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phelps et al 00 fmtautoF2 1/6/14 9:10 AM Page iii Border Security James R. Phelps Jeffrey Dailey Monica Koenigsberg Carolina Academic Press Durham, North Carolina phelps et al 00 fmtautoF2 1/6/14 9:10 AM Page iv Copyright © 2014 Carolina Academic Press All Rights Reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Phelps, James R. Border security / James R. Phelps, Jeffrey Dailey, Monica Koenigsberg. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-61163-171-5 (alk. paper) 1. Border security. 2. Border security--United States. 3. United States--Emigration and immigration--Government policy. 4. Smuggling--United States--Prevention. 5. Human trafficking--United States--Prevention. I. Title. JV6035.P44 2013 363.28'50973--dc23 2013033434 Carolina Academic Press 700 Kent Street Durham, North Carolina 27701 Telephone (919) 489-7486 Fax (919) 493-5668 www.cap-press.com Printed in the United States of America phelps et al 00 fmtautoF2 1/6/14 9:10 AM Page v Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii Author Biographies xix Part One Defining Borders Chapter 1 · Barriers, Boundaries, and Borders 3 Introduction 3 East and West Germany 4 Geographic Barriers, Boundaries, and Borders 6 The Rio Grande River 9 Political Boundaries, Barriers, and Borders 12 The Law of the Sea 16 Economic Boundaries, Borders, and Barriers 17 Ultimate in Borderless Regions 20 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies 20 Resolving Boundary and Border Disputes 21 Barriers 23 Conclusion 26 Chapter 1 Endnotes 26 Chapter 2 · Border Security in History 29 Introduction 29 The Ancient World 30 The Walled City 31 Hadrian’s Wall 33 The Great Wall of China 36 Overcoming Walls 39 Reverting to Natural Barriers as Borders in Europe 39 The Ever Changing North American Borders 41 The Return to Walls and Fences 42 The Maginot Line 43 The Siegfried Line 45 The Wall to Keep People In 46 The Last Great 20th Century Border Wall 49 Conclusion 51 Chapter 2 Endnotes 52 v phelps et al 00 fmtautoF2 1/6/14 9:10 AM Page vi vi CONTENTS Chapter 3 · Border Security Agency Operations 55 Introduction 56 U.S. Border Security Agencies before the Advent of Homeland Security 56 Border Patrol 56 Prohibition and Tighter Immigration Laws 61 Sign Cutting 64 Border Patrol During World War II 66 Modernizing Strategy 74 U.S. Government Accounting Office Report on the Border Patrol Employer Sanctions 75 Inspection Stations 76 El Paso Sector’s Operation Hold the Line 76 San Diego Sector’s Operation Gatekeeper 77 Tucson Sector’s Operation Safeguard 78 Northern Border 79 Moving Away from Interior Security 79 The New Strategy 80 Capabilities 81 Expansion 82 Special Operations Group 83 BORTAC 83 BORSTAR 84 Other Specialized Border Patrol Programs 85 Border Patrol Organization Today 85 Training 85 Uniforms 86 Weapons 86 Transportation 87 Killed in the Line of Duty 87 Line of Duty Deaths 87 Armed Incursions 88 Death Threats 90 Criticisms 90 Ramos and Compean 90 Death of Sergio Hernandez 91 Allegations of Abuse 91 U.S. Customs 92 Immigration Services 93 Mission 94 Structure 94 U.S. Border Security Agencies after the Advent of Homeland Security 95 Ports of Entry 95 CBP’s 2012 Fiscal Year in Review 95 Operations 97 Customs and Border Protection 97 Immigration and Customs Enforcement 97 Homeland Security Investigations 98 Enforcement and Removal Operations 98 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service 98 phelps et al 00 fmtautoF2 1/6/14 9:10 AM Page vii CONTENTS vii Other Border Security Agencies around the World 99 Border Security Zone of Russia 99 Imperial Russia 99 Modern Period 100 Mission 100 Republic of South Africa 100 Strategic Vision 101 Mission 101 Culture and Behaviors 101 Border Control Stakeholders 101 South African Border Security Issues 102 Conclusion 103 Chapter 3 Endnotes 104 Chapter 4 · Physical Border Security 107 Introduction 107 Physical Borders 108 History of U.S. Immigration 109 Excerpts from Visa Overstays: Can They Be Eliminated? 111 Fences 115 The San Diego Border Primary Fence 116 Excerpts from Border Security: Barriers along the U.S. International Border 116 Operation Gatekeeper 117 Sandia National Laboratory Study 118 Congressional Border Barrier Legislation 118 Section 102 of IIRIRA — Improvement of Barriers at the Border 118 The San Diego Fence and USBP Apprehensions 120 Office of Air and Marine Operations 121 Excerpts from the Fact Sheet: U.S. Customs and Border Protection 121 OAM Accomplishments during Fiscal Year 2010 122 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Systems 122 Predator B Performance and Weight 123 Guardian UAS Maritime Variant Predator B 124 CBP UAS Operating Locations 124 Customs and Border Protection and U.S. Coast Guard Coordination 124 Conclusion 125 Chapter 4 Endnotes 125 Chapter 5 · Maritime Border Security 127 Introduction 127 The Problem of Coastline 128 Maritime Security in History 129 Modern U.S. Naval Policy 130 The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 132 The U.S. Coast Guard 133 14 USC 1 § 2. Primary Duties 134 phelps et al 00 fmtautoF2 1/6/14 9:10 AM Page viii viii CONTENTS Maritime Security in the Post- 9/11 Era 135 Excerpts from the National Strategy for Maritime Security 136 Excerpts from the National Plan to Achieve Maritime Domain Awareness 140 Excerpts from the International Outreach and Coordination Strategy 146 Excerpts from the Naval Operations Concept 2010: Implementing the Maritime Strategy 154 Conclusion 162 Chapter 5 Endnotes 163 Part Two Border Security and Transnational Crime Chapter 6 · Trafficking: Contraband, Smuggling, and the Law 167 Introduction 167 Contraband 168 Smuggling 169 The History of Smuggling 170 Baggage Surprises 173 The Law 175 Dumping and Anti- Dumping 177 Smuggling Today 178 Conclusion 186 Chapter 6 Endnotes 187 Chapter 7 · People Movers: Human Trafficking and Population Migrations 189 Introduction 189 Human Trafficking Defined: Trafficking 190 Causes of Human Trafficking 190 Traffickers 192 Slavery 193 Laws 193 Excerpts from the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) 114 STAT. 1467 194 Forced Labor 199 Sex Trafficking 199 Debt Bondage 200 Debt Bondage among Migrant Laborers 200 Domestic Servitude 201 Forced Child Labor 201 Child Soldiers 202 Child Soldiers 202 Child Sex Trafficking 203 Excerpts from the U.S. State Department 2012 TIP Report 204 Trafficking in Europe 208 Trafficking in Asia 209 Trafficking in the United States 210 phelps et al 00 fmtautoF2 1/6/14 9:10 AM Page ix CONTENTS ix Trafficking in Sex in Latin America of Slaves and Serfs: Guatemala’s Sex Trade 212 Conclusion 214 HSI, FBI Dismantle Sex Trafficking Ring in Atlanta 214 Chapter 7 Endnotes 216 Chapter 8 · Borders, Economic Interdependence, and Internet Crime 219 Introduction 219 Globalization 220 Energy Interdependence 224 The Internet and Transnational Crime 228 Transborder Victimization 232 Cross- Border Criminal Networks 235 Law Enforcement Efforts to Overcome Barriers 237 Interagency Cooperation and Information Sharing 238 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 239 Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime 239 G8 High Tech Crime Subgroup 239 Interagency Agreements 240 Fusion Centers and Task Forces 240 Information Sharing Systems 241 Technology Implementation 242 Conclusion 243 Chapter 8 Endnotes 244 Chapter 9 · Transportation Security 249 Introduction 249 Logistics Transformation 250 Transportation Systems Theory 250 Mobility and Security 252 The Social Contract 254 The National Highway System 256 Hurricane Rita 257 Evacuation Deaths 259 Aviation Security 260 Layers of Aviation Security 260 Maritime Shipping 261 Global Supply Chain Security 262 Pipelines and Power Grids 263 The Transmission Grid and Compressor Stations 264 Railroads 266 Situational Awareness 267 Illegal Immigration and Transportation Security 269 The Loma Prieta Earthquake 270 Effects on Transportation 272 Conclusion 272 Chapter 9 Endnotes 273 phelps et al 00 fmtautoF2 1/6/14 9:10 AM Page x x CONTENTS Part Three U.S. Border Security Today Chapter 10 · The U.S.-Mexico Border 277 Introduction 277 The Southwest Border Today 279 The Mexican-American War 279 The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848 280 The Gadsden Purchase 281 Ports of Entry 281 Immigration Inspection at Ports of Entry 283 Infectious Disease 284 U.S.-Mexico Commerce and Border Security 284 Security between the Ports of Entry 288 Road Checks Interior to the Southern Border 290 Narcotrafficantes 292 Drugs, Mules and Migrants 294 Green Cards, Guest Workers, and Undocumented Immigrants 295 U.S. Department of State Bureau of Consular Affairs, Frequently Asked Questions — Immigrant Visa Interview Medical Examination 296 Border Crossing Card 297 Green Card 298 The DREAM Act and Other Mexican (American) Questions 299 The DREAM Act 303 The Politics of Pregnancy 303 Undocumented Immigrants/Illegal Aliens 304 ¿Plata o Plomo? 308 Conclusion 312 Chapter 10 Endnotes 313 Chapter 11 · The U.S.-Canadian Border 317 Introduction 317 Early Canadian-U.S. Relations 318 Canada-U.S. Border Evolves 318 International Boundary Commission 321 International Boundary Commission 321 Canada Today 322 Facts about the U.S.- Canada Border 322 Current Boundary Disputes 323 Canada- U.S. Border Security Agencies 324 Canadian Border Security Agency 325 Royal Canadian Mounted Police 326 Stopping Terrorists 326 U.S.- Canada Law Enforcement Cooperation 327 Canadian Border Services Agency News Release: Canada and the United States Announce Phase I Pilot Project to Enhance Border Security at Land
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