EXPLORING the PATH to SUCCESS of FOUR BLACK CANADIAN ATHLETES from the 1980S to 2017

EXPLORING THE PATH TO SUCCESS OF FOUR BLACK CANADIAN ATHLETES FROM THE 1980s to 2017

GREGORY MAPP

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF EDUCATION

NIPISSING UNIVERSITY SCHULICH SCHOOL OF EDUCATION NORTH BAY, ONTARIO

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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to understand what has led to the success at the highest levels for some Black Canadian athletes. Specifically, what are the similarities and/or differences between and among these athletes that has led some to the pinnacle of success and others to not so fortunate circumstances? Through an investigation of 4 Black Canadian athletes, qualities, characteristics, factors, circumstances, and/or conditions were grouped, examined and the findings subsequently supported by my own personal experiences as a Black Canadian athlete in an attempt to understand what has contributed to the success at the highest levels for some Black

Canadian athletes and not for others. My qualitative study revealed many similar and dissimilar qualities, characteristics, and factors that contributed to the successes of the 4 Black Canadian

Athletes studied. The interpretation and analysis of the data collected divulged the following emergent themes: introduction to their particular sport, motivation, determination, challenges the athletes faced, the “IT factor”, and, a strong belief in themselves. The study concludes with some considerations for future study and suggestions to increase awareness, initiate discussion, and educate and encourage coaches, young Black athletes, and potential researchers on the Black

Canadian athlete.

Acknowledgements

DR. HEATHER RINTOUL for your support, encouragement, guidance, wisdom, understanding, patience, and belief

DR. LILIAN HRABCHAK for seeing in me what I did not long before others (including myself) did, being the exemplary educational example that you preached to your students, and the resulting inspiration you are to many of us fortunate to have been taught by you

Mummy for your vision, planting the seed, providing the opportunity, and insistence to not settle

Gran Gran for your example of faith, hope, strength, and perseverance

Mama for me being one of the lucky many you have nurtured and for whom you have provided a stable home

NANCY for your unconditional love and support that continues to enable us

CARTER and JoJo for making me want to be the best I can be so that you will one day …

Table of Contents Abstract ...... iv

Acknowledgements ...... v

CHAPTER ONE: ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY ...... 1

Introduction to My Topic ...... 1

Context for the Study ...... 2

Overarching Question ...... 3

Definitions ...... 3

Motivation for the Study ...... 4

Purpose of the Study ...... 5

Study Rationale ...... 5

Determination of My Topic ...... 6

I Situate Myself in the Study ...... 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7

Black Canadian Athletes (Post-1984 Olympics) ...... 7

The Origin and Cultural Background of the Black Canadian Athlete ...... 13

Immigration and the Transition of the Black Canadian Athlete ...... 13

Early Indications of Elite Athletic Success ...... 15

Success leading to further success ...... 17

Race and the Black Canadian Athlete ...... 18

Summary ...... 19

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY and METHOD ...... 21

Research Methodology ...... 21

Ethnography ...... 22

Examining a Culture ...... 22

Auto-ethnography ...... 23

Auto-ethnography as Methodology ...... 24

Case Study as Method ...... 24

I Situate Myself in the Methodology and Method ...... 25

Purpose of the Study ...... 28

Participant Selection Criteria ...... 28

Procedures ...... 29

Summary ...... 30

Forthcoming in Chapter Four ...... 31

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA INTERPRETATION and ANALYSIS ...... 32

The Athletes: Who Are They? ...... 34

The Legend: Data Interpretation and Analysis ...... 36

Anomalies in the Data ...... 67

The Destination and its Meaning ...... 68

Bringing it all together to Explore Meaning ...... 68

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Summary ...... 73

CHAPTER FIVE: FINAL DISCUSSION: A return to the literature, study results, subsequent reflections, and closing thoughts...... 75

Discussing the Results ...... 76

Reflections ...... 80

My Final Thoughts ...... 85

References ...... 87

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CHAPTER ONE: ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

In the first chapter of this Master’s Research Paper, I introduce my topic, and then provide a context for the study. I then situate myself in the study and offer my motivation for my research. The purpose of the study follows, as does my study rationale and the overarching question for investigation. In Chapter Two I examine the current literature on elite Black

Canadian athletes, with the methodology and method to follow in Chapter Three. In Chapter

Four I interpret and analyze my data. In Chapter Five, the final chapter, I include the results of my study, ideas for future research, speak to the significance of the study, and offer my final considerations.

Introduction to My Topic

As I watched (April 29th, 2017) a recorded telecast of the Canadian men’s 4 x 200 metre relay team winning the 2017 International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World relays (Nassau, Bahamas) beating the US and Jamaica, who finished 2nd and 3rd respectively, I believe that I was observing a team that expected to win. Immediately after the win, Aaron

Brown, who ran the anchor leg for Canada, acknowledged that he had confidence in his teammates when interviewed by the 2000 Olympic men’s 100 metre silver medalist, Ato Boldon.

In an event that is dominated perennially by the Jamaican and US teams, Canada now seemed poised to compete with the best. The day before, in the final of the men’s 4 x 100 metre relay, the same Canadian team members who won the 4 x 200 metre final failed to finish the race and were very disappointed, especially since they had defeated the U.S. team in their semifinal heat prior. These relay races were qualifying events for that year’s International Association of

Athletics World Championships that were held later that summer (August 4th – 13th, 2017) in

London, England.

The 2016 Summer Olympics for many Canadians were highlighted by the outstanding performance of Canadian Andre De Grasse. This Black Canadian athlete’s achievements during the 2016 Olympic Summer Games had never before been attained by any Canadian track and field athlete on such a stage, despite gold medal performances by others in previous games. De

Grasse medalled in three separate events at the same Olympic Games, an accomplishment never before achieved by a Canadian. The resulting accomplishments and success of the Canadian men’s track and field team and other Black Canadian athletes appears to be very sudden. How have these recent successes at the highest levels on the world and Olympic stage been accomplished? What have been the contributing factors to the recent success of Black Canadian athletes? Is it possible to trace and/or identify some reasons, factors, and conditions that may have led to these successes?

Context for the Study

Progressing through the Master of Education program, I was enrolled in a mandatory research and survey course where I was required to submit a research proposal as part of the course requirements. Initiating this exercise led me to inquire about literature that might be of interest to me and give me some ideas for my project. I thought to Google the words: “Black athlete”, “Black student” and, “Canadian Black student athlete.” I discovered very few published articles on the Canadian Black student athlete at Canadian postsecondary institutions despite numerous publications on the same topic in the United States. I was surprised at my inability to find much information given that, since the time of John Howard (the 1st Black

Canadian Olympic athlete, 100 metre sprinter, 1912 Olympics) and Harry Jerome (Olympic

Bronze medalist, 100 metre sprint, 1964), the Black Canadian athlete has continued to be very well represented globally by individuals, for example: Jarome Iginla (professional hockey player,

National Hockey League [NHL], Canadian National Team Member, Olympic Gold Medalist

2002, 2010; World Champion 1997, 2004), P. K. Subban (NHL, Canadian National Team

Member, 2014 Olympic Gold Medal Champion), and Andrew Wiggins (professional basketball player, National Basketball Association, Canadian National team member) to name a few. One quotation stood out for me: “There is relatively little attention paid to Black Canadians in research, Blacks in education, and specifically how race influences the university experience of

Black Canadian students” (Grayson, 1995, as cited in Gabay, 2013, p. 9). I wondered if any of these previously mentioned world famous athletes who have made Canadians proud attended a

Canadian college or university. My perspective as a Black Canadian athlete, albeit as a varsity athlete up until the completion of my undergraduate studies, had me anxiously looking forward to learning more about the world class Black Canadian athletes and their difference(s) and similarities. The resulting sudden urge, interest, and excitement toward satisfying my curiosity led to the creation of this investigation about Black Canadian athletes, supported by my personal perspective as a Black Canadian athlete.

Overarching Question

With this investigation of four Black Canadian athletes, I wish to explore what factors/conditions have led to their recent successes at the highest levels on the world/ Olympic stage during the past three decades.

Definitions

To assist the reader so that we might have a common understanding of the terms used in this major research paper, I offer these definitions.

Black Canadian is a designation or term used throughout the paper to describe persons referenced throughout the paper that are of Black African descent. They may be permanent residents or citizens of Canada by birth or naturalized.

Culture is a term used throughout the paper as the theoretical framework for studying and describing a group.

Elite athlete is a term used throughout the paper to describe an athlete who has competed for Canada at the world class level (World Championship and/or Olympic Games) and/or who has competed in and/or been under contract in the highest professional level in his or her respective sport for a minimum of five years.

Native Black Canadian is a term used throughout the paper to describe Black Canadians as defined above who were born in Canada. For the purpose of this paper, it is not to be confused or mistaken for a person who is of North American aboriginal descent.

Success for the purpose of this paper is defined as a performance, achievement, accomplishment, or person as measured by the attainment of goals (e.g., winning medals at sporting events, becoming a professional athlete).

Motivation for the Study

As a Head Coach and Academic Department Head within a postsecondary educational institution, I wanted to complete a research project that I could also draw from my previous experiences (which may influence others to do the same) and yet relate in some way to the areas

I am presently involved in as an administrator and academic instructor that might assist, guide, inspire, and/or lead current experiences, other individuals, teams, departments, and/or organizations. I believe that the exercise of completing this major research paper will not only satisfy the expectation of the Nipissing University leadership themed Master of Education

5 requirement but also allow me to apply the information learned in my leadership roles as a coach, administrator, and perhaps most importantly, educator. In addition, and from a social perspective for those who may not be intrigued from an academic lens, it hopefully will also induce and/or perhaps invigorate others to contribute to Canadian literature presently available about the Black Canadian athlete. Until recently, there appears to be very little written on the

Black Canadian athlete despite Canada being home to Black people for hundreds of years dating back to Mathieu Da Costa, the first named “Black person to set foot on Canadian soil” (The

Historica-Dominion Institute, n.d., para. 1). By exploring the experiences of successful Black

Canadian athletes and with the inclusion of my personal experiences, I anticipate adding to the available literature about Black Canadian athletes.

Purpose of the Study

Through an investigation of four Black Canadian athletes, supported by my own personal experiences as a Black Canadian athlete, I examined similar and dissimilar factors, circumstances, and/or conditions among four Black Canadian athletes in an attempt to understand what has led to the success at the highest levels for some Black Canadian athletes and not for others.

Study Rationale

Being a Black Canadian former athlete, a coach, and educator has stimulated my interest in conducting this investigation about Black Canadian athletes who have reached success at the highest world and Olympic levels. What is it about these four individuals that led to success at such a high level of achievement in their chosen sport? Are there certain conditions, reasons, or factors common to these individuals that were instrumental in their achieving success at such high levels internationally?

Determination of My Topic

Merriam (2009) suggests guiding questions when reviewing the selection of a research topic. What is interesting that you do not quite understand? What about this topic puzzles you?

What are you curious about? What are interesting questions to a researcher (Merriam, 2009)?

Before I address and/or answer such questions, I must add a few questions of my own. I wonder how Black Canadian athletes differ within the Black Canadian community given the various backgrounds of individuals who self-identify as being Black Canadians? How do I differ from or am similar to other Black Canadian athletes? Glesne’s (2006) advice to potential researchers instructs, “first figure out which issues, uncertainties, dilemmas, or paradoxes intrigue you” (p.

22).

I Situate Myself in the Study

At the college where I am working now, I have been a department director, instructional leader, and Head Basketball coach. I am currently the Department Chair, and Chief Flight

Instructor (flight training). One of my most challenging tasks in the Master of Education

(leadership-themed) program at Nipissing University was to reflect on my own customs and practices. As a result of these reflections, I was able to conclude in my forties that I, a Black immigrant, am a resilient product of inner-city Toronto life. I often wonder if other Black

Canadian athletes have moved through the Canadian educational system unaware of their challenges. Did the more famous and successful Black Canadian athletes have similar challenges? Are there similarities and/or differences between and among these athletes that have led some to the pinnacle of success and others to not so fortunate circumstances?

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, I investigated the extant literature pertaining to Black Canadian athletes using Anderson and Arsenault’s (1998) definition of a literature review as a “summary, analysis and interpretation of theoretical, conceptual and research literature related to topic or theme” (as cited in Kennelly, 2011, p. 76) for guidance. I first describe the rise to world class elite level status of a few Black Canadian athletes in the early 1980s prior to the 1984 Los Angeles

Olympics and the significant growth in number of these said athletes since that time. I then discuss the origins of the Black Canadian athlete. I also share some of the early indications of these athletes’ successes in an attempt to begin the search for some commonality before addressing the issue of race and the Black Canadian athlete.

Black Canadian Athletes (Post-1984 Olympics)

There has been an obvious recent explosion of highly successful Black Canadian athletes at the highest levels in their respective sports.

Canada’s Black population was, until very recently, almost invisible. Mainstream

Canadians could smugly assert a fair-minded superiority over their white American

neighbours. Their first encounter with the Black community was often through the lives

of visiting sports figures or entertainers. This has changed in the last 30 years. (Humber,

2004, p. 115)

I recall, the summer of 1984, watching the Los Angeles Olympic Games and Americans

Carl Lewis (4 gold medals), Evelyn Ashford (2 gold medals), and Valerie Briscoe-Hooks (3 gold medals) excelling in the track and field events. Personally, I was in awe of the athletes even as I was cheering for the Canadian athletes competing against them. The Canadians I remember cheering for during those games were Angela Bailey (1 silver medal), Angella Taylor-Issajenko

(1 silver medal), Ben Johnson (2 bronze medals), and Marita Payne (2 silver medals). They were arguably part of Canada’s strongest Olympic track and field team up until that time, as their results significantly contributed to “Canada’s best Summer Games performance ever” (Yahoo

Sports Staff, 2012, para. 2) despite their inability to successfully challenge the Americans. The

1984 games were the first Olympic games I vividly remember and the start of a tradition for me watching the track and field events while cheering for Canada’s teams at the Olympics. Since

1984, I have not missed any of the major track and field events featuring Canadians in any of the

Olympic games including last (2016) year’s Rio de Janeiro games. I remember the shock I felt watching Lennox Lewis (Canada) defeat American Riddick Bowe (USA) in the 1988 Olympic men’s super-heavyweight boxing final to win gold for Canada and Mark McKoy’s Canadian gold medal performance in the men’s 110 metre hurdle final in Barcelona in 1992. Similarly, I recall Donovan Bailey’s (Canada) vivid wide-eyed and accompanying loud screaming reaction as he crossed the finish line, winning the men’s 100 metre final in world record time at the 1996

Atlanta games, a gold medal result he would duplicate in the 4 x 100m men’s relay final, giving him two gold medals in those games. Along with other Canadian fans, I felt the pain watching the 2000 Men’s Olympic basketball team failing to qualify for the medal round; Perdita

Felicien’s falling in the final of the women’s 110 metre hurdles at the 2004 Olympic Games where she was the prerace favourite; and, the disqualification of the men’s 4 x 100m relay team bronze medal performance in the 2012 London games. To the contrary, I remember jumping around in the living room of our rented summer home while on vacation as I watched Priscilla

Lopes-Schliep win a bronze for Canada in the women’s 110 metre hurdles at the 2008 Beijing games and duplicating my celebratory actions in the same location years later watching Andre

De Grasse of Canada in each of his three medal performances during the 2016 Rio de Janeiro games.

During the ‘80s, both the Toronto Blue Jays and Montreal Expos Major League Baseball

(MLB) teams were talented, competitive, and also comprised of many Black athletes.

The Jays had 11 straight winning seasons beginning in 1983, culminating in back-to-back

World Series triumphs in 1992 and 93’. They regularly attracted over four million fans

per year. They were one of the first teams to exploit the talent base of the Dominican

Republic. (Humber, 2004, p. 118)

Being a converted proud Torontonian since 1981, it was easy as a result for me to cheer for the

Blue Jays, who remain my favourite baseball team to this day.

The other sports that I enjoyed were basketball and hockey (though I could not skate very well), and I noticed few Black athletes on the respective Canadian national teams during the

‘80s. Mensah (2010) believed this to be so because “much more economic resources are required in sport disciplines such as ice-hockey, golf, tennis, and swimming. These are mostly accessible to people from middle- and upper-income brackets, to which a relatively small proportion of Canadian Blacks belong” (p. 191). The following statement made by Willie O’Ree

(Canada), the first Black hockey player in the NHL, most likely did not help to encourage the attraction and participation of Black Canadian athletes to the sport: “Racial remarks were made to me during every game and after every game, and nothing was ever done about it” (as cited in

Humber, 2004, p. 99). Nevertheless, I do recall seeing Black Canadian hockey players at the highest level in the NHL during the ‘80s such Ray Neufeld, Tony McKegney, and Grant Fuhr and learning that they are Canadian. Neufeld played on the top line during his time with the

NHL’s Hartford Whalers with Hall of Fame player Ron Francis (Canada) on his way to a career

10 that included no less than five seasons of at least 25 goals. McKegney, like Neufeld, played on a top line during his time in Buffalo with Hall of Fame player Gilbert Perreault, who is also

Canadian.

Tony McKegney was the first Black NHL player to establish a significant career. …

“Sometimes I would wonder why I was trying to be a pro player when there was no one

like me to look up to. I’m proud of the fact that I was the first Black to establish myself

in the NHL [debuting in 1978]. I hope that helps youngsters who need someone to

emulate.” (Humber, 2004, p. 111)

Both McKegney and Neufeld were not just great Canadian goal scorers and top line players at the peak of their careers but, along with the Hall of Fame goalie Fuhr, arguably paved the path for other Black Canadians who followed their successful careers to the NHL in the ‘90s: Fred

Brathwaite, Anson Carter, Kevin Weekes, Peter Worrell, and Georges Laraque.

As of May 2017, the NHL does not simply feature many Black Canadian players, but those who are considered among the best at their positions with players such as Iginla, Subban, Evander

Kane, and Wayne Simmonds. Perhaps O’Ree’s aforementioned statement about racism in the sport was addressed in some form, as he later “applauded the NHL for refusing to tolerate disparaging remarks directed against Black hockey players during the 1997 – 98 season”

(Humber, 2004, p. 99). Humber (2004) further elaborated: “For Black Canadians a symbol of their integration into Canadian society is their acceptance and success playing the country’s national game” (p. 99).

In the sport of basketball, a game invented by Canadian James Naismith, despite seeing many Black players in the basketball environment in Toronto growing up, I cannot recall one

Black Canadian who played at the national level and the highest professional level prior to the

1990s. Prior to the 1995 – 1996 National Basketball Association (NBA) season, Toronto was awarded a professional NBA franchise. During the 1990s and into the new millennium, Black

Canadian athletes in track and field and in professional baseball continued to be more prominent than in the other professional sports, basketball and hockey. More recently, however, the

Toronto Raptors NBA team had a Canadian on its roster, Corey Joseph, who is one of many

Black Canadian athletes on NBA rosters throughout the league. Prior to Joseph, Torontonians

Rick Fox and Jamal Magloire are two Black Canadians of the very few Canadian players on

NBA rosters through the ‘90s and early part of the new millennium. Fox was a prominent member of the NBA championship Los Angeles Lakers teams, while Magloire “was the second

Canadian (Steve Nash was the first) selected to play in the NBA All-Star game” (Humber, 2004, p. 123). As of May 2017, Black Canadians such as Jamal Murray, Tristan Thompson, Tyler

Ennis, Anthony Bennett, and Andrew Wiggins are very important members of their respective

NBA rosters. The latter two, Bennett and Wiggins, were also the number one NBA draft picks in their respective draft years (2013 and 2014).

In the sport of boxing, Canada again benefited from immigration as they did in the sport of track and field. Trevor Berbick and Donovan and (Razor) Ruddock were world class

Jamaican-born Canadian boxers. The most famous Canadian boxer, Lennox Lewis, was born in

London, England, to Jamaican parents. For me, Lewis’s gold medal performance in the super- heavyweight boxing division was the only consolation for Canada with regards to the infamous

Ben Johnson affiliation with the 1988 Seoul Olympics.

The instability of a professional major soccer league in North America did not provide or allow me much to follow, although I am a ‘football’ fan, having played the game growing up in

Barbados and throughout the remainder of my childhood in Toronto where I also represented all

12 of my school teams. I am aware, however, of the Hooper family of Guyanese origin where both

Lyndon and Charmaine, along with fellow Guyanese-born Alex Bunbury and Trinidadian-born,

Randy Samuel, were integral parts of the Canadian national soccer teams. Perhaps, some future successful Black Canadian soccer players may come through the soccer skills academy that

Charmaine and her older brother have established in their adopted hometown of Ottawa, Ontario

(Humber, 2004).

The Toronto Blue Jays and the Olympic games, starting in 1984, provided me a chance to see not only Canada’s best athletes, but athletes that are Black like me. I would later learn that many, like me, immigrated to Canada from the Caribbean. For example, Ben Johnson, Donovan

Bailey, and Angella Taylor-Issajenko are Jamaican born. Mark McKoy was born in Guyana,

Bruny Surin is a Haitian native, and Marita Payne (like me) was born in Barbados. Blue Jay players such as Alfredo Griffin, Damaso Garcia, Manny Lee, Tony Fernandez, George Bell, and

Junior Felix were all born in the Dominican Republic, and the aforementioned Alomar is a native of Puerto Rico. Lennox Lewis was born in England to Jamaican-born parents and similarly,

Bennett, Brathwaite, Carter, Ennis, Felicien, Joseph, Lopes-Schliep, Murray, Subban,

Thompson, Weekes, and Wiggins, though Canadian born, are all also of Caribbean parenting heritage. I certainly felt a connection to these Black Canadian athletes, and I would always try to learn how many more athletes with similar backgrounds were/are on Canada’s Olympic and major professional sports teams. It is important to note, however, that the Black Canadian athlete is not simply limited to Caribbean immigrants and/or their offspring. David Defiagbon and Daniel Igali are African immigrants who both have medalled for Canada in the Olympics.

David won a silver medal in 1996 and Daniel won gold in the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games.

The Origin and Cultural Background of the Black Canadian Athlete

Casting back in time, it is clear that Black Canadian Athletes had roots in the Black immigrants who came to Canada from a variety of countries around the world. First, Black

Canadians can be divided between native Black Canadians and Black immigrants who later became naturalized citizens. In addition, Black Canadian immigrants within the Black Canadian immigrant population can further be distinguished depending upon from where they immigrated.

For example, Black Canadians who emigrated from the Caribbean may not identify with Black

Canadians who immigrated from Africa, Europe, or South America. Similarly, within the

European, South American, and African continents, Blacks from different countries within those continents may not identify with each other. Milan and Tran (2004) summarize the origins of backgrounds of Black Canadians: “Blacks, in particular, vary extensively in their roots, with some born in the Caribbean, others in Africa, while yet others have been in Canada for many generations” (p. 2). Mensah (2010) provides over 300 years of Black Canadian history starting with the first migration of slaves up until the point system was established in 1967. Additionally,

Walcott’s (1997) study is a compilation of essays about Black culture in Canada and the part that

Black Canadians play in contributing in shaping Canadian society.

Immigration and the Transition of the Black Canadian Athlete

It appears hard to argue against the relation and direct impact that the West Indian immigrant has had on the emergence and overall success of the Black Canadian athlete. “In

Canada, however, few groups have had such an immediate impact on the self-esteem and accomplishment of their new country as those predominantly West Indian emigrants who transformed Canada’s sporting place in the world” (Humber, 2004, p. 84). Members of this

West Indian group include names such as Guyanese-born Mark McKoy; Jamaican-born Ben

Johnson, Donovan Bailey, and Robert Esmie; Glenroy Gilbert who was born in Trinidad; and the

Haitian-born Bruny Surin. The latter three individuals, along with Donovan Bailey, were 1996 gold medal 4 x 100m relay teammates (Humber, 2004).

Many Black Canadian athletes, regardless of their origins, have all worked toward their elite level athletic status goals while residing in Canada just prior to or at the time of their world class recognition and/or elite professional level status. For example, according to Poulton

(2008), “even though Lewis was born London, England, he grew up in Canada and learned everything he knew about boxing around his home in Kitchener, Ontario” (p. 108) after moving to Canada at the age of 12 years. Angella Taylor Issajenko (1990), like Ben Johnson who left

Jamaica for Canada, arrived in Toronto at the age of 16 years. Similarly, when Donovan Bailey left Jamaica and relocated in 1981 to Canada (Way, 2011), he would have been 13 years old.

Bailey’s relay teammate, Bruny Surin, arrived in Canada from Haiti with his family at the age of

7 (The Great Names of the French Canadian Community, para. 2).

It was not only male athletes that provided the Canadian sporting world with an immediate impact. As Humber (2004) discussed, the immigration boom also provided a generation of successful world class elite level Black Canadian female athletic role models that included such names as Molly Killingbeck (born in Jamaica), Angela Bailey (born in England),

Angella (Taylor) Issajenko (born in Jamaica), Charmaine Crooks (born in Jamaica), Jillian

Richardson (born in Trinidad) and Marita Payne (born in Barbados). These athletes’ journeys toward their elite level success occurred on Canadian soil here in their new home during a period between the 1970s and into the early to mid-1980s. During the 1990s, athletes such as Black

Canadian athlete Anson Carter, whose “parents were both natives of Barbados, coming to

Canada, as part of the immigration boom” (Humber, 2004, p. 112), were examples of how the

15 influx of West Indian immigrants was still continuing to supply elite level Black Canadian athletic talent. I often wonder if it was the immigration policies at the time that permitted training in Canada to be the common denominator for the success of the athletes in the ‘80s and, as a result of their success, the beginning of the more recent/current trend of successful Black

Canadian athletes in the ‘90s and 2000s? Might there also be a connection with the shared number of West Indian immigrants and the success of the Black Canadian athlete given the appearance that a majority of the highly successful Black Canadian athletes during the period beginning with the 1984 Olympics are Caribbean born or the offspring of Caribbean natives who all immigrated to Canada between the ‘60s and ‘90s?

Humber’s (2004) many references to the West Indian immigration boom, a period between the mid-‘60s and ‘90s that peaked in the mid-‘70s, appears worthy of further exploration. What were the factors about training in Canada that contributed to the world class elite level status of the Black Canadian athletes and their resulting success? Perhaps a look at a few of these athletes, including their initial signs of success, might provide an answer, or if not, at the very least some further direction.

Early Indications of Elite Athletic Success

Many of the Black Canadian athletes I’ve already noted attained some early success in their respective sports which might have been a major motivating factor in their journey toward their ultimate professional and/or Olympic world class status. Lennox Lewis as a 19-year-old was already representing Canada at the Olympics in the 1984 games in Los Angeles, though he was a virtual unknown prior to the 1988 Olympics. Lewis was a Canadian household name, however, by the end of the games after capturing gold in men’s boxing in the super-heavyweight division (Stubbs, 2012) en route to becoming the world heavyweight champion. Fellow 1984

16 and 1988 Olympian Angella Taylor-Issajenko was a National team member as a 19-year-old high school student (Issajenko 1990). Issajenko set the world indoor record in 1987. Similarly other decorated Black Canadian athletes Angela Bailey, Molly Killingbeck, Jillian Richardson, and Marita Payne represented Canada from the period of 1979 until the early 1990s, setting many national records on their way to multiple world championship, Commonwealth, and

Olympic games medals. In hindsight, though often appearing during her peak to be the Canadian female equivalent to Ben Johnson, Issajenko’s career appears secondary when compared to

Payne’s, who is just as accomplished if not more so and who has never been linked to performance-enhancing drugs.

Marita Payne, since her retirement, has been recognized for her many accomplishments during her time representing Canada on the world stage. The naming of a park in Vaughn,

Ontario after her in the town where she grew up after her family immigrated from Barbados is testament to the impact which Marita Payne has been recognized to have had with the Canadian national track and field team(s). Following the admission and linking of performance-enhancing drugs to Issajenko, Payne, at present, is rightfully in possession of both the Canadian National

200 and 400 metre records as a result of Issajenko’s 200m record being revoked. (The 200m record was recently broken by Crystal Emmanuel on July 18th, 2017.)

Not to be outdone, professional major league athletes, P. K. Subban, Anson Carter, and

Andrew Wiggins had also experienced a high level of success by the completion of their teenage years. Subban, as of July 23rd, 2017 is a perennial NHL all-star level and multiple Canadian national championship team player whose professional career is currently highlighted by his defenseman of the year James Norris Trophy award in 2012 (NHL Enterprises Staff, n.d., para.

7). As a 19-year-old, Subban played for Canada at the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey

Championships in the Czech Republic, helping the team to their fourth consecutive gold medal at the tournament, defeating Sweden in overtime in the final. Similarly, “Anson Carter has been a member of two World Hockey championship teams and he has perhaps the most famous goal by a Black Hockey player, scoring the winning tally in the 2003 final” (Humber, 2004, p. 112).

Carter enjoyed an 11 year career in the NHL including at least five seasons scoring over 20 goals after starring at Michigan State University for four years beginning in his teens. Andrew

Wiggins, the son of track and field star Marita Payne, was named the 2013 Naismith Prep Player of the Year and the 2013 Gatorade National Player of the Year as the nation's top high school player. He was the first Canadian player to be so named. In May 2013, he was named Mr.

Basketball USA and also ranked number one high school basketball player by SLAM magazine

(Wikipedia, n.d., para. 8).

Success leading to further success

During the period starting with the 1984 Olympics until the present, the rate of success of the Black Canadian athletes in their respective sports at the highest level has been like no other.

Fellow successful Canadian national track and field members Johnson, Killingbeck, Taylor,

McKoy, were all members of the Mazda Optimist Track and Field Club who “had trained together under the same coach, Charlie Francis” (Issajenko, 1990, p. 2). Was their success partly due to healthy internal team competition? Or was it a result of competition with other Black

Canadian successful track and field athletes during the same period, such as Angela Bailey,

Payne, and Richardson? Perhaps the success of these athletes, regardless of the reason, propelled the next generation of Black Canadian athletes headlined by Donovan Bailey and Bruny Surin.

The generation following Bailey and Surin, in at least one instance, was motivated by the success of these two gentlemen. Poulton (2008) described Perdita Felicien as “taking inspiration from

18 track superstars Bruny Surin and Donovan Bailey, Felicien dedicated herself completely to the world of track and field, working out constantly and training every moment she could spare” (p.

30). Similar to these recently successful (post-1984 Olympics) track and field athletes, the early successful Black Canadian hockey players, Fuhr, McKegney, and Neufeld all appeared to reach the pinnacles of their careers within a similar time frame. Did their success provide the blueprint for Brathwaite, Carter, Iginla, Kane, Laraque, Simmonds, Weekes, Worrell, Subban, and others to follow? Were Joseph, Thompson, and Wiggins in basketball similarly inspired to follow the successful trail of Fox and Magloire? Did Wiggins, whose father also played professionally in the NBA, with such a pedigree, benefit exponentially, further increasing his likelihood of success? The Dominican and Puerto Rican players of the Toronto Blue Jays too might have similar explanations for their success and the timing of it.

Race and the Black Canadian Athlete

Humber (2004) expands on many of the Black Canadians I have already mentioned as he provides a revealing chronological, historical, and detailed description of the Black athlete experience in Canada. He argues that the appearance of Canada being more accepting with regard to race relations may not be accurate when one reviews African Canadian participation in sports. With reference to Humber’s argument, I thought it might be pertinent to include the work of Smith and Lalonde’s (2003) study on “racelessness” with respect to racial identity:

within Fordham's ‘racelessness’ framework. Fordham posited that to achieve success,

educational or professional, in a society where Blackness is devalued, Blacks adopt a

strategy of racelessness—they downplay their Black identity, disengage from their

culture of origin, and assimilate into the dominant culture. Racelessness, however,

results in psychological difficulties. (p. 142)

The importance of the inclusion of “racelessness” is perhaps further understood when reading,

The underlying itch of racism in hockey, however, refuses to dissapper completely. A

junior hockey coach, John Vanbiesbrouck of the Sault Greyhounds, lost his job in the

2002-03 season after repeatedly slurring his defenceman Trevor Daley with the same

language that got Chris Simon suspended. (Humber, 2004, p. 114)

As Smith and Lalonde (2003) have noted, “racelessness” may affect individuals psychologically. I recall from the moment I first heard Canadians speak my first day at school in my new country as a 10–year-old boy; I tried to speak in a similar way so I wouldn’t be ridiculed for speaking so quickly. In the workforce today, I still feel the need to appear to live, speak, and behave like what my understanding and expectation is of the “average” Canadian, all in an effort to be respected equally and avoid being labelled and/or treated as different. While understanding how the idea of “racelessness” has affected me personally, I was interested to discover whether race had affected other Black Canadian athletes.

Summary

In numbers, Black Canadian athletes originating from a wide range of cultural backgrounds have become more successful at the highest levels in their respective sports worldwide since the mid-1980s. The early to mid-1980s time period included Canada’s most successful showing at the 1984 Olympic Games, the initial success of the Toronto Blue Jays and the Montreal Expos baseball teams immediately during and/or shortly following the West Indian immigration boom. Due to a lack of research on the Black Canadian athlete, not much is known in general about this group and, as a result, what can be the reasons for their seemingly explosion of success since the mid-‘80s. Can it be attributed to immigration policy, coincidental healthy competition, “success leading to greater successes,” and/or something else? How does race

20 affect these athletes? The one consistent finding in the literature I reviewed appears to be the need for more research on Black Canadians and Black Canadian athletes in particular. I was excited to see what further investigation might contribute to the findings on this group.

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND METHOD

In this chapter I explain the rationale for selection of methodology and method that I used throughout this investigation. I situate myself in the research by expanding on details of my own personal background introduced in Chapter One that have been so influential in my pursuit of this project. In so doing, I am following the example of Glesne (2006), who stated,

Since qualitative researchers seek to make sense of personal narratives and the ways in

which they intersect, I begin with an account of my connections to research. If you know

something about my story, you may better understand and interpret my perspectives in

the work that follows. (p. 1)

I also describe how I determined this research project and topic in addition to the procedures that I used; data collection, analysis, and interpretation; researcher ethics and bias; and the foreseeable challenges with the method selected. Similar to Glesne (2006) who advised

“continual alertness to your own biases and theoretical predispositions assists in producing more trustworthy interpretations” (p. 167), I too discuss the anticipated challenges as a result of my personal perspective contribution, resulting personal bias, and its relation to this research paper.

Research Methodology

I knew in the early stage of the development of this project that I wanted to learn about the experiences of other Black Canadian athletes. To do so, I read their stories while offering my own experiences as a Black Canadian student athlete. When reading Glesne’s (2006) work stating, “qualitative researchers seek to make sense of personal narratives and the ways in which they intersect” (p. 1), I realized my theoretical base for this study was qualitative methodology.

Merriam (2009) also suggests, “Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds and what meaning they

22 attribute to their experiences” (p. 5). Qualitative methodology appeared appropriate based on the work of Glesne (2006) and Merriam (2009) given that I include my personal experiences

(Glesne, 2006).

Ethnography

Ethnography is an examination of a culture. Anderson (1990) described the origins of ethnographical research as occurring when researchers began exploring the environment to

“understand the culture in the setting under study” (p. 148). Glesne (2006) defined ethnography as “using a culture as the theoretical framework for studying and describing a group” (p. 9).

Anderson further elaborated that the ethnographer is primarily concerned with behavioural patterns and their meanings when he stated, “ethnographers generally study patterns as they relate to a natural setting” ( p. 148) and are “primarily concerned with what things mean” (p.

149). Glesne used “ethnographic somewhat interchangeably with qualitative to refer to practices that seek to interpret people’s constructions of reality and identify patterns in their perspectives and behaviors” (p. 9). Both Anderson and Glesne provided me reassurance that I could explore and describe the Black Canadian athlete culture over the last 30 years without the concern for measurement that is more representative of quantitative methodology.

Examining a Culture

In my qualitative Master’s Research Paper I examined the culture of successful Black

Canadian athletes with four of Canada’s most elite world and Olympic athletes in their respective sports as my representative sample. Through the study of their backgrounds, experiences, and paths to success of four successful high level Black Canadian athletes, subject to publicly available literature, I learned about the culture and environment that have contributed to the successes of this group of four individuals. I also used my personal experience as a Black

Canadian athlete to assist with the meanings and interpretations of the lives of four successful

Black Canadian athletes. I followed Anderson’s (1990) example that “observation is … open with the observer participating in the situation” (p. 149). The intent of my personal contribution is to supplement the research and data collected on the four high level successful Black Canadian athletes as “secondary to the main purpose” (Anderson, 1990, p. 149). I also note here that

Glesne (2006) stated, “many ethnographers tend to be women; rather than from privileged classes, they tend to come from many groups including different socioeconomic, ethnic, gay and lesbian, and third-world groups” (p. 10). My personal perspective as a Black Canadian athlete is useful in further understanding my collected data. The intention was to follow Anderson (1990) where “the concern in ethnographic research is the context, and therefore, the researcher goes there and participates in it” (p. 149). In the following section, I further explain the place of auto- ethnography in my research.

Auto-ethnography

Auto-ethnography is the writer’s biography used to describe a culture or ethnic group

(Glesne 2006).

The term auto-ethnography is used in a variety of ways: to describe narratives of a

culture or ethnic group produced by members of that culture or ethnic group; to describe

ethnographies of the “other,” but one where the writer interjects personal experience into

the text as in the confessional tale; and, more akin to autobiography, to investigate self

within a social context, whether it be your own or that of another culture. (Reed-Danahay

1997, as cited in Glesne, 2006, p. 199)

I used auto-ethnography to describe my personal experience as a Black Canadian athlete within the cultural setting of the successful Black Canadian athlete over the last 30 years as an addition

24 to the publically available information obtained on the paths to success of four successful Black

Canadian athletes. The intent was to revisit, recall, and relive events that I personally experienced as a Black Canadian athlete and relate them through my own lens to the experiences of the four selected elite Black Canadian athletes.

Auto-ethnography as Methodology

The two considerations that need to be addressed are (a) how I relate my personal perspective to the findings or information discovered and (b) how the research is presented. Like

Tillman-Healy and Kiesinger (2001) who combined ethnography and auto-ethnography during their study on bulimia (Glesne 2006), I too combined ethnography and auto-ethnography to explore the Black Canadian athlete over the last 30 years. I accomplished this task through describing and investigating the culture of four highly successful world class Black Canadian athletes in addition to my own personal perspective as a Black Canadian athlete. “Accurate description is fundamental to all methods, although description is not really a method by itself”

(Anderson, 1990, p. 120). I then not only included my personal experiences but also further interpreted the collected data of the four high level athletes in an effort to compare them with my own experiences.

Case Study as Method

From a qualitative perspective, Merriam (1990) defines and describes the methods and techniques of case study research as most suitable for collecting and analyzing data. “A case study is an examination of a specific phenomenon such as a program, an event a person, a process, an institution, or a social group” (p. 9). I decided to use the combination of ethnography and auto-ethnography as the methodology to address how I related my personal perspective to the findings or information discovered. Glesne (2006) connects the researcher and participant(s)

25 to ethnography within qualitative research. “In qualitative case studies, data tend to be gathered through the ethnographic tools of participant observation and in-depth interviewing” (p. 13).

This major research paper concerns five individuals (me included) wherein all information collected is sourced from publicly available data and supported by interpretation and comparison. “Case-study methodology, like ethnography, tends to be a method of immersion … the researcher must be involved in collecting virtually all the data and in interpreting, analyzing and recasting the issues and questions as the data collection unfolds” (Anderson, 1990, p. 161).

“Case studies are reports of materials obtained while working with … a group, … and/or shed light on needed research” (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 11).

I Situate Myself in the Methodology and Method

My personal story as a Black Canadian athlete was not only central in the creation of this major research paper but also offered further support as an example to validate my description of the successful Black Canadian athlete. As researcher, I bring my personal experiences and influences to the project. My desire to pursue this project grew exponentially after learning how little research appears to exist on Black Canadians and Black Canadian athletes in particular. In addition, constant reflection over the years led me to my present belief that I am a very lucky consequence of being in a position to take advantage of opportunities presented to me, something

I am aware that many other Black Canadians have not experienced. Sport for me was such a distraction that I believe it is the reason I am so admittedly naïve for someone in midlife. The amount of time I devoted to sports and athletics, of necessity, perhaps took away my sense of awareness and also my own overall personal development in other areas. I still wonder how many others like me were often naïve and unaware of everyday challenges for Black Canadians such as racism, even perhaps when it was not blatantly obvious, ignorant that it could possibly

26 have been concealed and/or disguised? Another challenging issue for many Black Canadians is being the product of a less privileged background. Mensah (2010) indicated many Black

Canadians might have been prevented from excelling in sports that required additional resources as very few are from backgrounds in the middle and upper middle income demographic. I immediately thought as a Black Canadian athlete that perhaps I can, through this study of successful Black Canadian athletes, narrate my own personal perspective as a Black Canadian athlete and shed some light on the successes of Black Canadian athletes.

My experiences as an athlete have contributed significantly to my personal development and who I am as an individual today. In addition, my in-depth perspective on sports and athletes in general was shaped by my personal experiences as an athlete. I remember making my first varsity (middle) school team in September 1984 (just after watching the 1984 Olympics) as a grade 8 student. I was one of 25 plus team members of the school’s varsity soccer team. It would be the first of many different varsity teams I would be a part of every year from that point right up until I completed university. I participated on varsity teams in various sports that included soccer, basketball, volleyball, and track and field. I also took on various roles on these different teams that ranged from not playing very much if at all, to barely coming off the field or court during games. I was also a captain, a leader, an all-star, most improved player (MIP), and/or a most valuable player (MVP) on some of these varsity teams. I played basketball at the highest level, Canadian Interuniversity Athletics Union (CIAU) and now named U Sports, just short of the national team in Canada, and I eventually used that experience to transition to

Canadian college level coaching. In short, since watching the 1984 Olympics and playing on varsity teams, I have spent more than 20 years as a varsity athlete and coach of varsity basketball at the college level. A successful Black Canadian athlete at the highest level of competition for

27 any of the sports in which I participated based on the definition in Chapter One, I was not. I believe, however, that competing at a level just prior to the professional, world championship, and/or Olympic stage against and with others who did attain such status validates the inclusion of my personal perspective as support for this description of the Black Canadian athlete.

As a university varsity athlete I was exposed to aspects of the game that contributed to the success of individual athletes and/or sports teams. In an effort to be thoroughly prepared for the competition, I was part of and benefited from the mandatory analyzing and breaking down of game film, techniques, practice drills, and various bodily movements of our teams/individuals as well as our opponents to identify areas needing improvement. The follow-up work with team members and coaches, whether during team practices, individual workouts, or via meetings, was a requirement in a constant effort to improve as a team, individual, and ultimately to gain on the equally competitive competition. It was the hard work and significant amount of time spent with team personnel that provided the foundation for many of the strong bonds I made that have also transitioned into friendships outside of the sport itself that I anticipate I will enjoy for the remainder of my life. For example, some former teammates, coaches and athletes who played for and/or with me remain my mentors, are godparents to my children, and, most importantly, very close friends. The additional work devoted to preparing to compete is where I really learned and understood the technical and fundamental aspects of the game, the work required to excel, and a resulting appreciation for not only the game and the ones who were great at it but also the coaches who coached and mentored me. I also worked with sports psychologists within and outside of the team(s) to further enhance my preparation and focus prior to and during competition. As a coach, I used the experiences gained during my playing career to create plans to address and improve the identified areas as a guide for individuals and the team to follow.

The work that goes into understanding the technical, psychological, coaching, and fundamental facets of the game/sport in an effort to simplify and better prepare for competition is also done

(albeit to a greater extent) at the professional, world championship, and/or Olympic level world championship. As a result, it seems reasonable that my role as an athlete at various varsity levels brings creditable and valuable experience that may enhance my study.

Purpose of the Study

To reiterate, the purpose of this qualitative study was to understand what led to the success at the highest levels for some Black Canadian athletes. I looked for similarities and differences between and among four highly successful Black Canadian athletes and supported that interpretation with my own personal experiences as a Black Canadian athlete.

Participant Selection Criteria

Once I decided on case study as my method, the next step was to determine the criteria to select the four athletes for this research project. In an effort to ensure the athletes were truly elite level and a true representation of the last 30 or so years, the criteria I used were the following:

 The athletes must be Black Canadians as defined in Chapter One who:

- are of Caribbean descent or parentage; and

- Achieved a medal while representing Canada at the Olympic or world championship

level in their respective sport; and/or,

- have been under contract at the highest professional level (e.g., NFL, NBA, NHL) of

their respective sport for a minimum of five years.

 The group of four includes at least one male and at least one female, one of whom peaked in

the 1980s, one in the 1990s, and one in the new millennium.

The intent was for my personal narrative to supplement the interpretation of my study of Black

Canadian athletes of Caribbean descent.

Procedures

I searched the internet and local library for any documentation, material, and publically available accessible data about Black Canadian athletes. My intent was to obtain information on these athletes and to examine their personal and sporting paths to athletic success at world and

Olympic levels. The main focus of my research was to explore similarities and differences between and among these Black Canadian athletes to further understand what it was about these individuals that led to their high level of success in their chosen sporting discipline.

Informed consent

Understanding rights about confidentiality and informed consent with regards to ethical research, I was concerned about the process of gathering information and writing about the athletes that I chose. Anderson and Arsenault (1998) refer to informed consent as a fundamental principle of ethical research, and I am a good example of Seidman’s (2006) reference to new researchers who, because of the potential exposure of their subjects, can be tentative to secure informed consent. All the information that comprises my data was gathered from publically available material; therefore confidentiality and informed consent concerns are unnecessary in my study. I did take care not to reveal the identity of any individual when I wrote of my own experiences, as doing so would require written permission from the individual and clearance from Nipissing’s Research Ethics Board.

Ethics and Researcher Bias

The importance of ethics with regard to credibility and integrity and their relation to research where the researcher is intimately involved in the subject matter and content could

30 present an opportunity for an unethical and discreditable final product. Merriam (2009) identified data collection and the resulting interpretation as two areas in qualitative research where ethical dilemmas potentially surface. The significance of handling my data ethically cannot be ignored given that I anticipate that my study will perhaps add in some small way to the available information about Black Canadian athletes.

Data Collection

Similar to Anderson (1990), “the public and formal data begins after the work plan is developed” (p. 175). Immediately following the approval of my proposal, I used the internet and available library resources to access information on the four athletes selected for the research. I obtained information from biographies, magazine and newspaper articles, websites, television documentaries, interviews, and anything else formally documented and recorded that is publically available. In an effort to explore, compare, and contrast between and among these individuals, I gathered information on each athlete from as early a date as possible up to and including their world class elite level status peak and/or present day (in cases where the athlete is still active). I also offered my own personal narrative as a support to further interpret the data collected. The latter was in an effort to again follow Anderson’s (1990) conclusion: “Research on the effects of evaluation indicate that they are often most effective when there is someone within the project who is convinced of the merits of the evaluation and champions its dissemination” (p. 185).

Summary

In Chapter Three I detailed the methodology and method that I followed to complete my study. After discussing the determination of the topic, I addressed qualitative research and auto- ethnography research as my methodological framework as well as case study as method. Then I

31 situated myself in the research to provide the reader insight into my background and what I bring to the study with regard to experience as a Black Canadian athlete.

Forthcoming in Chapter Four

In Chapter Four, I interpret my gathered data comparing and contrasting between and among my participant information and expand on that interpretation with the inclusion of my personal experiences as a Black Canadian athlete.

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

At the onset of this research project, I was unaware of what I might find even though I did have some ideas and perspectives on the paths to success for these athletes. I was, however, also aware of the many possibilities as a result of differences among the four unique Black

Canadian athletes and my own personal experiences. “Data gathering includes parts of analysis, analysis leads to more data, writing leads to a greater understanding of both analysis and data.

The process is totally holistic, each piece absolutely necessary to the whole” (Glesne, 2006, p.

171). In an effort to have an initial process that could steer me toward some considerations

(Merriam, 2009), I interpreted the data gathered for each participant, comparing and contrasting between and among all participants’ data and using my own personal experiences to further and deepen my understanding. “This [process] is a next level of description, an explanatory level that describes how one variable relates to another” (Anderson, 1990, p. 138). The intent was to share the similarities and differences between and among the individual athletes that appears to have led to their success. “Data analysis is the process of making sense out of the data”

(Merriam, 2009, p. 175).

To reiterate, the purpose of my study was to understand what has led to the success at the highest levels for some Black Canadian athletes but not for others (who did not achieve similar success). As a postsecondary department head and also the men’s varsity basketball coach of a team that includes many Black Canadian athletes, I looked forward to not only learning about these athletes but also becoming a better instructional leader in my workplace as a result of the lesson(s) learned in this study. My study of four such athletes disclosed some similarities between the athletes. The similarities of achieving early success in their sport, the determination and work ethic to succeed, the “IT factor” — a strong belief in oneself at some point that they are

33 or can be the best, and a support system that has the acumen and resources to put it all together, stood out during the data gathering process. Strong support for the person with the ability to assemble the necessary pieces to create a top class athlete is another similarity of each athlete, as is having a coach who believed in them.

Before I begin my interpretation and analysis, I introduce the athletes in the Data

Collection section titled, The Athletes: Who Are They? to provide the required context prior to discussing the common themes contributing to their success. The Legend (think map) provides the interpretation and analysis of the data collected, which is essentially assisting the reader with understanding these themes, further described under subheadings, in an effort to highlight the similarities and differences, between and among the athletes.

Within this chapter I use the term “legend” to discuss the similarities and differences that emerged from the data collected. With the legend analogy, I discuss the themes that emerged from the analysis and interpretation under the related subsections, Prime Mover, Arduous

Conditions, The Real McCoy, and Ride to the Top. The Prime Mover section first examines each athlete’s introduction to his or her sport followed by the motivation toward his or her success.

Arduous Conditions reflects on the challenges the athletes faced during their journey toward their success. The Real McCoy section contains data that support the theme of the athletes having the

“IT Factor,” including a strong belief in themselves. The section Ride to the Top, through discussion of the similarities and differences between and among the athletes, reveals the athletes’ road to success. I also add my reflections and thoughts to each section based on my personal experiences as a Black Canadian athlete under the subheading Recollections of My

Experiences following the identification of similarities and differences between and among the

34 athletes. The Discussion which follows each section introduces new details, ideas, thoughts, and/or queries as a result of the data collected that I discuss further in Chapter Five.

The Athletes: Who Are They?

In this section, I share the information collected, including demographic data, on each athlete including their introduction to their respective sport/event. Exploring a topic with so many possibilities, it seems important to share the beginnings of each athlete’s experience. The foundation not only helped me to put into context the athletes’ setbacks and their subsequent rise to success but also provided context for their similarities and differences.

I begin by providing a brief biographical sketch of each athlete, starting with Ben

Johnson, followed by Donovan Bailey and Perdita Felicien, before closing with Andre De

Grasse. Though I did not achieve the same elite level as these four, I also summarize my own reasonably successful athletic career to provide background on the similar experiences we share to assist with my interpretation of the data.

Ben Johnson

Ben Sinclair Johnson is a retired 100m and 4 x 100m sprinter who represented Canada at many of the major international meets in these events during the period from the early ‘80s and into the nineties. Johnson was born on December 30th, 1961 in the Jamaican port town of

Falmouth and moved to Canada to live with his mother at the age of 14 in April 1976. The highlight of his career was winning two bronze medals in both events at the 1984 Los Angeles

Olympics. He is known for testing positive for the performance-enhancing drug stanozolol at the

1988 Seoul Olympic games after breaking his own world record set the year prior in the 100m final at the world championships.

Donovan Bailey

Donovan Anthony Bailey was born on December 16th, 1967 in the mountainous parish of

Manchester, Jamaica. After visiting Canada at the age of 7, he moved to Oakville, Ontario,

Canada to live with his father and brother in 1981 a few years later at the age of 13. Bailey, a sprinter, represented Canada internationally in the 100m and 4 x 100m relay events. He became the second Canadian to win the Olympic 100m dash at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta with a world record time of 9.84 seconds, defeating the strongest field ever assembled in the event.

During the same games, Bailey also participated as a Canadian team member that won a gold medal in the 4 × 100m relay. Bailey’s accomplishments include: the 1996 Lou Marsh Award

(Canadian athlete of the year), the 1996 Lionel Conacher Award (Canadian Press male athlete of the year), the 1996 Canadian Press Team of the Year Award (as a member of the 1996 Olympic relay team), 2004 Canada`s Sports Hall of Fame (individual) induction, 2005 Ontario Sports Hall of Fame induction, 2008 Canada’s Sports Hall of Fame induction (as a member of the 1996

Olympic 4 x 100m relay team), and the 2016 Order of Ontario.

Perdita Felicien

Perdita Felicien, unlike her mother and three older sisters who are native to the small

Caribbean island of St. Lucia, was born on August 29th, 1980 in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada. The family moved to Pickering, Ontario when Felicien was just 7 years old. Felicien, a hurdler, is a

10 time Canadian National champion in the women’s 100m hurdles event. She has won gold medals at the 2003 World Championships as well as the 2004 World Indoor Championships.

She participated in two Olympic games (2000 and 2004) and five world championships. She is the current Canadian record holder in the 100m (12.46 seconds) and in the 60m (7.75) hurdles.

Andre De Grasse

Andre De Grasse was born on November 10th, 1994 in Toronto, Ontario to a Trinidadian mother and Barbadian father. Before the age of 22, De Grasse had already accomplished more than any other Canadian sprinter at any one Olympic games by medalling in three events at the

2016 Rio De Janeiro Olympic Games.

Gregory Mapp

Born in Bridgetown, Barbados on December 3rd, 1971, I moved to Toronto, Canada shortly after turning 10 with my father, mother, and brother on Christmas Day, 1981. During a varsity athletic career that lasted from 1984 until 1996, I participated in basketball, soccer, track and field, and volleyball. The multiple sports provided me the opportunity to participate in the

Ontario Federation of School Athletic Associations (OFSAA), Canadian Collegiate Athletic

Association (CCAA), Ontario Colleges Athletic Association (OCAA), Canadian Interuniversity

Athletics Union (CIAU ), later changed to Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) and now U

Sports, Atlantic Universities Athletics Association (AUAA), now (AUS) Atlantic University

Sport). Throughout my active playing career, I was a team captain, MVP, all-star, and at times one who barely played, if at all. The pinnacle of personal awards came during my last year of university while playing varsity basketball when I won the best defensive player award.

The Legend: Data Interpretation and Analysis

In this section I introduce a compare and contrast thematic interpretation and analysis of the data I have collected on the athletes. The collected information unveils the unique directions to success as well as the challenges and setbacks of the four athletes beginning with their earliest days and subsequent initial introduction to their chosen sport. As a researcher and also a

37 participant in my study, I wanted to learn of each athlete’s beginnings that laid the foundation for their future achievements. The following section provides some context.

Prime Mover

The four individuals’ introductions to their respective sports were certainly not common to these athletes, though there were some similarities between and among them. For example,

Ben Johnson did not have an encouraging introduction to his sport in his native Jamaica prior to his move to Toronto: “he tried out for the Trelawny Parish team. … He failed three times”

(Christie, 1988, p. 48). Johnson, the first of this group of athletes to reach international stardom, was later reintroduced to the sport as the “little brother [who] would tag along, doing his best to keep up” (Christie, 1988, p. 46) with his older brother, Edward. Edward was an exceptional high school track and field athlete himself who trained with the Conquerors track club in Toronto prior to leaving for Texas on a postsecondary athletic scholarship. Unlike Johnson, Donovan

Bailey showed signs of sprinting speed from his earliest days, according to teacher Chris

Lambert who said, “He was athletically inclined … showed his athletic skills from grade one.

He always came first in races” (Way, 2011, para. 4).

Perdita Felicien and Andre De Grasse at different stages of their lives were both encouraged to take up their respective sports. While in elementary school, Felicien was encouraged by Mrs. Arthur, her gym teacher, to try out for the school`s track team after she noticed her athleticism (PerditaFelicien.com, 2011). “De Grasse has run track only since the spring of 2012, when he was in Grade 12 and agreed to race on a whim” (Ebner, 2015, para. 7).

In that first race, De Grasse finished second with a world class time of 10.9 seconds and got the attention of coach Tony Sharpe, a 1984 Olympic bronze medalist.

Motivation

Three of these four elite level Black Canadian athletes had similar motivating factors to take up their chosen sport. Johnson, Felicien, and De Grasse were all inspired by previously successful Caribbean-born Canadian Black athletes. Ben Johnson has a very vivid recollection of the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games.

I rank them as one of the best shows of sprinting talent ever. For me, it was a moment

that added a fuel to my running career. Donald Quarrie of Jamaica, an athlete who had

ignited my own inspiration to run, was matched up with Haseley Crawford of Trinidad

and Tobago. They squared off and competed in what was to be an unforgettable head-to

head showdown, one the world had never seen. At least I had never seen such a thing

before. (Johnson, 2010, p. 89)

Poulton (2008) spoke about Felicien being inspired by the outstanding careers of Bruny Surin and Donovan Bailey and “dedicating herself completely to the world of track and field, working out constantly and training every moment she could spare” (p. 30). Ebner (2015) shares the following on De Grasse, who told him,

I’m capable of competing against the big dogs … Canadian sprinting hasn’t been around

for what? Maybe 15 years. No one knows about Canada any more. Everyone’s hearing

about the U.S. running fast, Jamaica running fast. I want Canada to be back up there.

(para. 8)

Donovan Bailey, unlike his peers, was motivated to return to competive sprinting on a part-time basis in 1990 while watching the Canadian Track and Field Championships and noticing some of the competitors were athletes he had already defeated in high school, according to Way (2011).

Recollections from My Personal Experience

Casting back in time to my introduction to sports, I would say that I played in sports as a direct result of the group of people I was with at the time. I started following my uncles around and running races with my classmates in my earliest days at primary school or playing a game of cricket or football (soccer) with them and with my friends in my neighbourhood. My motivation for wanting to play cricket was mostly because of the local Barbadian players who were a part of the West Indies (Windies) Cricket team who were winners of the inaugural World Cup (1975) and 1979 Championship teams. Names such as Desmond Haynes, Gordon Greenidge, Joel “Big

Bird” Garner, Collis King, Malcolm Marshall, and David Murray were major contributors and consistent members of those teams. In the game of cricket, where the team is comprised of 11 players, you can imagine how it was easy as a young Barbadian to have such players as favourites, given that Barbados as compared to the larger West Indian countries (such as Guyana,

Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica) had so many players on the team. The one player that stood out among these other world class stars that formed the formidable West Indies teams of the ‘70s and ‘80s was the great Vivian “Viv” Richards. Since knighted, the Antiguan born Sir Viv

Richards is arguably one of the greatest batsmen to ever play the game of cricket. He was the world class sporting star of the Caribbean at a time when the only other world famous personality from the area was the legendary Jamaican, Bob Marley.

After moving to Canada I had hoped to continue playing the game of cricket, but it would never happen. I recall that Christmas night shortly after arriving in Canada while in line at customs, an officer walked by and asked: “Is that a cricket bat that I see”? My brother and I excitingly replied “yes.” The officer then in a somewhat solemn tone responded, “Well, you won’t have much use for that here.” Once in Canada, my brother and I still tagged along behind

40 our uncles to their soccer, cricket, and now wrestling practices and/or games. Cricket would eventually be dropped by my uncles, as their new country lacked many of the resources to make the game as accessible as it was in their native land. For example, to play and practice involved having to drive from the west end of Toronto north for about 45 minutes to King City. At a time when my uncles did not have their own transportation, it became increasingly difficult simply to get to practice and/or games.

I also noticed most of the other Black kids at our new school were also from the

Caribbean islands. Many played sports and were frequently the best athletes. They often received recognition for their athleticism rather than their academics. To observe students being recognized for extracurricular activities at my new school was a new experience for me. My previous school in Barbados did not have any intra/extramural clubs, sports, groups, and/or teams. The extent of our extracurricular activity was one “sports day” every year where the entire school was divided into four houses: red, blue, green and yellow and competed in events such as the egg and spoon and potato-sack relay races prior to the more highlighted activities of sprint and relay races. I felt that if I wanted to fit in with my new school’s “cool” group and/or get recognition within the school, I would have to make the school sport team(s) and excel. I looked forward to this challenge, as I preferred working hard at playing rather than studying.

Discussion

Each of the four athletes was motivated by the success of other athletes regardless of their age and results when they were initially introduced to their sport/event. For example, Ben

Johnson did not achieve initial success in his initial introduction to track and field like the other three athletes, who all displayed tremendous athleticism early in their sport. Could motivation then be the main source for these four athletes’ success? If so, what then fuelled their

41 motivation? For Johnson, perhaps it was watching other athletes who came from similar backgrounds who had similar passion for the sport to achieve success.

Was athleticism at an early age also a requirement for success, or could it be considered more important than the determination to succeed? How early does an individual need to take up the sport if hoping to eventually peak at the world class elite level in the prime of his or her athletic career? Do the athletes need to specialize in the sport they hope to succeed in at an early age and/or can they play other sports up until a specific time in their lives before it does become a requirement for them to specialize? Perhaps it is as simple as experiencing success that inevitably initiates the necessary steps to advance the athlete’s training methods toward further success.

Determination and Work Ethic to Succeed

All four of these elite Black Canadian athletes, after entering their respective sport, showed a strong determination to succeed. Johnson “was maybe seven years old when he said for the first time that he wanted to be faster than anybody else, the fastest runner in the world”

(Christie, 1988, p. 46). He was disappointed shortly after by not making his local parish’s track team. Back then “he [Johnson] was never quite fast enough. But more than he hated losing out, he hated quitting. He had a core of determination that acknowledged defeat but rejected submission. He failed three times and each time it hardened his resolve” (Christie, 1988, p. 48).

It would not be long after his arrival in Toronto, beginning with following his brother to his track club practices, that Johnson’s strong determination was observed as he struggled to keep pace.

Perhaps it was his small frame, speech impediment, dark skin, and/or a combination that made

Johnson (2010) a target for school bullies and a tough transition to his new life in Canada.

Perhaps it was the strong faith his mother had instilled in him that became “an integral part of

[his] life” (Johnson, 2010, p. 82) that, despite the tough transition, made him “find some talent within himself to drive it to success. Of that he was confident. Some way he was going to make it. ‘Whatever it takes,’ he said, breaking his reverie” (Christie, 1988, p. 93).

Christie (1988) also disclosed that Johnson was used as an example by his elementary school of what can be accomplished when being dedicated to something. In Johnson’s own words, according to Globe and Mail, columnist Allen Abel, if he’d remained in Jamaica, “I’d be a bum” (Christie, 1988, p. 40). That inner dialogue is backed by Moore (2012), who noted,

His main attribute was persistence: he “refused to be discouraged, and showed up every

day.” … Francis was intense; Johnson laid back to the point of appearing horizontal, even

if, as Francis put it, “those big eyes of his were fixed on goals beyond my vision at the

time.” (p. 38)

In short, in Johnson’s own words, “The best thing about me is my dedication, … sometimes you’re out there training by yourself and it’s lonely. That can be good, because you have to push yourself” (Christie, 1988, p. 94).

Bailey followed the advice of his grade one teacher, Carmen Swaby, who “instilled in all the kids that they could do anything. There are no limitations” (Way, 2011, para. 3). Within just two years of resuming his training after recommitting to the sport before the age of 25, Bailey was not only competing at the national and international levels but also was one of the world’s top ranked sprinters. The “top ranked” designation was accomplished prior to meeting “coach,

Dan Pfaff, who invited Bailey to train with him” (Way, 2011, para. 3) after Pfaff saw him compete at an international meet in Germany.

“Going into high school Perdita quit track all together, afraid of losing, and scared of not achieving the same success she had at Glengrove” (PerditaFelicien.com, 2011, para. 4) Public

School. In addition to “lov[ing] the instant success she found in high school breaking provincial hurdle records and winning national junior titles” (PerditaFelicien.com, 2011, para. 7), Felicien appeared to have a kind of built-in mechanism to fuel her determination and work ethic.

Following the successful results of that inaugural high school race and given his late start in the sport in comparison to the other three high level Black Canadian athletes discussed, De

Grasse’s motivation and determination were locked together throughout his quick ascension in the ranks and achievement of greater success. Gillis (2015) offers further insight about De

Grasse.

He is determined to take his place among the Bolts and Gatlins in the sprinting pantheon.

“I feel like I can be competitive with these guys, ... I’ve just got to put my mind to it and

feel confident. I can’t be afraid of them, just because they’re gold medallists. I have to

go out there and try to make a name for myself.” (para. 11)

Recollections from My Personal Experience

Embarrassingly, when I started this section I initially thought I did not have anything of value to add. As I thought about it more, it became obvious that my goal in secondary school was simply to get a scholarship for basketball to enable me to “go away” to school. Any extra effort was focused toward that goal. As I think back to my time at university, I guess I thought my career would end there, and I do not believe, in hindsight, that I had any specific meaningful goals beyond my playing time there. It may have been because I played a team sport and my goals, even if selfishly wanting to excel individually, would have to simultaneously be part of the team’s. One thing I do recall clearly is that I would have never tried to challenge the team’s plans or commit to anything that would sacrifice the team’s success in order to promote my own.

Some high school teammates, however, had individual goals and continued their basketball

44 careers on scholarship at postsecondary institutions prior to successful professional careers but my goals were more team oriented. Perhaps if I had been more self-assured, self-absorbed, and determined, I might have experienced similar success.

Discussion

The four successful Black Canadian athletes all displayed a high level of determination in the pursuit of their goals and continuously throughout their successful athletic careers. Would it be reasonable then to say that determination, for these four athletes, was a strong component essential for their athletic success? How early was their determination and ethic required, and to what extent did it best position these four athletes on the path to elite level success? Were determination and work ethic alone sufficient? Or could it have been overcome by athleticism and/or an excellent support team for any or each of the four athletes? What was it that could be attributed to such a high level of determination?

Initial/Early Success

Another topic of similarity among all four athletes was some form of initial or early success in their respective events. Early success could mean different things to different people.

For the purpose of this research paper, the phrase, early success prior to secondary school graduation is the catalyst that ultimately launched their elite level careers.

All three men, Johnson, Bailey, and De Grasse, ran world class times prior to departing high school, starting with Johnson, who was “winning school races for a year in Toronto without any real training” (Christie, 1988, p. 55) despite his early struggles in elementary school as a youngster in Jamaica to make the local track team. He became the Canadian 100m junior champion, and by the age of 17 he was running world-class times (10.60 seconds in the 100m) and able to start preparation for competing internationally (Johnson, 2010, para. 3). Likewise,

Bailey’s speed from his earliest days had improved to the point that by the age of 16, while a member of his high school track team, he was running world class times (10.65 seconds in the

100m) despite his choice to focus primarily on his passion, which was basketball. De Grasse, too, ran a world class time of 10.90 seconds in the 100m in just his first race as the result of a dare after following a high school friend to a track meet in grade 12. Just seven weeks later and by now in training, “it was time for the podium… Mr. De Grasse didn’t know where to stand”

(Ebner, 2015, para. 21) after running an even faster world class time of 10.59 to defeat a field of high school all-stars. “Organizers almost did not let him race because they were skeptical that he belonged in the field” (Ebner, 2015, para. 20). In the words of his coach at the time, Tony

Sharpe, “I don’t think he got the meaning of what he’d just achieved, … It’s a joke between us, to this day” (as cited in Gillis, 2015, para. 1).

Felicien, who stopped participating in track events against her mother’s wishes after entering high school because she feared losing and not maintaining the same level of success she experienced in elementary school, enjoyed immediate success in high school once deciding to return to the track despite her initial dislike for the hurdles. She broke provincial hurdle records and won national junior titles. Her success earned a scholarship to the University of Illinois at

Urbana-Champaign at the age of 19, where she ran hurdles under the tutelage of the renowned coach Gary Winckler. “Eventually, she was being compared favourably to the legendary

American track star Gail Devers” (Poulton, 2008, p. 30).

All four athletes experienced very high levels of success before their high school completion. What I also found common to all the athletes was how they used their high school success not only to get to the next level of competition but also as a path to improve their

46 performances and their overall career success despite their somewhat varying routes to achieve that success.

Recollections from My Personal Experience

As a high school student, I was good enough to be a part of a great basketball program that ultimately attracted enough interest that I was recruited by the University of New Brunswick to play basketball for the then Red Raiders. An important point to note, however, is that, despite being able to use high school success to continue playing at the postsecondary level, I did not enjoy the same level of success individually with regards to championships and/or individual statistics in high school as any of the four elite level Black Canadian athletes highlighted in this chapter, partly because my mindset was focused on team success. My high school athletic success that resulted in my being recruited was because of the basketball team’s success.

Specifically, as a major contributor on the best basketball team in high school in the city of

Toronto in my graduation year, I benefited from the exposure of a team to a university head coach eager to recruit members in an effort to rebuild and replace players not expected to be with his team for the next season. It was clear even then that by not being the best player in the region, city, or province and to a much lesser extent my own high school team, my accomplishments were nowhere close to those of Johnson, Bailey, and De Grasse, who all were world class at this time. I often wonder if I benefited more in high school from being a good player in the sport of basketball though not the best on a good team than being the best player on a mediocre team?

In high school in the sport of track and field, I believe I might have been on some path to success after placing sixth in the regional, City of Etobicoke Secondary School Athletic

Association (ESSAA) Championships. As a result, I advanced to the Metro Toronto High

School Championships where I would not even place. I would never again compete in the long jump event after that year. This was the end of any comparison of my athletic endeavours to the sport of track and field and the other four Black Canadian athletes.

Discussion

The four successful Black Canadian athletes discussed in detail in this chapter all experienced success in their respective sports/events early enough in their careers so that ongoing training propelled them toward being the best in their event worldwide. As a result, I wondered if there is a time frame in an athlete’s life when he or she must experience some form of success that warrants the continuation of training that might lead to further improvement and future success. Was early achievement of the four athletes even a requirement and/or an indicator/guarantee of future success?

Arduous Conditions

It is a rough road that leads to the heights of greatness. Lucius Annaeus Seneca

It may be that an unplanned path to success is not met with a few challenges, and the athletes examined in this paper were no exception. In an effort to better understand the athletes and what they had to overcome, I thought it important to share the challenges and setbacks that the athletes faced during their journey to elite status. My interpretation of the data indicated that all four athletes faced some hurdles along the way. I also discuss the pressures inherent in the need to perform when it mattered, despite the challenges faced.

The first obstacle to overcome for three of the four athletes was not being part of a team.

The term team here is used as descriptive of a competing group and not that of a group of people assembled to provide support to the athlete’s overall wellbeing. Further, unlike a basketball, soccer, and/or baseball team where the on-field or on-court athletes work together toward the

48 same goal at the same time, track and field team athletes, unless in a relay race, function individually in their events during competition. The track and field athlete’s success is primarily based on each individual’s personal performance. Being part of their high school team provided the athletes the opportunity to compete and also provided an outlet for their talents to be recognized. For two of the four athletes, for different reasons, making or being a part of their school team was an initial barrier that Johnson and Felicien overcame.

Ben Johnson’s challenges began from his days in Jamaica when he failed three times to make his home parish’s track team. Felicien, similarly to Johnson, though for different reasons, initially was not part of her high school track team. As noted earlier, she had actually quit competing on the track early in high school because of her fear of losing and/or not continuing the success she experienced early in the sport beginning in elementary school.

A second impediment for the athletes which in two instances almost prevented them from even pursuing their sport was passion. Bailey and De Grasse primarily preferred to play basketball and as a result were part of their respective high school teams and almost missed out on their track and field success. Way (2011) wrote, “ his primary passion and focus was basketball … during the 1986-87 school year, Bailey played basketball as a forward for the

Sheridan Bruins in the Ontario Colleges Athletic Association” (Way, 2011, para. 10). Bailey’s lack of passion for track and field compared to basketball is further magnified: “I could have left high school and run track right away, but that wasn’t what I wanted, … I wanted a nice house, money, fast cars. I was taught to work real hard, to work on my own” (Freeborn, 2008, para.8).

Comparably, “When Andre De Grasse was 15 [or]16 years old, he was getting into trouble and playing basketball” (Ebner, 2015, para. 24). De Grasse’s taking up sprinting much later than his

49 competitors was also a barrier that he had to overcome, as he was immediately thrust into a world where his competitors had been training a lot longer than he had.

A third challenge for Johnson and Bailey was adjusting to a new social structure. Both emigrated from Jamaica to live in Canada during their early teen years. For Johnson, his struggles were immediate upon his family’s relocation to Toronto.

As a fourteen-year-old, Johnson did not settle easily in Toronto, despite the fact that the

city, and the country, was supposed to be a bastion of tolerance. He was small, he had a

stutter, and, at school, his strong Jamaican accent meant he was not easily understood.

Not surprisingly, he was put in classes for slow learners. There were also cultural hurdles

to overcome. He failed to realise, for example, it was not a done thing in Toronto to kill a

pigeon with a catapult, then roast it on a fire. He was bullied at his school, Pierre LaPorte

– ‘not exactly the slums,’ says Johnson, ‘but close.’ He does not dwell on the race issue,

but his very dark skin made him a target for prejudice not only in Canada, but also in

Jamaica, where lighter complexions convey higher status. (Moore, 2012, p. 37)

One final challenge the athletes all faced was the financial constraint of having to train full-time in order to excel and not enough time to work a full-time job. In the case of Felicien, her living, training, and tuition expenses were covered by the full Division One athletic scholarship she received to attend university. De Grasse, like Felicien, was also an NCAA full scholarship Division One athlete. Johnson, however, had a tough time despite being a nationally carded athlete and who quit college to concentrate solely on track. He made strides toward the world class level, but for most of his career it was while still living at home with his mother. In her book titled, Running risks, Issajenko (1990) spoke of coach Charlie Francis selling his car to help support his athletes, as the money that carded Canadian athletes received was simply not

50 enough to live on. Bailey, who left college where he played basketball to pursue his chase of money, a car, and a house instead of pursuing track, was motivated to return to competitive sprinting but did so on a part-time basis. (Way, 2011)

I would like to note that there is a challenge to perform at the NCAA Division One level despite it also being seen as a solution to an athlete’s financial problems. For example, both

Felicien and De Grasse, while achieving huge accomplishments on the field, also had to maintain their athletic eligibility by achieving a certain academic standard in the classroom. In short, it is not enough to simply obtain a scholarship and continue competing at a high level. One must still achieve certain standards in the classroom to stay eligible to compete and retain the scholarship.

Bailey’s pursuit of his basketball career in postsecondary at Sheridan College should also not be considered in the same context as Felicien’s and De Grasse’s full scholarship, as Bailey was not a basketball scholarship athlete.

Performance Stressors

The pressure to perform at the right time is something the four athletes faced even if initially only at the national level. To successfully perform well with limited resources, primarily a lack of finances, further magnified some of their challenge(s). It is at the national championships where the athletes needed to be one of the two to four top performers in their respective event(s) to receive the honour of representing Canada at the World Championships or

Olympic Games. To represent Canada on the world stage presents an opportunity to be ranked as one of the world’s best. To accomplish the latter (top 16 to be specific) meant one would also be a nationally carded athlete. The conditions under which the athletes were able to achieve their required results are also worth mentioning, as many of them excelled at a time when even simply to make the national team was incredibly challenging. For example, at the national level all four

51 athletes competed against world class athletes who were also top performers in their sport events globally.

Johnson, for a significant period of his career, had to compete against Tony Sharpe, a

100m finalist with him in the 1984 Olympic Games in LA, and Desai Williams who, with

Johnson, raced in the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games 100m final just to make the national team and to maintain his carded status. Similarly Bailey, like Johnson, did not have a track scholarship to help support his living and training expenses but was successful at his first few national championships without a coach or being a carded athlete. For most of his career he competed nationally against Bruny Surin, who equaled Bailey’s own one-time world record time of 9.84 seconds in the 100m dash and was also the national champion like Bailey. Felicien, despite being an All-American and NCAA champion while enrolled at the University of Illinois, like

Johnson and Bailey, did not have an easy time competing at the national level. She competed in an event that included two other Canadian world class athletes during her career in the 100m hurdles event. Felicien, just to represent her country at the Canadian championships, often had to outperform fellow Canadian athletes annually, such as Angela Whyte, who raced in the 2004

Olympic final alongside her, and Priscilla Lopes-Schliep, the 2008 Olympic bronze medalist.

De Grasse, though not competing against the world class competition at the national level as the other three athletes did, still faced pressure as a result of his early success. Within three years of being discovered, he not only had the head coach of Athletics Canada raving about him but also the Pan American Game organizers in his hometown anointing him as “Canada’s new sprint king” (Gillis, 2015, para. 12). The pressure escalated all the way to comparisons to the present world champion, Justin Gatlin and world record holder, Usain Bolt behind whom De

Grasse finished in third place at the Rio Olympic Games 100m final.

Recollections from My Personal Experience

I recall many challenges in high school that hindered my development in many sports, not just basketball. The challenges I faced were the result of not having a place to play or train to work on my own personal athletic development. Very rarely, if at all, were there local community centres and/or high school gyms open regularly that would permit local young athletes the opportunity to train and/or play. In secondary school I often hid with teammates and friends in the washrooms after school until the teachers went home just so we could play basketball unsupervised until very late (sometimes up until 10 p.m.) at night. The tactic of waiting for teachers to leave us unsupervised in hopes of being able to play did not occur consistently, as often we were discovered in the school building and sent home immediately as a result. In addition, even if I had dedicated time to train, training would have impacted the time I could devote to my studies. Both of my parents immigrated to provide better opportunities for my brother and me, and thus we were very closely monitored. Our parents were not against our being involved in extracurricular activities though, as they supported the overall student experience and its relation to education, character building, and our growth as young people.

However, if extracurricular activities negatively impacted or posed a threat to our studies, it was never supported. I understood my parents’ position and their rationale and, as a result, I never pushed back against their expectations.

Discussion

All of the four athletes experienced some form of distraction, challenge, and/or resistance as they ascended to the highest levels in their sport. Might an argument be made that challenges presented to the athlete to overcome is a necessary ingredient for their success by better preparing them mentally for the heavy pressures of competition? Could any of the four athletes

53 have made it to such a high level without challenges? If expecting to make it to the top in their sport, shouldn’t they expect to face challenges along the way?

The Real McCoy

Some people have natural ability while others have the ability to grasp a new concept or technique and make it appear as though they have always had the skill and/or technique.

Whether natural or developed, those that are successful at a high level possess what many call the “IT factor.”

IT Factor

Described as “a skinny little runt” (Christie, 1988, p. 45), Ben Johnson appeared to have the fundamental natural ability to be successful given that without any real training he was winning races in high school. He became the national junior champion while running world class times. He cited his cultural background and strong interest in sports, his strong religious faith, supportive parents, and the hard-working values that they instilled in him as the major contributors to his success. Johnson (2010) acknowledged, “My family and my spiritual connection to God gave me the inner strength to not give up and always work hard to achieve whatever goal presented itself to me” (p. 102).

Donovan Bailey’s natural ability, first noted in grade one, was further validated after he resumed training around age 25 and posted excellent results following time away from the sport to pursue his postsecondary studies and establishing his own business. Poulton (2008) further speaks to Bailey’s quick rise to the top when he writes, “While others spent their entire lives training for these events, Bailey had become the best in the world in less than four years” (p. 24).

Felicien’s fear of losing, already mentioned in this section a couple times, also appears to serve as her “IT factor.” The numerous quotes, studies, and definitions on how fear affects and

54 ultimately guides us explains her results given the prominent role that the possibility of losing has played in her training since her earliest days.

It has been hard to narrow down what that special “IT factor” is that gives Andre De

Grasse his edge, though it is obviously there somewhere in his five foot nine 155 pound finely tuned frame. Perhaps it is from his mother who is not afraid to proclaim, “I was always fast”

(Ebner, 2015, para. 14). His coaches saw something in him before he saw it in himself and also marvelled at his talent. Sharpe told his wife after seeing De Grasse for the first time, “This kid

… has got something special” (as cited in Gillis, 2015, para. 2). According to Gillis (2015) however, even Sharpe, who also discovered Andre, “didn’t foresee De Grasse’s meteoric ascent through the U.S. college system” (para. 6) and who can blame him.

Track and field has never seen a kid like this, … People want to say Usain Bolt came out

of nowhere, but Usain Bolt was running world-class times when he was 15 and 16 years

old. When Andre De Grasse was 15, 16 years old, he was getting into trouble and

playing basketball. (Ebner, 2015, para. 24)

Ebner (2015) shared the words of his university coach, Caryl Smith Gilbert: “He’s a silent assassin. That’s what I tell him, ‘You’re a silent assassin.’ … He wants to win. He doesn’t say much, but he’s really a killer” (para. 12). Donovan’s Bailey’s coach, Dan Pfaff, has a more scientific explanation for Andre’s natural abilities as he cites,

the emerging science around fascia – tissue that helps connect muscles and bones and

joints – that’s part of producing power. Mr. De Grasse’s speed is more than muscle.

There’s also a ‘gifted nervous system’ in him. ‘We called it copper wiring,’ Mr. Pfaff

says. (Ebner, 2015, para. 32)

Mr. Perry sums up Andre’s talent best. “It’s art … The way his legs move is art” (Ebner, 2015, para. 30). His track and field predecessors also seem astonished at his tremendous natural talent.

Ebner (2015) again shared the thoughts of a few, starting with Donovan Bailey’s description of

De Grasse: “I’d been waiting since the day I retired for the next great Canadian sprinter …

Andre has the ability to go into a big competition and not be afraid of anybody. I love the fact he’s not afraid. Love it” (para. 10). Felicien (2015), not long retired from her brilliant career tweeted her amazement: “Andre DeGrasse just went 19.58 in the 200m with a +2.4 wind. I can't take it!!” (Ebner, 2015, para. 4).

Belief in Oneself

To accomplish something never done before, arguably one first has to believe the possibility exists. One has to then push oneself beyond where he or she has been, somewhere outside of his or her comfort zone. For each of the four Black Canadian athletes, they all at some point had to believe they were capable of accomplishing something they had never done before in order to work and train towards their peak performances. Given their accomplishments, it would appear that they all possessed this inner personal strength or, as one has put it, “killer instinct.”

Johnson’s confidence in his abilities surfaced in multiple sources used in this paper.

Christie (1988) wrote,

Kids, says Ben, “have to believe in themselves and to think that they can do such things

as they set their minds to. Set the mind to a goal in life and work towards that. Nobody

taught me that. It’s something that developed in me.” (p. 102)

Johnson’s (2010) strong belief in his athletic abilities and desire to pursue his dream can be put into perspective when he states, “despite my father’s wishes, I will never forget the day I quit college” (p. 113).

It seems fair to say that Bailey’s own confidence in his abilities was very high when he made a decision to switch careers while watching television after being away from the sport for some time. “Bailey always believed in meeting goals and facing new challenges” (Poulton,

2008, p. 23). His immediate, remarkable results without a coach showed others what he (Bailey) already knew. Once conquering her fear to return to training and competition, Felicien, according to Poulton (2008) had the mindset, “I’m not scared of these girls anymore, … I hope they are scared of me” (p. 31). In addition to a very successful 2016 Rio Olympic Games, De

Grasse believes he will compete in the 2020 and 2024 Olympic Games (Ebner, 2015, para. 9).

Should he complete his intentions, for the 2024 Games he would be the same age (29) as Bailey when he competed in the 1996 Atlanta Games. In Ebner’s (2015) work, De Grasse declared he wanted Canada back up at the top of the sprinting world with the US and Jamaica, as he is

“capable of competing against the big dogs” (para. 8). Similarly, in Gillis’s (2015) article, De

Grasse shared that he simply needed to put his “mind to it and feel confident” (para. 11) to be competitive with the best in the sport.

Recollections from My Personal Experiences

At the 1989 Ontario Summer Games (University of Waterloo), I competed for the Central

East (representing central and western metropolitan Toronto) team. I made the team after simply attending the regional (open) tryout at Seneca College because I was unable to attend the follow- up tryout. I made a call to the coach, John Robb, who at the time was a University of Toronto

Varsity Men’s Basketball Assistant Coach to thank him for the opportunity and to notify him that

I would not be at the follow-up tryout because I was in my uncle’s wedding party that day. He returned my call to let me know that it was not an issue, and I took that to mean he was grateful that I simply had the decency to notify him. I would later learn when the final roster was announced that, despite not attending the tryout, I made the team. I remembered then (once learning of making the team) the look on Coach Robb’s face when he picked me out of a group to participate in the first scrimmage at that first tryout. I also remembered a similar look (with a more pronounced smile) after I made a move during the first possession of that open scrimmage only seconds into it (after he had picked me to play with what appeared to be the early favourites to make the team). I made the team as the only member who played junior varsity that season.

Playing junior varsity is nothing that I was ashamed of as, at that time, in most schools in the metropolitan Toronto area that were strong in certain sports, the athletes involved played on the sports teams (midget, junior, or senior) based on age. Thus, I was the youngest member of that Central East team, which was probably pulling from the largest talent pool in the entire province. I also remember one of my high school and perhaps most athletic teammates, George

Frempong, in awe telling the story soon after at our school (Martingrove Collegiate Institute) to our teammates of that move I made during those tryouts. The irony here is that I, at that time, was in awe of his talents and was looking forward to playing with him on the school’s senior varsity team the following season.

I also remember those 1989 Ontario Games being the weekend directly in between two separate basketball camps that I attended that summer. Both camps were in the US and were used by the Canadians in attendance in an effort to land a basketball scholarship to a U.S. school.

I remembered having to fly back to Toronto from the five-star basketball camp in Pittsburgh

(with another outstanding high school athlete, Wayne Mulgrave, who later played professionally

58 in Europe) and take a taxi to my home where my parents allowed me to drive the two of us to

Waterloo for that weekend. I would have to drive back to Pearson International Airport from

Waterloo at the end of the games that weekend to catch a plane to Newark, New Jersey to attend another camp with George Frempong the week following in nearby Trenton. The following week, I would be on a team coached by Jeff Van Gundy, who at the time was an assistant at a division three school, Nazareth, in upstate New York. He would later coach the New York

Knicks and Houston Rockets of the NBA and is currently a top analyst/commentator for NBA games on the major U.S. National network(s) carrying the games. On my report card, Van

Gundy demonstrated his approval of the way I played by writing, “Greg, you do not know how much I appreciate your unselfish game.” I saw him about 15 years later on the campus of Rice

University (Houston). During our brief conversation he remembered that specific team I played on for him as he also recalled two players, Stan King and Ira Newble, who also were members of that team. Newble would eventually play in the NBA.

I remembered running with Wayne to the University of Waterloo gymnasium after parking my parents’ van to meet the registration deadline for what was my most important basketball event to that point. I remembered as we were running starting to feel perhaps anxious and/or nervous of the weekend ahead and saying to Wayne that “I hope I do well as I’m not sure

I deserve to be on the team as the only junior.” His response in frustration was “you need to stop talking like that ... you made the team fair and square and need to get that out of your head and ready to play.”

Despite now believing at this point in my life that everyone has something about them that makes them unique or special, I did not see it in myself as a schoolboy athlete. I make such a statement as I look back and remember the coaches who saw enough in me to make me a team

59 captain, pick me as an all-star, and even MVP. I remember going to basketball camps and tryouts and making teams often wondering, how did I do that? Reflection today leads me to believe I simply did not have the confidence in myself as others did then. I recall playing sports simply because I loved competing and received a tremendous amount of enjoyment from doing so. I tried out for teams because I wanted to be part of a team, spend more time with my friends who I anticipated would tryout and also make the team(s), and it would allow me to compete and also be around them. Perhaps my excitement from the enjoyment I experienced showed in my passion to compete and that brought out what others saw that I was unaware of in myself at the time. My teammates, often with words of encouragement, also showed that they too, like my coaches, had more confidence in me than I did in myself. All said, even if I had any bit of an “IT factor” as arguably others from my past might allude to, I certainly did not believe in it enough to use it to my advantage in any way. I will agree or argue, however, that there might have been something, even if only in a small way, that I was able to display my ability to keep up and stand out despite not putting in a tremendous amount of effort and time in working on my athletic skills.

Discussion

These four elite Black Canadian athletes showed early potential ability to succeed at the highest levels. The ability to perform at such a high level in comparison to others provided reason to believe they possessed some natural ability and/or “IT factor” that just separated them from their completion. Keeping in mind the challenges that Ben Johnson faced at the onset of his introduction to his sport, might it be possible for the average athlete, who has not shown any exceptional talent or quality early in his or her training, to ascend to the highest level in his or her sport? Is the “IT factor” all natural, or can it be achieved if not combined with a strong ego and

60 hard work? Is the belief in oneself sufficient, or must it be combined with and/or used to develop the “IT factor” for the athlete to succeed at the highest level in their sport? Further, is the term “belief in oneself” sufficient, or does the athlete need more, specifically in the form of ego, self-absorption, high self-interest, and/or some combination of all to really not just reach but succeed at the highest level in his or her respective sport/event? I wonder if there is a simple answer to this question or if there might be many and/or a combination of factors? Specifically, is it natural ability, athleticism, determination, confidence, mental toughness, or some combination of examples such as, but not limited to, these characteristics that are seemingly common to successful elite level athletes?

The Ride to the Top

In this section I discuss the support system(s) crucial to the success of the athletes. Prior to becoming fully immersed in the importance of the support systems, I provide information with regard to demographic information of the athletes.

The athletes, all having represented Canada internationally, are representative of two definitions of Canadians. Perdita Felicien and Andre De Grasse are native Canadians while Ben

Johnson and Donovan Bailey are naturalized Canadians, being Jamaican born. One other commonality among the athletes is the “single” parenting they all share. In the case of Felicien and De Grasse, both were raised by their mothers. Johnson and Bailey are from two-parent homes, but both ended up living with only one of their parents by their early teens after immigrating to Canada. For Johnson, the move north meant he would live with his mother, and for Bailey, his father.

A Coach is sometimes More Than Just a Coach

In all of the athletes’ support systems, not only did the athletes have supportive parents and coaches but the coach was the one constant who at some point believed in the athlete perhaps more than the athletes did in themselves. More often than not, the coach was not simply there to just train the athlete but to also motivate, mentor, counsel, support, and challenge the athlete to constantly strive for better results toward ultimately being the best. Perhaps there is a correlation regarding the significant amount of time the athletes spent training with their coaches that explains the development of such a strong bond between the two.

Ben Johnson (2010) in his book Seoul to Soul provided insight with regard to the appreciation he had for his only coach, Charlie Francis. “Of course, one of the most important people to any athlete is his or her coach. When I first began training with Charlie at the

Scarborough Optimist Track Club, I was not all that promising as an athlete” (p. 107). Moore

(2012) shared that Johnson thought of his relationship with Charlie as a father–son type and also that Charlie “really loved his athletes” (p. 46). Christie (1988) summed up Francis’s influence on Johnson: “He fully understood what had to be done for Johnson and has applied all that knowledge in the creation of the fastest man on earth” (p. 50). Christie (1988) expanded even further on their relationship:

It was Francis who first gave “a weak little punk” encouragement to complete more than

one lap around a track, who kept him going despite the disappointments and frustrations

of the 1985 rankings and who tried to guide him through the tough demands of his new

celebrity status. Francis is the friend Ben could not disappoint when he contemplated

quitting, the man who saw in Johnson’s raw talents the deep inner focus and drive to be

the fastest man in history. (p. 73)

Their bond was so strong.

When his long-time coach died of cancer this past May, Ben was at his side. In his last

weeks, they talked a bit about what happened in Seoul. Johnson says his coach remained

convinced to the end that somebody had messed with their golden plans. (Johnson, 2010,

para. 25)

In Moore’s (2012) work, Johnson speaks to the length of this meaningful relationship with the only coach he ever had. “We were together a lot of years. A lot of years. We trained together, we travelled together, we spent a lot of time together” (p. 44). In the words of Toronto journalist Randy Starkman of the Toronto Star, “you talk to Charlie’s athletes, and they swear by the guy. They felt he was looking after their best interests” (Moore, 2012, p. 45).

Johnson (2010) clarified that he did not have any close friends, but acquaintances rather, whom he classified as either schoolmates or his track mates. It would appear that his affiliation with Charlie Francis’s club was like a second family to Johnson. Johnson also stated, “If anything, it was our road trips together that helped to strengthen our friendships” (p. 109). The latter is with reference to his Optimist Club teammates who were with him in Rome in 1987 when he set the world record. Johnson also believed the Optimist Club had great coaching and shared his pride in being a part of such a program with other top athletes who also represented

Canada: Desai Williams, Mark McKoy, Angella Issajenko, and Tony Sharpe.

Poulton (2008), similar to Way (2011), implied that had it not been for Pfaff, Bailey may not have experienced the level of success that he was able to achieve. Not only did Poulton indicate that just two years prior to the 1996 Atlanta Olympics Bailey was not serious about his track career, but further elaborated by saying,

Donovan Bailey’s running career would change drastically when he met legendary track

and field coach Don Pfaff. With his keen sense for talent, Pfaff recognized Bailey’s drive

for success, but he knew that the young sprinter would need a lot of work to become the

best in the world. Pfaff insisted that Bailey join him down at his training facilities at

Louisiana State University to work out his bad mental and physical habits. (p. 23)

Pfaff believed that Bailey, at the onset of their relationship, was unfit and his running form was terrible (Freeborn, 2008, para. 14). Pfaff helped Bailey to polish his style after overhauling his technique (Way, 2011). Bailey, as a consequence, saw immediate improvement in the quickness of his start and ability to maintain his speed throughout the race. Bailey trimmed one-third of a second off his personal best 100m time running 10.03 seconds at the Duisburg track meet in

Germany in June 1994 after just three months with Pfaff.

Perdita Felicien would have two career coaches who propelled her to success.

…in grade ten Perdita was walking down the hallway at Pine Ridge Secondary School

when track coach Pamela Masales cornered her. Masales who told Perdita she knew of all

her elementary school accomplishments wanted her to try out for her team. In desperate

need of a way to quiet her mother, Perdita showed up to the tryouts — reluctantly.

(PerditaFelicien.com, 2011, para. 6)

Her success in high school as a result of the coach’s persistence led her not only to a scholarship at the University of Illinois but also to another coach, Gary Winckler, who would propel her even further. Winckler helped her win at the NCAA level in university and also in the professional ranks after her graduation from the university.

All of De Grasse’s achievements since his very first race in track and field events can be linked in part to his coach(es). His achievements, except for one initial race in high school, have

64 occurred under the guidance of coaches who clearly saw more in De Grasse than he did in himself in the early years. Starting with Sharpe and now (at the time of writing this paper) despite already being successful on the world stage though still enrolled as a student, he continues to thrive under the guidance of Coach Caryl Smith Gilbert at USC.

Before he even knew he’d need a first class level coach, but by the time he finished his inaugural race, De Grasse had a coach who believed in him more than he did himself. The coach was Tony Sharpe, an Olympic medalist with Ben Johnson in the 1984 Olympics, who, at the meet to watch one of his Speed Academy runners, noticed De Grasse. Sharpe described De

Grasse “As far as raw ability, I’ve never seen anything like it” (Ebner, 2015, para. 22). Sharpe would teach De Grasse the basics such as starting in the blocks, acceleration, and relaxation and with his contacts in the industry helped De Grasse get to Coffeyville, a junior college known for its track and field program. De Grasse’s greatest success to date has been accomplished under the tutelage of his university coach, Caryl. After running an astonishing time, Andre, while speaking to reporters said,

I was in shock, looking at the clock thinking, ‘Wow, this is unbelievable … Coach Caryl

[Smith Gilbert] had told me I could run that time, but I still

didn’t believe it. I thought I was in a dream. It was unreal. (Gillis, 2015, para. 5)

Her tough-love style has been described as a “switch from den mother to drill sergeant in record speed” (Gillis, 2015, para. 9). A great example of this change is

On a conference call with reporters … with De Grasse listening in, Gilbert raved in one

breath about De Grasse’s achievements, then added with the next: “I’m still going to yell

at him and tell him that he’s slow. I’ve always dealt with him like that. I’ll tell him, that

was the worst 9.75 I’ve ever seen!” (Gillis, 2015, para. 9)

Gillis (2015) shared the words of his mother Beverly who, though she never forced

Andre into the sport she loved, appears to have known Caryl was the coach for him. “I knew right away that’s where I wanted him to be” (Gillis, 2015, para. 8).

Recollections from My Personal Experience

As far back as I can remember, back to my very first varsity coach, I can share that all successful results that I experienced were during the times I had a coach who believed in me and whose advice I followed. Beginning with Barry Goodwin in grade 8 who told me the team needed help bringing the ball up court, I didn’t take his words seriously and my playing suffered.

By the end of the year I had hardly even played. With Larry Karrandjas, who supported but challenged me both in the classroom as well as on the court, and who believed in me, I flourished as a team captain leading his teams to a few appearances in the finals. Under Bill Allen, I’d captain a championship team, be an all-star and MVP. Similarly, under Clint Hamilton and

Dwight Dickinson in university, I was a most improved player winner and a best defensive player winner. Unlike those already named, under other coaches I never felt the confidence to perform, and my results reflected that. I believe that these four star athletes flourished when they had the support and guidance of their coaches who led their support teams.

Discussion

Coaching and the effect of the coach on the athlete proved crucial to the development and success of these four exceptional Black Canadian athletes. Why then is the coach and the relationship with the athlete the common denominator that is apparently critical to these athletes achieving a high level of success? Was it just the coach, or might it be the assistance of the parent(s) that is just as important, or is it a combination with the support of the coach?

Differences among the Athletes

There have been many similarities identified between and among the athletes regarding their many great accomplishments. There are, however, differences too that invariably distinguish the unique path to success for each. Three of the athletes, Johnson, Bailey, and

Felicien, for example, showed interest in their sport(s) early in elementary school, though only

Felicien experienced success. Bailey and De Grasse played basketball as their main passion prior to concentrating on track solely either late during their time in high school or after leaving high school. Felicien and De Grasse are from single-parent homes. Johnson and Bailey were immigrants to Canada.

Discussion

The differences among the four athletes, whether it was their introduction to their sport, their initial sport of passion and/or participation, the time in their lives they experienced their initial high level of success, their native land, and/or whether they were from two, or single- parent homes, justifies many possibilities for a path to success, though equally just as many questions. These four Black Canadian athletes, who had other sporting passions earlier in their lives, seem to show that to excel an individual does not necessarily have to specialize early to achieve a high level of success. How soon then does one have to commit to the sport if realistically expecting to excel and develop into an elite level athlete? The four athletes’ support systems all included a coach and some did include their parents. Are the athletes from single- parent homes disadvantaged compared to those from two-parent homes? As two of these athletes are immigrants, what is the effect of this or its impact on the success of the athlete?

Anomalies in the Data

Conflicting Information

All information gathered on the athletes is from magazines, articles, books, newspapers, and/or online sources. Despite trusting publishing principles and guidelines, I did at times come across information in one medium that conflicted with another. Where able, through additional investigation, I believe I was able to confirm the correct data in most instances.

Luck and Timing

I also observed the importance of timing and/or luck with regards to the success of all athletes. With regards to Johnson, had he not happened to tag along with his brother to be able to meet and learn from a coach who would take a chance on him despite his not being able to simply complete a lap around the track, the world would have never known Ben Johnson. Most coaches would not have invested such time and effort with one whose initial showing was so poor.

Similarly, Donovan Bailey happened to be watching the Canadian National

Championships and observed athletes achieving success against whom he had been successful previously. In hindsight his timing for watching the event appeared to be fortuitous. What would the career path of Donovan Bailey resemble today had he not been watching television at that specific time or if he knew nothing about the background of the athletes that he observed experiencing success at that particular event?

Felicien, like Johnson and Bailey, in her unique situation I imagine appreciated that moment being in the hallway when the high school coach cornered her and asked her to try out for the team. What might have been had she not been enrolled in a school where the track coach took an interest in her continuing and building on her previous successes despite almost two full

68 years being removed from the sport? De Grasse’s fate is, by this point, very well reported, with all information starting with that very first race in high school. What if he had not accepted the dare? Who would Canadians have cheered for against the great Usain Bolt and Justin Gatlin in the Rio de Janeiro Olympics?

In my personal experience, I often wonder what might have been had I been in a different mindset when I was in university. Perhaps if I had more support toward my athletics from at home, perhaps I too might have worked harder outside of my regular practices. Maybe I could have been a professional. I certainly didn’t lack skill. I just never worked on my skills enough to fine tune them to a point where I was in elite company at the postsecondary level. My inner confidence was not at a place it is today where I believed as much in myself as my coach(es) did at the time, or where I felt the rewards were worth the work. In hindsight, the luck was in having a coach who initially believed in me and put me in a position to succeed, as I did win a couple of awards during my time in university. My issue was that the luck I did have on my side did not coincide with the timing of my confidence to put it all together to achieve that ultimate success.

The Destination and its Meaning

My initial idea when I began this chapter was to describe the path for each athlete prior to comparing and contrasting the similarities and differences between and among them. The path was based on the information gathered on each of the athletes that showed their track towards their success, including their motivation, determination to succeed, and the help they received along the way.

Bringing it all together to Explore Meaning

In the remaining section of this chapter I speak to the context the data generated, resulting discussions and, what it all means.

The Significance of the Role Model Impact

The impact of the individual’s influential “role model” was important to the motivation and determination of each of the four athletes regardless of their age at the time they committed to their sport. Despite starting their careers at different ages, the four Black Canadian athletes all attributed some other successful athlete’s success as the catalyst to start training seriously in their respective events. How and/or why was such a “role model” able to impact these lives toward success so profoundly? What was so compelling about the role model athletes that fuelled their initial motivation? Might it be that the role models were also Black Canadian athletes? Or was the reason something more cultural in that the role model athletes had similar Caribbean heritage?

Personally, I moved to Canada at an early age where the event of my sporting heroes was barely played, and as a result I found it tough to pursue playing cricket, even if only for fun. I couldn’t imagine as a 10-year-old being able to play the game seriously in Canada as a teenager given the challenges I saw my uncles experience. The irony is that the year after I graduated high school, my high school fielded a cricket team. I would also achieve greater success than my uncles in the other sport(s) I played. My uncles, like the famous Barbadian cricket players, were also athletes I tried to emulate. I wondered if my success in comparison to my uncles could be due to improved training techniques combined with and/or better access to training equipment for me than my uncles would have had. Perhaps with better equipment I was just simply a better athlete than they were. In the cases of Bailey and/or Felicien (when compared to Surin), could there be a similar explanation? I then questioned if perhaps I also set my own standards too low by not having more famous world class (basketball) athletes as role models and inadvertently

70 limited myself from reaching world class or professional athlete status. Even after consideration

I do not have a definitive answer to this question.

Athleticism or Determination?

Athleticism and determination, two traits common to varying degrees and obvious contributing factors to the success of all four Black Canadian athletes studied here, then presented the question of just how much of each is instrumental for success? Is one more important than the other? In my own experience, I was a teammate of very gifted athletes who indirectly, through my daily observation of their tremendous athleticism and determination, made me believe in some way I just was not as blessed as they were. When I reflect, however, I was (even if not as gifted) probably better than I showed. I now understand and acknowledge that I lacked confidence or the “IT factor” in those formative/developmental times to simply

“just go for it” and “leave all out there” every time I trained, practiced, and/or competed. In addition, being among other great athletes never placed me in many (if any at all) situations where I was depended upon and/or pressured to perform and perhaps never forced me to push to a point where any exceptional talent I might have had was discovered. Is there then a relationship between athletes who are able to reach the pinnacle of success in their sport and having been placed in positions during their development where they were forced to push the limits and development of their athleticism and determination?

Minimal Level of Success when under the Pressure to Perform

The four Black Canadian athletes all also experienced national success before graduating high school. Keeping in mind that they all started to participate in their sports at different ages, could the argument then be made that national success by the end of one’s high school years is a possible indicator of future world class/Olympic games success? In my 1989 summer

71 experience, had I excelled during that tournament, I probably would have been, at the very minimum, placed on the national team’s radar or invited to a junior national team tryout. Was my inability to excel at that time and/or prior to graduating high school unlike my high school teammates, Mulgrave and Frempong, an indicator that I and/or any other athlete experiencing similar mediocre results might never achieve world class and/or professional status? I cannot know the answer, but only speculate. Similarly, because all of the four Black Canadian athletes experienced various challenges including having to perform under pressure, can it be also concluded that they needed to be pushed to their limits as preparation for future success? Could or might they have experienced the same levels of success without the challenges experienced and/or the pressure to perform?

In hindsight, I believe that as a member of various successful programs in high school and having played with other superior athletes, the constant and/or immediate need for me to excel for the teams I was a part of was not mandatory for success. Maybe not having the pressure to perform is at the very least one reason I was unable to excel postsecondary, much less in the professional athletic world. Failing to push myself to the limit at the Ontario (1989)

Summer Games (University of Waterloo) as an example, did I psych myself out from becoming a professional, unlike these confident high school and later world class successful four Black

Canadian athletes?

The “Other” Team

At some point prior to the end of their teenage years, the four Black Canadian athletes all also displayed superb natural ability combined with the “IT factor,” a belief in oneself, backed by a support team consisting of a devoted coach and at least one parent who believed each individual could/should pursue early success on the track. As I look back, my first thought is to

72 say that perhaps I did not have the support in comparison to the athletes studied of a parent and/or a coach who thought I could be a pro. Perhaps my thoughts can simply be described as the product of a son of parents who immigrated to Canada solely for better opportunity for their children and who also strongly valued academics over athletics. I ponder if it was possible that my lack of support in comparison to the four athletes was another reason I was unable to become a professional athlete. Is the support these athletes had a part of, if not the guarantee of future world class success? Why or why not? Keeping in mind that Johnson did not make his parish team initially; Bailey thought basketball and then the stock market and/or owning his own business was a higher priority than pursuing a career on the track; Felicien, at the onset of high school worried that she couldn’t maintain the same level of success on the track that she experienced in middle school; and De Grasse, like Bailey, at first pursued basketball; what was it for the athletes that eventually led them on a final path toward success in their particular sport?

Was it a challenge they had to overcome or was it a final vote of confidence from their support team and/or a combination of both? I ask the latter question believing that at the time I did not have support, though further consideration as I write this major research paper makes me think otherwise.

To again reference my personal experience at the 1989 Ontario Summer Games, my belief of a lack of parental support I had at the time is contrary to the reality of what was actually provided to me from both parents. Specifically, I now question how I could ever conclude that I did not have the support of my parents when they made my travel arrangements and gave me one of their cars to drive a friend out of town at a time I had barely taken the car more than 5 miles away from home previously without their supervision. Was my inability to see and appreciate

73 their support another block that limited me from even being in touch with reality, unlike the four

Black Canadian athletes?

“Different Strokes” for “Different or Similar folks”?

The discussion of the many similarities of the four Black Canadian athletes should not be cause to ignore the many differences among the said athletes. For example, the athletes came from different cultural backgrounds, single- and two-parent homes, in addition to first attaining success and/or starting their sports at different ages, to name a few. Inserting myself into the discussion along with the four successful Black Canadian athletes provided additional reason to explore the various meanings of the different roads travelled by the five athletes and what the information gathered may mean.

Summary

With specific reference to the similarities and themes that emerged from the data collected on the four Black Canadian athletes, the resulting commonalities yielded information which I was seeking to answer my overarching question. Supplemented by excerpts from my personal experiences as an athlete, it is within the similarities and themes that I found factors/conditions that seem to have contributed to the high levels of success achieved by these four athletes. My interpretation of the data collected is that all four of these successful Black

Canadian athletes possessed some combination of certain factors and conditions that seemed common to all. The uniqueness of each athlete accounted for the varying extents of the specific similarities and differences between and among the athletes. In short, all athletes were supported by their coach(es) and displayed tremendous amounts of motivation, determination, belief in themselves, and “IT factor” along with the ability to perform under pressure before they all completed high school. The latter is perhaps best summarized at the beginning of De Grasse’s

74 track and field story, where all of the similarities he shares with the other three athletes studied are displayed during the lead up to and including his very first race only weeks prior to his high school graduation.

The strong support systems of the athletes led by at least one coach for each who was crucial to their success invoked the following questions:

1. Why is the coach and/or his/her relationship with and effect on the athlete the common

denominator apparently so critical to these athletes achieving a high level of success?

2. Was it just the coach, or might it be the assistance of the parent(s) that is just as important?

Or, perhaps both the support of the coach and parent(s) combined?

In the forthcoming chapter, I attempt to link everything together, convey ideas for future research, and offer my final thoughts.

CHAPTER FIVE: FINAL DISCUSSION: A RETURN TO THE LITERATURE, STUDY

RESULTS, SUBSEQUENT REFLECTIONS, AND CLOSING THOUGHTS

In this chapter I conclude my major research paper that explored the paths to success of four Black Canadian athletes at the highest levels. I discuss the results of my study by reviewing my overarching question and themes and their connection with my data within the fabric of the current literature. I also reflect on the strengths and perhaps weaknesses in my study before presenting additional considerations for future research. I then conclude this chapter and my major research paper with a few closing thoughts from my experience, completing the study.

My surprise at my inability to find very much information about Black Canadian student athletes at Canadian postsecondary institutions despite numerous publications on the same topic in the United States led me to wonder how many Black world famous athletes representing

Canada attended a Canadian college or university. My perspective as a Black Canadian varsity athlete until the completion of my undergraduate studies had me yearning to learn more about world class Black Canadian athletes. The resulting interest and excitement in satisfying my curiosity was one reason behind this investigation, but also I anticipated the information I learned would assist me in my leadership roles as a coach, administrator, and, perhaps most importantly, educator. I explored four Black Canadian athletes’ experience to understand what factors/conditions spanning the past three decades led to their recent successes at the highest levels on the world/Olympic stage. I supported this investigation by also including my personal perspective as a Black Canadian athlete. The entire process and results of this major research study to which I have such a deep connection has greatly contributed to bettering me as a teacher, administrator, leader, coach, department head, father, and mentor. The confidence gained from not only being able to compare similar experiences of the four high level participant

Black Canadian athletes but also to learn and understand where and why I personally came up short provides greater depth in the areas of motivation, determination, leadership, mentoring, and teaching for me to share with many different people including my students in my everyday and professional life.

Discussing the Results

In this section of the chapter I not only review the results of the data collected but also discuss their meaning as the central feature of this major research paper. For simplicity, I followed the same format and titles used in Chapter Four, beginning with the athletes’ ride to the top of their professional athletic careers and concluding with the differences observed among the four Black Canadian athletes studied.

Supporting the Ride

The importance of a coach and/or a close family member as integral to the support system of the Black Canadian athletes that I investigated perhaps did not simply emerge as a commonality but seemingly was crucial to the high level of success each achieved. Quinn’s (2018) work on athletes needing supportive friends and family found that coaches are the athletes’ biggest supporters, helping to improve confidence and to inspire success. Further, Rees (2009) described the support of friends and family as a key factor in confidence building, positively influencing an athlete’s performance. This ongoing support appears to build a stronger sense of confidence, leading to increased success in high-pressure situations.

Motivation and Determination

Two of the first themes that emerged from the data were the strong motivation and determination of the athletes. Those two themes were the “prime movers” for these athletes’ paths to success. Though uniquely introduced to their respective sport/event, each of these

77 athletes was initially influenced by the earlier successes of other athletes in their respective event(s). It appears that the success of the role model athletes not only galvanized these four

Black Canadian athletes to train seriously but also might have precipitated the tremendous inner strength that seemed to be essential to their successes. It seems a reasonable conjecture that without exposure to such strong individual role models as motivating influences, the four world class Black Canadian athletes might have toiled in relative obscurity rather than achieve athletic stardom and international acclaim.

I believe that if I personally had had the right role model or influencer specific to my sport, then I too might have seized the opportunity to pursue a career as a professional athlete.

Perhaps my review of the literature was incomplete, but I was unable to find any literature describing an athlete who achieved the highest level of success without having either a role model or a strong influencer. Similarly, I was unable to find any information about an athlete who achieved a high level of success without initially achieving national recognition prior to high school graduation. Although perhaps not definitive, it does lead me to believe that these aspects are vital to the success of athletes at the highest levels.

My own inability to reach a similar athletic pinnacle in comparison to the other four

Black Canadian athletes studied led me to wonder if there was a possible explanation within the data collected. While it may be that my talent is not as strong as the four athletes I studied, I wondered however if there could also be other contributing factors/conditions. It may be that one of the explanations is as simple as not having a strong “relatable” role model or influencer.

For example, Johnson, Bailey, Felicien, and De Grasse looked to athletes before them who competed in their sport/event. They embraced successes of athletes who were similar to them physically, came from a similar background, and as a result, they could relate to such athletes

78 and could see themselves following a similar path. In my own situation, more so as a native

Caribbean Black Canadian basketball player, I admired tall (all over 6’6”) American star basketball players, for example, Ralph Sampson, Magic Johnson, and Michael Jordan. When I compared the latter examples of athletes that I emulated to the role models followed by Johnson,

Bailey, De Grasse, and Felicien, it appears that I might have picked examples of successful athletes that were perhaps “unrealistic” or “unsuitable.” Sampson, Johnson, and Jordan are all examples of athletes that I admired but did not have much in common with given that I could relate to them only on the mere fact that they were Black. The recent (post millennium) wave of successful Black Canadian athletes, including Felicien, De Grasse, and Andrew Wiggins, all looked to role model examples who had already blazed a “realistically perceptive” trail to success. In the case of Wiggins, the son of a former NBA player and Olympic games’ two time medalist, all things being equal, such as work ethic, drive, “IT factor,” one might argue his athletic success was predictable.

It appears more likely that an aspiring professional athlete who “looks up to” a

“relatable” role model may have a better chance to achieve a high level of athletic success than someone who does not have such a model. This is not to say that an athlete who does not have a role model will not achieve success, but having a role model may be one very helpful piece of the athlete’s overall internal motivation. The successful four Black athletes studied all looked to role models who not only had successful careers but who were also similar in multiple characteristics, including physical structure, to their own. These role models of choice provided a seemingly proven realistic path to follow in addition to inspiration which, when combined with ambition, urged the aspiring athletes to high achievements.

Challenges Endured

Whether it was due to a lack of passion, the inability to prioritize, inadequate/insufficient resources, the ability to perform under pressure, or having to adjust to a new culture, the athletes all faced many similar and unique challenges along their paths to success. Two further questions that emerged from my study were:

1. Is it possible that challenges presented to the athletes along the way and subsequently

conquered by each of the four athletes are a necessary ingredient for their future success as it

better prepares them mentally for the heavy pressures of competition?

2. Similarly, are these four successful Black Canadian athletes simply examples of having the

ability to defeat whatever challenges they encountered and who would have been successful

in life in general regardless of whatever profession and/or career they chose?

The information obtained on the athletes does appear to support a positive response for the questions raised, but additional research and studies might enlighten us further.

“IT Factor” and Belief in Oneself

To achieve the high level of success that the four athletes were able to attain does require elite abilities. How much “IT factor” and/or belief in oneself the athlete requires, whether natural, developed, and/or combined, again could not be measured/determined from this specific research study and as a result also provides a basis upon which to conduct additional research.

The data collected, however, support that Johnson, Bailey, and De Grasse appeared very sure of their athletic talents from early in their careers, almost to the point of self-conceit, whereas

Felicien seemed afraid of failure. Fear of failure can also be a strong motivator. Additional research might explore the role of egocentricity (self-interest, narcissism, self-absorption) as aspects of the highest achieving Black Canadian athletes.

Differences among the Athletes

For as many similarities discovered between the four Black Canadian athletes studied, there were, perhaps, just as many differences. Beginning with the discovery of each athlete’s distinctive dynamic support system, I learned that the four selected Black Canadian athletes possessed a variety of unique characteristics. Regardless of the age when the athlete began his/her training, their varying levels of support and confidence, whether from single-parent versus two-parent homes, immigrants or native Canadians, the success of the Black Canadian athletes I studied supports the idea that dissimilarities did not hinder the progression to their success.

Reflections

The Importance and Limitations of this Study

After collecting the publically available information on these four Black Canadian athletes, I organized these data thematically. As a former four-year postsecondary varsity athlete who also coached at the postsecondary level, I felt I possessed a reasonable understanding of the characteristics and traits of a successful high-level athlete. The data I collected in this study revealed multiple areas where I not only lacked knowledge but also had much to learn about the various/unique paths to athletic success. This research paper is just a small beginning entry into the study of Black Canadian athletes. I would argue that, coupled with a somewhat limited amount of literature on Black Canadians in general and considerably less about Black Canadian athletes in particular; there is certainly a need for further research and writing around this topic.

There are, in my view, several limitations to my study. For the purposes of this Master’s

Research Paper, four athletes, together with my own personal experiences, seemed a reasonable number for investigation; however, this is a relatively small research sample. An investigation of

81 other Black Canadian athletes might reasonably result in some similar themes but also many that might be quite different.

Another limitation of my study is that I did not communicate directly with these four

Black Canadian athletes. For example, a study that includes recorded interviews with athletes might provide a more complete picture of their lives and motivations as they would be revealing their own thoughts and responses to my questions in their own words. “At the root of in-depth interviewing is an interest in understanding the lived experience of other people and the meaning they make of that experience” (Seidman, 2013). I could then compare and contrast information gathered in interviews with my own personal experiences, exploring similarities and differences.

Having to review books on Ben Johnson, for example, that were written prior to and after his doping scandal, presented not only a different perspective from the same athlete but also at times conflicting background information. Johnson’s example best describes why I wish in hindsight I had been able to conduct such a study by interviewing the athletes directly in an effort to better learn about and understand them and also further enrich the their personal experiences. I may not have required the three-interview process as per Seidman (2006) and more of the suggested one-time interview method by Anderson and Arsenault (1998) and Merriam (2009), but I also wonder as a Black former athlete from the Caribbean if I could and would have related better to the Black Canadian athletes studied. I believe as a result I might have obtained information from a perspective that their authors did/could not and which might have additionally strengthened the validity of the data obtained. My hope is that if unable to converse directly with the participants, then at the very least the personal experiences I have included throughout the study help to buttress the publically available data and may be used and expanded in future research.

A broader range of athletes from alternative sports might have augmented the data collected and the subsequent findings specific to this research paper. Increasing the number of athletes studied and the inclusion of athletes from sports other than track and field might similarly be helpful. Perchance I am being too skeptical given I have already acknowledged that another researcher might find completely different results based on his or her personal experiences, but similar to accepting a different outcome due to an alternative lens, I now question if the results of my research paper are limited only to the one common sport of the athletes studied and/or the unique personal experiences of me, the researcher. I am of the understanding that success for an athlete in an individual sport is not necessarily as dependent upon the success of the team and/or the teammates of an athlete who participates in a team sport, and as a result I wonder how much my personal experiences supported the data collected. For example, in my support of the data collected, speaking from a perspective of an athlete who primarily experienced success in team sports, perhaps the findings would have been further enriched were I able to apply my personal experiences similarly to athletes competing in team sports. To further refine the results of the research, it might have been helpful to include another athlete in addition to me to provide personal experiences. An additional lens supplementing the data collected could enrich the findings/results.

Strengths of My Study

At the start of this research project, I was unsure what I would learn despite believing I had only a little understanding of the road to success for high level athletes. As a consequence, I did not expect that my research would provide a definitive path to success for aspiring professional athletes but was optimistic that it might initiate further discussion for those interested and/or curious about Black Canadian athletes or Black Canadians in general. The

83 information from this study might offer researchers a foundation for future conversations, research, and studies of this rather poorly researched group.

With very little literature available, the need for more communication and literature regarding the Black Canadian, much less the Black Canadian athlete seems very much needed.

Despite the plethora of available literature on the Black American athlete, who, because of proximity to and similarities with the Black Canadian athlete might appear to be a valid representation, there are also many differences between these distinct groups from of the two countries. As a former athlete who now better understands what “might have been” had I known what I know now or had a valid resource from which to learn what is required, I am of the belief that more high level successful Black Canadian athletes are out there if exposed to increased support during their developing years.

This research paper also adds somewhat to the very limited research about Black

Canadians and Black Canadian athletes. Specifically, I discussed and interpreted publically available information on four Black Canadian athletes ranging from the beginner to the high level/professional. It is important to note, however, that for the period during and immediately following the 1984 Olympics, the vast majority of successful active high level/professional

Black Canadian athletes participating in track and field made the use of these athletes’ information an easy choice. Thus, though I accept that my study may not truly represent or impact research for all high level/professional Black Canadian athletes, I anticipate the results/findings will contribute to future study of the Black Canadian athlete.

Considerations for Future Study

Additional study on the Black Canadian athlete and not that restricted to the sport of track and field seems imperative, as the path to the pinnacle of the sport may not be similar to other

84 sports. I endorse research on successful high level Black Canadian athletes in all sports. The four Black Canadians studied, though unique in their own way, all possessed many similar qualities, characteristics, and factors that contributed to their successes. How strong a determinant is the “relatable” role model and/or national recognition in their respective event/sport prior to departing high school for the athletes’ future development and/or success?

The initial decision to research Black Canadian athletes and eventually the similarities and differences between and among them, I also thought might provide some distinct information if only as a basis for future research to help explore how the Black Canadian athlete is similar to and different from their peers of other races. Humber (2004) argues against the accuracy of the appearance of Canada being more accepting with regard to race relations when one reviews

African Canadian participation in sports. One area I thought some supplemental, relative, and interesting information might emerge from each athlete is with regard to Smith and Lalonde’s

(2003) study on “racelessness.” The “racelessness” study discussed the integration of Blacks with the dominant culture, where Blackness is devalued after disengaging from their culture of origin in an effort to downplay their Black identity. The data obtained on the four athletes studied did not discuss any race-related issues and as a result provides more questions and rationale for future in-depth research and studies.

One of the athletes, Johnson, shared his recollection of the tough transition he had after moving to Canada where “he never considered Toronto home … [and] was treated really bad”

(Moore, 2012, p. 34). Despite his challenege to adjust to a new country in addition to being a visible minority, Johnson, like the other three Black Canadian athletes did not specifically cite any racial issues experienced in their athletic careers and/or how their experience as Black

Canadian Athletes might be different than those of fellow Canadians of different races.

The Black Canadian Athletes Studied

In qualitative research, the participants’ experiences, thoughts, and behaviours are all examined. The uniqueness of each athlete based on the data obtained detailing their experiences, thoughts, and behaviours is of great value to my eventual conclusion(s) following my interpretation(s) of their stories. The participants in this study were all successful world class/professional Black Canadian athletes. Their success occurred on the world class stage at a world championship and/or the Olympic games. They are true representations of elite athletes despite varying challenges, pressures, and obstacles they overcame to attain such rare success.

My Final Thoughts

What was originally a strong desire to learn of Black Canadian athletes in Canadian postsecondary institutions eventually steered me to this topic and research paper. After undertaking the overarching question, I am now aware of additional information the data provided that I also hope will generate further discussion. In my view, the stories of Black

Canadians and, in this case, Black Canadian athletes in general, should be told. Their potential, as inspiration, to be studied and ultimately used to better aspiring future Black Canadians I believe is not only immeasurable but also invaluable. How many more high level successful

Black Canadian athletes will achieve success as a result of the availability of similar studies, research, and/or information?

If anything has come out in this study it seems to be that there is no one clear challenge- free path to success on the world class stage for an athlete. Add in the variables of experience, background, training, individuality, and support, and the various levels of success when reached should not be surprising. With the four athletes studied, it appears that determination, a strong belief in one’s self, the “IT factor” or ability to perform/deliver results setting one apart from

86 their peers, and a strong support group were the shared if not necessary characteristics for their high levels of success. Johnson, despite initial failures, through determination and the other attributes mentioned was able to rise toward becoming the fastest man on earth. Similarly,

Bailey achieved success after quitting the sport less than five years prior to breaking the world record. Felicien also quit the sport at a crucial time in her development before becoming a world champion, while De Grasse, who has already been successful at the highest level, is still working on his story. There seems to be no single proven/guaranteed way to ultimate success for the high level athlete and, as a result; no “how to” or “self-help” manual to reference; the athlete’s future appears dependent upon many variables. Aspiring young Black Canadian athletes should be encouraged to pursue their dreams and goals just as the four studied participants did. It is my aspiration that the readers of this research paper take on an obligation to inspire, discuss, study, and research the Black Canadian athlete.

I began this research paper as an effort to learn about other Black Canadian postsecondary athletes and their experiences. I leave it (hopefully, just briefly) more determined to assist with and/or promote further study and/or research despite becoming more knowledgeable about the Black Canadian athlete and Black Canadian in general. As a former

Black Canadian Athlete, current academic administrative leader, coach, and mentor, I am in a position to increase awareness, initiate discussion, educate, and encourage coaches, young Black athletes and potential researchers. I hope others do the same.

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