthe OF AN IDEOLOGY aspectsdiscussedare the initiativesof Dalits to Ambedkar'sPoliticaland SocialThought break out of the limitationsimposed by ancient M S GORE N traditions;the devised them and the strategies by Brilliantresearch...[Theauthor's]reviewof the culturalresources draw and both the they upon; performanceof Ambedkaras a politicianis superbly successes and failuresof these initiatives. \I authentic...The book is superbby allyardsticksand Cultural Subordination and the Dalit willproverewardingto the scoresof practical Challenge, Volume I politicians,socialanalystsand researchersalike. 1998 * 328 pages * Rs 450 (cloth) * Rs 245 (paper) Business Standard 1993*364 pages * Rs 425 (cloth) * Rs 200 (paper) SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd PosBox4215,NewDelhi110048,Tel:6485884,6444958, 6453915 Fax 91-11-6472426Ses OfficeTl: 6463794,646382 Fx 91-11-6217328* AE-55, Salt Lak Calcutta700064,Tel:3377062* 27, MalonyRoad,T Nagar,Madras600 017,Tel:4345822 * 31, LBStadium,Post Box 131, Hyderabad500001,Tel:231447

2928 Economic and Political Weekly November 14, 1998