Test 2 Study Guide s1

Test 2 Study Guide

Chapter 3

BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE Patterns of Growth 1. The cephalocaudal pattern of growth is from top to bottom. 2. The proximodistal pattern of growth is from the center of the body towards the extremities. Puberty 1. Puberty is a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes. 2. Sexual Maturation, Height, and Weight a. Males and females differ in the order of development of pubertal characteristics. b. Marked weight gains coincide with the onset of puberty. c. The growth spurt occurs approximately two years earlier for girls than for boys. 3. Hormonal Changes a. Hormones—powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream a. Testosterone is the main hormone that dominates in male pubertal development. b. Estradiol is a type of estrogen that dominates in female pubertal development. iv.The hormone-behavior link is complex. 4. Timing and Variations in Puberty a. The age of puberty has decreased in the last century, most likely due to better nutrition and health. b. For most boys, the pubertal sequence may begin as early as age 10 or as late as 13½ , and may end as early as age 13 or as late as 17. c. For girls, menarche is considered within the normal range if it appears between the ages of 9 and 15.

Early Adulthood 1. Joint functioning peaks in early adulthood. 2. Muscle tone and strength typically peaks in the late teens and 20s. 3. Sagging chins and protruding abdomens may appear. 4. Elasticity in muscles decrease. 5. Aches may begin to be felt in new places. Middle Adulthood Sarcopenia is the term given for age-related loss of muscle mass and strength. Maximum bone density occurs by the mid- to late 30s. The height loss for women can be as much as 2 inches from 25-75 years of age. Climacteric is the term for decreasing fertility. Late Adulthood Although physical decline is inevitable in older age, there is considerable individual variability inrates of decline in functioning.

THE BRAIN A. Brain Physiology 1. Structure and Function

Each hemisphere of the cortex has four major areas called lobes. What are they and what are their functions? 2. Neurons Myelination increases the speed and efficiency of message transmission from neuron to neuron.

B. Infancy 1. Early Experience and the Brain a. An enriched environments allows for optimal brain development. b. Repeated experiences help wire and rewire the brain. 2. Changing Neurons a. The brain is 25% its adult weight at birth. b. The brain reaches 75% its adult weight by the second birthday. c. Two key developments during the first two years involve the increase in myelination and connections between dendrites. C. Childhood 1. During early childhood, the brain and head grow more rapidly than any other part of the body.

D. Adolescence 1. The adolescent brain is different from the child’s brain, and it continues to grow throughout adolescence. 2. The corpus callosum, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala all show important growth during adolescence. The amygdala develops faster than the prefrontal cortex, causing adolescents to feel very strong emotions without the ability to control these emotions. This can increase risk-taking behavior.

E. Adulthood and Aging 1. The Shrinking, Slowing Brain a. The brain loses 5 to 10% of its weight between the ages of 20 and 90 i. The loss is due to a decrease in dendrites, damage to the myelin sheath, or the death of brain cells. ii. Some areas shrink more than others. b. The function of the brain and spinal cord decreases in middle adulthood and late adulthood. c. The production of some neurotransmitters decreases with age. d. All of these declines result in cognitive and motor declines.

I. SLEEP A. Infancy 1. The Sleep/Wake Cycle a. Newborns sleep between 16 to 17 hours a day, although some sleep more and others less. 2. REM Sleep a. About half of an infant’s sleep is in REM sleep—more than at any other time in life

B. Childhood 1. Most young children sleep through the night and have one daytime nap. 2. Children who do not get adequate sleep are more likely to show depressive symptoms, have problems at school, attention problems, have a father in poor health, live in a family characterized by frequent disagreements and heated arguments, and live in an unsafe neighborhood than children who get adequate sleep.

Chapter 4

I. HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASE A. Children’s Health 1* About 11 million preschool children who suffer from malnutrition.

B. Adolescents’ Health 2* Research has shown that youth who do not eat dinner with a parent five or more days a week have dramatically higher rates of smoking, using marijuana, getting into fights, and initiating sexual activity.

C. Emerging and Young Adults’ Health 3* Emerging adults have more than twice the mortality rate of adolescents. 4* Emerging adults have a higher death rate than adolescents. 5* Compared to adolescents, emerging adults are more likely to have chronic health problems, be obese, have a mental disorder. 6* Most college students know about preventing illnesses, but few apply it to themselves. 7* Few emerging adults stop to think about how their personal lifestyles will affect their health later in life. 8* The peak of performance in young adulthood disguises the abuse done to their bodies.

D. Health and Aging 9* Chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and long duration and vary in middle age for females and males. 1* Osteoporosis is an aging disorder that involves an extensive loss of bone tissue, especially in postmenopausal women who are thin and small boned. 2* Prevention requires calcium, vitamin D, exercise, and no smoking.

10* Dementia: a global term for any neurological disorder causing mental deterioration. 11* It is estimated that 20% of individuals over the age of 80 have dementia. 12* Alzheimer’s disease (AD): a progressive, irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function. 3* Involves a deficiency in acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in memory.  Parkinson’s Disease  Another type of dementia, chronic and progressive, is Parkinson’s Disease (PD).  PD is characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis.  The degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons causes Parkinson’s disease. 13* Health Treatment in Older Adults 4* Currently, there is an increased demand for but shortage of home care workers because of the increase in population of older adults and their preference to stay out of nursing homes. 5* Nursing home residents that feel in control and a sense of self-determination experience better health. II. NUTRITION AND EATING BEHAVIOR A. Infancy

1. Breast-Feeding Versus Bottle Feeding

14* The American Pediatric Association and the American Dietetic Association strongly endorse breast-feeding throughout the first year of life. 15* There are several benefits to the child when breastfed: 16* Lower gastrointestinal infections 17* Lower respiratory tract infections 18* Protects against wheezing 19* Less ear infections 20* Less atopic dermatitis 21* Less likely to become overweight or obese throughout life 22* Less likely to develop diabetes 23* Less likely to experience SIDS 24* There are several benefits to the mother who breastfeeds: 25* Lower incidence of breast cancer 26* Reduction in ovarian cancer 27* Small reduction in type 2 diabetes 28* Lower incidence of metabolic syndrome in midlife 29*

B. Childhood

1. Overweight Children

• Being overweight in childhood is linked to being overweight in adulthood. • High BMI in childhood increases the risk for metabolic syndrome in adulthood. 2. Treatment of Obesity • Many experts recommend a program that includes a combination of diet, exercise, and behavior modification to help children lose weight. • Schools and parents both play a role in combating obesity. • C. Adolescence . Proper nutrition and being overweight are also problems in adolescence. . Teenagers in the United States eat more junk food than do teenagers in most other countries. . Obesity during adolescence is a risk factor for obesity in adulthood.

1. Anorexia Nervosa 30* An eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation, which can lead to death. 31* Characteristics: Weighing less than 85 percent of what is considered normal, an intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted image of body shape. . 2. Bulimia Nervosa 32* An eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern. 33* Most bulimics are females in their late teens or early 20s, are preoccupied with food, and are depressed or anxious

III. EXERCISE • Exercise is linked with many aspects of being physically and mentally healthy. A. Childhood and Adolescence 34* Children need daily exercise. 35* Physical activity in childhood decreases body fat, increases muscle strength, and improves planning skills. 36* Individuals become less active as they reach and progress through adolescence.

B. Adulthood  Both moderate and intense exercise appears to produce physical and psychological benefits.  One of the primary health benefits of exercise is prevention of heart disease. Recent research also shows that exercise is linked with a reduced risk of developing colon and rectal cancer.  Many health experts recommend aerobic exercise—sustained activity that stimulates heart and lung functioning.  If you exercise enough to burn more than 2,000 calories a week, you can reduce your risk of a heart attack by two-thirds. 37* Exercise benefits mental health, improves self-esteem, and reduces anxiety and depression. . C. Aging and Longevity 38* Regular exercise can lead to a healthier life in middle and late adulthood and can increase longevity. 39* Research have found that exercise is correlated with increased longevity, prevention of common chronic diseases, improvement in the treatment of many diseases, improvement in older adults’ cellular functioning, optimization of body composition, reduction in the decline of motor skills, and improvement of mental health and cognitive functioning.

IV. SUBSTANCE USE a. There has been a decline in U.S. adolescent alcohol use in recent years.

Chapter 6

I. PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT A. Processes of Development 1* Schemes (or schemas) are cognitive structures that help individuals organize and understand their experiences; change with age. 2* Infants develop behavioral schemes, whereas children develop mental schemes. 3* Children use and adapt their schemas through two processes: 1. Assimilation occurs when children incorporate new information into their existing knowledge schemas. 1. Accommodation occurs when children adjust their schemas to fit new information and experiences.

3. Organization 4* In Piaget’s concept of organization, items are mentally grouped into categories for a more smoothly functioning system. 4. Equilibration and Stages of Development 5* Equilibration is a mechanism that helps children understand the world by resolving cognitive conflict or disequilibrium. 6* Piaget believed that children pass through four stages of thought from infancy to adolescence. Passage through the stages results from biological pressures to adapt to the environment (assimilation and accommodation) and organize structures of thinking. 7* The stages of thought are qualitatively different from one another. The way individuals think at one stage is different from thinking at other stages. B. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs) 8* The first stage of thought for Piaget is the sensorimotor stage which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. Mental development is characterized by progression in the infant’s ability to organize and coordinate sensations with physical movements and actions. Object Permanence 9* Object permanence involves understanding that objects and events continue to exist, even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. 10* C. Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs) 11* The preoperational stage encompasses the period from 2 to 7 years of age. Stable concepts are formed, mental reasoning emerges, egocentricism is present, and magical beliefs are formed. The term preoperational emphasizes that a child is not able to think in an operational way. 12* Operations are internalized sets of actions that allow the child to do mentally what before he or she did physically. 13* Preoperational thought can be divided into two substages, symbolic function and intuitive thought. 1. Symbolic Function Substage 14* Symbolic function substage is the first substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between the ages of 2 and 4. In this substage, the young child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present. 15* Two limitations of children’s thinking during this substage include: 6* Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective. 7* Animism is the belief that inanimate objects have “lifelike” qualities and are capable of action. 2. Intuitive Thought Substage 16* The intuitive thought substage occurs between approximately 4 and 7 years of age. Children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions. 3. Centration and the Limits of Preoperational Thought 17* Centration involves focusing or centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others. 18* Children in this substage demonstrate a lack of conservation, which is the awareness that altering an object’s or a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties. 19* Centration and children’s inability to reverse actions contribute to the lack of conservation.

D. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs) 20* Logic replaces intuition if it can be applied to a visible example. 21* Concrete operational children are able to classify objects and consider relationships between them.

22* They are capable of seriation (understanding quantitative relationships between objects) and transitivity (understanding relations between classes of objects). E. Formal Operational Stage (11-15 yrs) 1. Abstract, Idealistic, and Logical Thinking 23* Formal operational thought involves the ability to reason about what is possible and hypothetical, as opposed to what is real, and the ability to reflect on one’s own thoughts. 2. Adolescent Egocentrism 24* Adolescent egocentrism is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, and in their sense of personal uniqueness. 25* Adolescent egocentrism can be divided into two types of social thinking: 8* Imaginary audience refers to the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents that is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are. The imaginary audience involves attention-getting behavior—the attempt to be noticed, visible, and “on stage.” 9* Personal fable is the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent’s sense of uniqueness and invulnerability, and may be linked to the reckless behavior often seen in adolescence.

III. VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • Vygotsky, like Piaget, emphasized that children actively construct their knowledge and understanding. • In Vygotsky’s theory, children are more often described as social creatures than in Piaget’s theory. • Children’s thinking and understanding primarily develops through social interactions.

A. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but that can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children. 1* The lower limit of the ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently. 2* The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor. B. Scaffolding is closely linked to the zone of proximal development; it refers to the changing level of support that is provided to a child over the course of a teaching session. IV. COGNITIVE CHANGES IN ADULTHOOD A. Piaget’s View 26* Many individuals do not reach the highest level of their formal operational thinking until adulthood. 27* Some adults never reach the formal operational thinking stage. B. Realistic and Pragmatic Thinking • Idealistic thinking decreases in early adulthood. • Young adults often switch from acquiring knowledge to applying knowledge as they pursue success in their work. C. Reflective and Relativistic Thinking • Perry views adult thinking as moving away from the absolute dualistic thinking of adolescence. .