Chapter 1: the World in 1500, Beginnings to 1500

Chapter 1: The World in 1500, Beginnings to 1500 Section 1: Crossing to the Americas Main Idea: Ancient peoples came from Asia to the Americas and over time developed complex civilizations. There are two theories about how the first Americans migrated, or moved, to the Americas from Asia. 1.One theory is that ancient people came during the last Ice Age some 12,000 years ago. They crossed the Bering Strait—a land bridge between Asia and Alaska that is now covered by water. 2 A second theory is that humans came by many routes over thousands of years. The first Americans lived in hunting and gathering cultures. Some cultures became civilizations. A civilization has five features. 1 it has cities with trade centers; 2 there are specialized jobs 3 there is organized government and religion; 4 a system of record keeping 5 people use advanced tools. Two advanced civilizations in early Mesoamerica -- Olmec and the Maya. Mayans had cities in southern Mexico and Guatemala. They kept accurate calendars, they created a number system, and they had a written language. Other early civilizations include the Hohokam in what is now Arizona, and the Anasazi, who settled in the area where Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico meet. Some early Native Americans built large earthen mounds. These groups include the Adena and the Hopewell. The last group of Mound Builders, the Mississippians, built some of the first cities in North America.

Section 2: Societies of North America Main Idea: By 1500, a variety of Native American groups—each with a distinct culture—lived in North America. The environment shaped each of the Native American cultures. The Aleut and the Inuit lived in the far North. They hunted sea mammals and caribou. Northwest Coast people caught salmon and hunted. The peoples of the West included tribes in California, the Colombia Plateau, and the Great Basin. They were hunters and gatherers, and they also fished. Their spiritual beliefs were linked to nature. The Aztecs ruled a great civilization in central Mexico. In 1325, they began building their capital city, Tenochtitlán. They eventually created a strong empire. In the American Southwest, the Pueblo practiced irrigation, while the Navajo and the Apache were hunter- gatherers.The Plains Indians lived on the Great Plains. Some were nomads. Others lived in villages. In summer, they hunted buffalo. In the Southeast, Native Americans became farmers. Their societies were matrilineal, tracing their family ties through women. The Iroquois lived in the Northeast, which was largely forest. They practiced slash-and burn agriculture. In the late 1500s, five northern Iroquois nations formed the Iroquois League. By 1500, hundreds of Native American groups existed. Although different, all Native American groups felt connected to nature. Trade also linked them.

Section 3: Societies of West Africa Main Idea: The Peoples of West Africa developed sophisticated kingdoms, trade networks, and they created great works of art. Africa, the second largest continent, contains dense rainforests, broad savannas, and the world’s largest desert, the Sahara. By 1500 A.D., trade linked Africa with the world. Ghana was the first West African kingdom to grow wealthy by controlling trade in gold and salt. Muslims, or followers of Islam, came from North Africa to trade. In 1076, a Muslim army conquered Ghana’s capital. By the 1200s, the kingdom of Mali was West Africa’s most powerful state. Sundiata, Mali’s first great leader, was a Muslim who conquered many important trading centers. In 1312, Mansa Musa, another Muslim, began to rule Mali. Soon Mali became one of the world’s largest empires. The Songhai lived by the Niger River. They broke away from Mali, and Sunni Ali became their ruler. Although a Muslim, Sunni Ali also practiced African religions. After his death in 1492, some Muslims wanted Islam to be Songhai’s only religion. Their leader, Askia Muhammad, became Songhai’s second great ruler. In 1591, North Africa defeated the Songhai. After 1000 A.D., the Hausa states emerged in what is now northern Nigeria. These states thrived on trade. Southwest of the Niger River were the Yoruba states. Statues created by Yoruba artists are still considered great works of art. Benin, located on the Niger River, was also famous for its art.

Section 4: Societies of Europe Main Idea: By 1500, Europe was going through a period of social change that sparked interest in learning and exploration. Vikings raided Europe during the Middle Ages. To survive, Europeans turned to feudalism. Feudalism is a political system in which a king allows nobles, or lords, to use his lands in return for military service. Europeans also developed the manor system. Serfs armed the manors—these were the large estates of the lords. In return, they were given protection. The Catholic Church became a unifying force during this time. By the 1000s, feudalism brought stability to European society. Merchants were safe to travel and trade increased. New towns emerged. Serfs left the manors to become craftspeople and merchants. They became the middle class. In 1096, European Christians launched the Crusades, a series of wars to capture the Holy Land. Although the Crusades failed, they spurred trade. A book by Marco Polo increased interest in Asia. Feudalism grew weak because serfs left the manors. In 1347, a deadly disease, the bubonic plague, killed about one fourth of the population. The plague reduced the number of workers and further weakened feudalism. The Renaissance was a time of growing interest in art and learning. It began in Italy and spread through Europe, lasting from the 1300s to 1600. People began to study the classical Greeks and Romans. In 1455, the printing press was invented, which helped spread new ideas that ultimately weakened the Church. Martin Luther began the Reformation, a movement to correct problems in the Church. The Reformation split the Church into two groups, Catholics and Protestants. Italian merchants made huge profits by trading in Asian goods. To prevent other Europeans from trading with Asia, the Italians controlled the Mediterranean Sea. Other Europeans began to search for another water route to Asia. Bartolomeu Dias, a Portuguese explorer, reached the southern tip of Africa in 1488. Ten years later, Vasco de Gama found an all-water route to Asia. As a result, Portugal took over the spice trade.

Section 5: Early European Explorers Main Idea: As Europeans searched for sea routes to Asia, Christopher Columbus reached the Americas. An Italian sailor, Christopher Columbus, thought he knew a faster way to Asia. Columbus asked Spain’s rulers, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, to pay for his voyage. They wanted to share in the rich Asian trade. Queen Isabella also wanted to spread Christianity. In 1492, they agreed to his request. Columbus began his voyage in August of 1492. His three ships sailed southwest toward the Canary Islands. By October 10th, the crew lost confidence in Columbus. To avoid mutiny, Columbus agreed to turn back if they did not see land within three days. On October 12, they saw land. The ships landed on a Caribbean island. Columbus thought he had reached the Indies—islands in Southeast Asia. He called the islanders Indians. Columbus named the island San Salvador. Believing he had found an all- water route to Asia, Columbus sailed back to Spain. Columbus made three more voyages to the Americas. He neither brought back treasure nor spread Christianity. Instead, he enslaved the people of Hispaniola. After his fourth voyage, Spain’s rulers refused to help him further. The voyages of Columbus changed European views of the world. People realized that Columbus had reached continents not known to them before. They began to see the Atlantic Ocean as a bridge that linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Chapter 2: European Exploration of the Americas, 1492–1700 Section 1: Spain Claims an Empire Main Idea: Spain claimed a large empire in the Americas. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI drew an imaginary north-south line--the Line of Demarcation--which divided the world into two parts. Lands to the east of the line belonged to Portugal and lands to the west belonged to Spain. A year later, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordessillas, which moved the Line of Demarcation more than 800 miles to the west. European exploration increase and had three goals 1) countries wanted to spread Christianity. 2) wanted to expand their empires 3) greater wealth. Colonies enriched European nations with their gold, and silver and by trading goods and served as markets for the home country. This economic system was called mercantilism. Early explorers included Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailor who hoped to find a sea route to Asia but found America instead. Vasco Nunez de Balboa was a Spanish explorer who reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513. In 1519, Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellan set out for Asia by sailing around South America. Although he died on the trip, his crew became the first to sail around the world. Hernando Cortés was a Spanish conqueror or conquistador. He and his men landed on the Central American coast in 1519. They captured the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, and defeated the Aztecs. Both sides lost many men. Smallpox, a disease carried by the Europeans to Central America, also killed many Aztecs. The Spanish built Mexico City at the site of Tenochtitlán, the former Aztec capital. Another conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, set out to capture the wealth of the Incas, who lived in South America. When Pizarro landed on Peru’s coast in 1525, the Incan emperor, Atahualpa, feared that the Spanish might be gods. He would not let his people fight. The Spanish easily conquered Peru. The superior weapons and fighting skills of the Spanish also contributed greatly to their success in conquering Native American empires.Rumors of golden cities prompted three Spanish expeditions between 1539 and 1542. Francisco Vazquez de Coronado traveled through present-day Arizona and New Mexico. Hernando de Soto explored the southeast, and Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo sailed up the California coast. None found the fabled golden cities. Section 2: European Competition in North America Main Idea: Several European countries competed with Spain for control over territory in the Americas. Many European explorers searched for the Northwest Passage, a water route to Asia through North America. One of the first was an Italian sailor, John Cabot, who sailed for the English. In 1497, Cabot landed in Newfoundland, Canada, which he claimed for England. Two others, Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier also failed to find the Northwest Passage. Equally unsuccessful was Henry Hudson, an Englishman whose voyages in 1609 and 1610 were among the last attempts to find the water route. French and English claims to North America angered Spain. Tension also grew from religious conflicts. As a result, the Spanish attacked a French fort in Florida that contained French Protestants. In 1558, religious differences led England’s Queen Elizabeth I, a Protestant, to challenge Spain’s sea power. Although England’s navy was small, its daring sailors, known as sea dogs, had the advantage of skill and speedy ships. One of the most famous, Sir Francis Drake, stole great amounts of treasure from Spanish ships. Drake was the first Englishman to sail around the world. In 1588, Spain’s King Philip II attempted to conquer England and restore Catholicism there. When the Spanish Armada, a fleet of 130 warships, entered the English Channel, the English navy destroyed half its ships. Hoping to gain wealth, France and the Netherlands also colonized the Americas. In 1608,Samuel de Champlain founded New France, a fur-trading post on the St. Lawrence River. It was the first permanent French settlement in North America. A year later, the Dutch built New Netherland, a colony along the Hudson River. In 1626, they founded New Amsterdam, which eventually became New York City. Fur-trading caused the colony to prosper. Section 3: The Spanish and Native Americans Main Idea: Spanish rule in the Americas had terrible consequences for Native Americans. Around 1700, Spain divided its American empire into two provinces—New Spain and Peru. Each province was governed by a viceroy in the king’s name. Grants of Native American labor and the creation of large estates called haciendas concentrated power in the hands of a small number of Spaniards. Spanish colonial society was like a pyramid. Spanish-born colonists were at the top. Next came the Creoles—people of Spanish descent— who were born in the colonies. Below them were the mestizos, people of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry. At the bottom were the Native Americans and enslaved Africans. To convert Native Americans to Christianity, the Catholic Church built missions. Missionaries helped Native Americans create a better food supply and taught them to read and write. Unfortunately, missionaries often treated Native Americans like slaves. The Spanish forced Native Americans to work on large farms called plantations. Sugar was the most common crop, being in great demand in Europe. Bartolomé de Las Casas was a Spaniard who fought for better treatment of Native Americans. His efforts caused the Spanish king to issue laws calling for the freeing of enslaved Native Americans. When Spanish colonists protested, the king reversed many of these laws. European colonization in the Americas led to an exchange of living things between the Eastern and Western hemispheres, called the Columbian Exchange. Items such as vegetables, livestock, grains, fruit, and coffee were exchanged. Unfortunately, germs and viruses were also transferred. Native Americans had no natural immunity to European diseases. As a result, millions of them died. The introduction of American crops into the European diet caused the European population to grow rapidly. The Spanish also brought many plants and animals to the Americas.

Section 4: Beginnings of Slavery in the Americas Main Idea: Slavery in the Americas began in order to provide cheap labor for the colonies. By the 1600s, slavery was firmly established in the Americas. Colonial Spanish and Portuguese plantation owners used African slave labor for four reasons. First, Africans were immune to European diseases. Second, Africans had no friends or family in the Americas to help them resist or escape. Third, they provided cheap labor, and fourth, many had worked on farms in Africa. West African kings participated in the slave trade by selling captives from inland regions. The forced removal of Africans became known as the African Diaspora. The voyage from Africa was called the Middle Passage, which referred to the middle leg of the triangular trade route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Inhuman conditions on the slave ships caused the death of many Africans. The slave trade lasted from the 1500s to the mid- 1800s and became part of the Columbian Exchange. Slave codes passed by the Spanish government regulated the treatment of slaves. Although some of these laws attempted to improve conditions for plantation slaves, most were designed to keep slaves in bondage. Nevertheless, some slaves managed to escape and form communities. Slavery led to the creation of an African-based culture in the Americas, with dance, music, and storytelling playing important roles. Chapter 3: The English Establish 13 Colonies, 1585–1732 Section 1: Early Colonies Have Mixed Success Key Idea: Two early English colonies failed, but Jamestown survived. In the late 1500s, England wanted to start a colony for two reasons: to obtain raw materials and to increase trade. English colonists came to America to seek their fortune and for religious freedom. Sir Walter Raleigh founded Virginia (first colony in America) in 1585 on Roanoke Island. The colonists were not prepared for the harsh conditions and without the help of the Native Americans, many colonists died. The survivors returned to England in 1586. The Plymouth Company financed a second colony called Sagadahoc in what is now Maine. It also failed. After Sir Walter Raleigh lost his investment in the Roanoke colony, Britain realized it would take more than one person to make a colony in America successful. They financed new colonies through joint-stock companies. Investors in these companies shared the profits and divided the losses. In 1601, King James gave charters, or government contracts, to the Virginia Companies of London and Plymouth. In 1607, the Virginia Company of London established the first permanent English settlement. It was named Jamestown in honor of King James. Many colonists searched for gold instead of building homes and growing food. Weakened by the harsh climate, many died from malaria and other illnesses. John Smith helped save the colony by taking control and forcing the colonists to work. In 1612, John Rolfe introduced tobacco, which became very profitable. The colonists encouraged new settlers to come as indentured servants. These men and women sold their labor to the person who paid for their passage. Then, after working for a number of years, they were free to farm or take up a trade. When the colonists wanted greater control of their own interests, the Virginia Company allowed them to elect representatives called burgesses. In 1619, the House of Burgesses became the first representative assembly in the American colonies. In 1676, a group of landless settlers led by Nathaniel Bacon, demanded war against the Native Americans. Their purpose was to get land for growing tobacco. When the governor refused to declare war, Bacon and his followers burned Jamestown to the ground. This was called Bacon’s Rebellion. The rebellion ended when Bacon suddenly died. Section 2: New England Colonies Key Idea: Religion influenced the settlement and government of the New England colonies. The Pilgrims, a religious group in Britain, wished to separate from the Church of England. When King James treated them harshly for their beliefs, they arranged with the Virginia Company to settle in America. In November 1620, their ship, the Mayflower, was off course and landed in a place the Pilgrims called Plymouth. Because Plymouth was outside the Virginia Company’s land boundaries, the Pilgrims’ charter was not valid. To keep order, the men signed the Mayflower Compact. They promised to obey the laws they made. After a hard first winter, about half of the Pilgrims died. Then Squanto, a Native American, helped the colonists negotiate a treaty with his tribe. He also showed them how to plant, hunt, and fish. In the fall the Pilgrims and the Native Americans celebrated a good harvest. This feast was the first Thanksgiving. Another religious group was the Puritans. They also left England to escape religious persecution. Puritans wanted to reform, or “purify,” the Church of England. They wanted to rid the church of Catholic traditions. Thousands of Puritans left England for America. Their leaving was called the Great Migration. In 1630, about 1,000 Puritans settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony in New England. Each congregation set up its own town. The people would gather at a meetinghouse to make laws and important decisions. By law, everyone had to attend church services. Sermons taught the “New England Way,” which stressed hard work. Not everyone supported the New England Way. Puritan minister Roger Williams was forced to leave the Massachusetts Bay Colony because of his beliefs. He founded the colony of Rhode Island in 1636. Anne Hutchinson also was forced to leave for disagreeing with the church. She, too, fled to Rhode Island, as did many Quakers. Thomas Hooker moved his congregation to the Connecticut Valley. There they wrote the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. This document expanded the voting rights of the people.As the Massachusetts colony grew, settlers began to take Native American land. In 1675, a chief the English called King Philip led an alliance of Native Americans against the colonists. This war, called King Philip’s War, lasted more than a year. The colonists defeated the Native Americans. In the late 1600s, several young girls in Salem accused certain people of witchcraft. More than 100 people were arrested and tried. Twenty were found guilty and put to death. The religious leaders viewed the trials as a sign from God to return to a strict Puritan lifestyle. Section 3 : T he Middle Colonies Key Idea: The founding of the Middle and Southern colonies provided settlers with many economic opportunities. The Middle Colonies of America were New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Settlers came for religious freedom and to escape the poverty of England. The rich soil made farming and raising livestock favorable. The rivers supported shipping and trade. Dutch settlers founded the colony of New Netherland in 1624. To attract more settlers, they set up a “patroon” system. In exchange for bringing 50 settlers to New Netherland, a patroon received a large piece of land. Peter Stuyvesant, the governor of New Netherland, attacked the nearby colony of New Sweden in 1624. The Swedes surrendered their main settlement to the Dutch. Later, the brother of England’s King Charles II, the Duke of York, drove the Dutch out of New Netherland. New Netherland then became the colony of New York, with the Duke as its proprietor, or owner. The colony of New Jersey was started when the Duke of York gave land to his friends. New Jersey encouraged settlers by promising them freedom of religion. William Penn used his own land to start the colony of Pennsylvania. Penn belonged to the Quakers, another religious group. The Pennsylvania colony gave the Quakers and all others religious freedom. Eventually, some of the Pennsylvania counties broke away to form the colony of Delaware. The American Southern Colonies were Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia. The soil and climate of these areas were suitable for warm-weather crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo. Lord Baltimore started the colony of Maryland in 1632. It became home to Roman Catholics who were fleeing religious persecution. To attract more settlers, Baltimore promised freedom of religion for all. Tobacco growing was an important part of Maryland’s economy. Chapter 4: The Colonies Develop, 1700-1753 Section 1: New England: Commerce and Religion Main Idea: Fishing and trade contributed to the growth and prosperity of the New England Colonies By the 1700s, there were four different colonial regions in America: the New England Colonies, the Middle Colonies, the Southern Colonies, and the Backcountry, which ran along the Appalachian Mountains. New England officials usually sold large plots of land to groups such as Puritan congregations. Then the groups divided the land among their members. Colonists usually built their farmhouses and a meetinghouse near a “green”. A “green” is a central square. Poor soil made farming difficult. Most New England farmers produced just enough food for themselves. This is called subsistence farming. The New England coast did offer some excellent fishing grounds, and forests provided wood for building ships. Fish and wood were among New England’s most valuable articles of trade New England settlers participated in “triangular trade”—the name given to a trading route with three stops. In 1651, England began to pass the Navigation Acts. These acts were supposed to make money from the colonies’ profitable trade. Many colonists ignored the Acts. Smuggling became common. Most New England farms were small. New Englanders in the larger towns did own slaves and often hired them out. Sometimes slaves were allowed to keep part of their wages, which they often saved to buy their freedom. New England became home to more free blacks than any other region. The Puritan religion declined in the 1700s. One reason was that the drive for economic gain competed with Puritan ideas. Another reason was that other religious groups competed with Puritans for new members. Also, England had given Massachusetts a new royal charter in 1691. It gave religious freedom to groups besides the Puritans. It also granted the right to vote based on property ownership instead of church membership. Nonchurch members now had power. Section 2: The Middle Colonies: Farms and Cities Main Idea: The people who settled in the Middle Colonies made a society of great diversity. The soil of the Middle Colonies was better for farming than in New England and the growing season was longer. These conditions attracted European immigrants. Dutch and German farmers brought advanced farming methods. The Middle Colonies began to produce cash crops. Cash crops—unlike those from subsistence farming—are raised to be sold. After harvesting their corn, wheat, rye, or other grains, farmers took them to a gristmill. There they were ground into flour. Colonists built gristmills along the region’s many rivers. They used the force of the flowing water to power the mills. The excellent harbors along the coasts of the Middle Colonies were perfect sites for cities. Philadelphia, on the Delaware River, grew the fastest. It prospered from trade in cash crops. The busy port of New York, on the Hudson River, owed its growth to trade in flour, bread, furs, and whale oil. The populations of the port cities soon showed great diversity—ethnic variety. After the English, the Germans were the largest group. Germans arrived between 1710 and 1740. Most came as indentured servants. Among them were many skillful farmers and artisans.The Middle Colonies also became home to the Dutch, African, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Swedish, French, and Scots-Irish people. The Dutch in New York and the Quakers in Pennsylvania practiced religious tolerance. Quakers also insisted on the equality of men and women. They were the first to raise their voices against slavery. Quaker ideals eventually influenced the whole nation. In 1750, about seven percent of the Middle Colonies’ population was enslaved. New York City had more people of African descent than any other Northern colonial city. In 1712, a group of about 24 rebellious slaves killed nine settlers and wounded several others. Armed colonists caught the suspects and punished them horribly. Even so, slave rebellions continued to occur. Section 3: The Southern Colonies: Plantations and Slavery Main Idea: The economy of the Southern Colonies relied heavily on slave labor. The soil and almost year- round growing season in the southern colonies were ideal for plantation crops such as rice and tobacco. These crops required much labor. In the 1660s, planters began using more enslaved Africans on their plantations. One reason was that indentured servants were leaving plantations to start their own farms. Another was that planters were not successful in forcing Native Americans to work on the plantations. By 1750, enslaved Africans made up about 40 percent of the South’s population. Plantations expanded in South Carolina and Georgia. Plantation owners, or the planter class, held most of the political and economic power in the South. Planters in the lowlands bought slaves from West Africa to grow rice. Eliza Lucas introduced indigo as a successful plantation crop on her father’s South Carolina plantation. The indigo plant yields a deep blue dye. On large Southern plantations, slaves worked in groups of about 20 to 25. Planters hired overseers to work the slaves. Slaves were often whipped. They usually lived in small, poorly furnished cabins and were given inadequate food. Nevertheless, African customs and beliefs survived and became the basis of African-American culture. Africans fought against their enslavement and at times openly rebelled. In September of 1739, about 20 slaves killed several planter families near Charles Town. Many of the slaves then were captured and killed by a militia. Rebellions such as the Stono Rebellion led planters to make slave laws even stricter. Section 4: The Backcountry Main Idea: Settlers moved to the Backcountry because land was cheap and plentiful. The Backcountry was located in or near the Appalachian Mountains. Its resources included springs, streams, and forests. In the South, the Backcountry began at the fall line—where waterfalls prevent large boats from moving upriver. Beyond the fall line lay the piedmont—an area at the foot of a mountain or mountain range. The first European settlers in the Backcountry made a living trading with Native Americans. They paid for goods with deerskins. A unit of value was one buckskin, or a “buck.” Then farmers came and built log cabins. Settlers began to clash with the Native Americans. In the 1700s, a new group of immigrants—the Scots-Irish—arrived. They came from the border between Scotland and England, where they had endured many hardships. The Scots-Irish brought their clan system with them. Clans are large groups of families that claim a common ancestor. In the Backcountry, rough roads and rivers made it hard to move goods. Backcountry farmers had to learn to depend on themselves. They built cabins and made rough furniture from logs. They ate hogs, cattle, fish, game, and corn. Backcountry women worked in the fields, as well as in the home. They learned to use guns and axes. Chapter 5: Beginning of an American Identity 1689–1763 Section 1: Early American Culture Main Idea: The British colonies were shaped by prosperity, literacy, and new movements in religion and thought. Land ownership in the colonies was the means to wealth. Wealth, in turn, determined social standing. Most colonists were in the middle ranks. The wealthiest people were in the highest ranks. Owning land brought political power by giving men the right to vote Most colonial white women were farm wives. They tended gardens and farm animals, and made clothing. They often bartered, or traded, with their neighbors. Enslaved black women helped raise cash crops. In the cities, women sometimes practiced trades. Despite their role in the economy, women could not vote or own property. Large families were common, because more children meant more workers. Many boys became apprentices, meaning that they learned a trade by working with an experienced craftsman. Colonial schooling emphasized religion. Being able to read the Bible was the main reason for teaching children to read. Children learned at home or attended schools taught by women. Wealthy children had tutors or attended private schools. In the 1730s and ‘40s, a religious movement called the Great Awakening took place. Its ministers preached that inner religious feelings were more important than outward behavior. Two of its best-known preachers were Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. The movement stirred up ideas of equality and the right to challenge authority. It also caused a split in the church. The Enlightenment was a movement that valued reason and science. This movement began in Europe, as scientists learned about natural laws, such as gravity, that controlled the universe. Other Enlightenment thinkers applied the idea of natural law to human societies. The English philosopher John Locke argued that people have natural rights and that governments are created to protect these rights. His ideas later led colonists to break away from England. Ben Franklin was a famous American Enlightenment figure. Section 2: Roots of Representative Government Main Idea: Colonists expected their government to preserve their basic rights as English subjects. Long before the colonies were founded, English people expected certain rights. In 1215, England’s King John signed the Magna Carta, which guaranteed certain rights. It stated that people could not be put on trial without witnesses and could only be punished by a jury of their peers. The Magna Carta also prevented the king from seizing property and limited his right to tax. The colonists modeled their government on Parliament, England’s chief lawmaking body. Parliament is made up of two houses. Members of one house, the House of Commons, are elected by the people. Similarly, American colonists elected their own assemblies, which gave them some self-rule. Nevertheless, the English king and Parliament still had power over them. James II became England’s king in 1685. He combined Massachusetts and other northern colonies into the Dominion of New England and named Edmund Andros as its governor. Andros angered the colonists by ending their representative assemblies. Soon, however, a change in England’s leadership occurred. Fearing the Catholicism ofKing James, Parliament’s leaders offered the throne to the king’s Protestant daughter,Mary, and her husband, William of Orange. They accepted and King James fled. This change is called the Glorious Revolution. William and Mary soon signed the English Bill of Rights, which stated that the government was to be based on laws made by Parliament. The Bill strengthened the rights of the English people. The colonists quickly claimed these rights. They jailed Governor Andros and asked Parliament to reinstate their old government. After the Glorious Revolution, Massachusetts colonists could again elect representatives to an assembly. Their governor, however, was still chosen by the crown. During the first half of the 1700s, England maintained a policy of salutary neglect towards the colonists. Salutary neglect means “leaving alone in a helpful way.” In 1735, John Peter Zenger was tried for publishing criticism of the government. Zenger published the New- York Weekly Journal, in which New York’s governor was criticized. Zenger’s lawyer argued that people had the right to speak the truth. When Zenger was set free, the colonists moved closer to gaining freedom of the press. Section 3: The French and Indian War Main Idea: Britain’s victory in the French and Indian War forced France to give up its North American colonies. France and England were rivals in the American colonies. They competed for land and for furs. The English settled North America’s eastern coast. By the late 1600s, the French had claimed the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, as well as the entire Great Lakes region. The fur trade created alliances between the Europeans and their Native American trading partners. By the 1750s, British traders and settlers also wanted part of the fur trade in the Ohio River valley. The colony of Virginia also claimed the area and built a fort at the head of the Ohio River. Soon the French took over the fort, calling it Fort Duquesne. Then, Washington’s forces built a second fort, called Fort Necessity. On July 3, 1754, the French and their Native American allies started the French and IndianWar by attacking Fort Necessity. Washington surrendered. This war became part of the Seven Years’ War between France and Britain.Meanwhile, Benjamin Franklin proposed a plan that the British colonies band together for defense. He called it the Albany Plan of Union. The colonial legislatures turned down theplan. In 1755, British forces under General Edward Braddock attacked Fort Duquesne. Although the British numbered 2,100 men, they were defeated by fewer than 900 French and Native American troops. Then, in 1757, William Pitt, Britain’s new secretary of state, sent top British generals to America. He also paid American colonial troops to fight. In 1759, British troops captured Quebec, the capital of New France. The Battle of Quebec was the turning point of the French and Indian War. This “Seven Years’ War” ended in 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris ended. France gave up most of its land in North America, while Britain claimed almost all of North America east of the Mississippi. France gave New Orleans and Louisiana to Spain, who had been France’s ally during the war. Spain also took back Cuba and the Philippines from Britain in exchange for Florida. In 1763, Native Americans attacked British forts and settlers. The Native Americans were angry because British soldiers would not give them supplies. Also, British settlers had moved onto their land. These attacks are known as Pontiac’s Rebellion named after one ofthe Ottawa war leaders. The rebellion made the British government realize that defending Western lands would be costly. Parliament issued the Proclamation of 1763, forbidding colonists to settle west of the Appalachians. This made the colonists angry.