Earth Science Final Exam

Students taking the final exam will be given 3 questions randomly selected from the list of 242 questions below. Each student will have their own set of 3-questions. There will be no repeat questions. To receive full credit (45-points), you must answer the question completely using proper vocabulary to illustrate your answer. Additionally, students will provide at least 2-hand drawn diagrams for 2 of the 3 questions that enhance the completed question. It is extremely advisable that you learn and fully understand each answer to each question.

Students will be responsible for understanding the meaning of earth science vocabulary terms used throughout the semester. Students will be asked to define 5 vocabulary words, on the final exam, randomly taken from the vocabulary list below. Final exam questions will be provided prior to each major exam and stored on the instructor’s website throughout the entire semester. Below is an example of a superior answer and poorly written answer to the same question.

Sample Question: Why do most major mountain chains contain metamorphic rocks in their cores? Superior Answer: All the mountain chains have formed at convergent plate boundaries that are characterized by increased pressure (confining and differential stress) and temperatures (geothermal and magmatism). Therefore, it is not surprising that such areas contain significant amounts of metamorphic rocks.

Poorly written answer: Mountains are large hills that formed. Metamorphism takes place when rocks change.

Chapter-1 Introduction to Earth Science

Vocabulary Terms

Earth System Science asthenosphere negative feedback mechanism astronomy geologic time scale atmosphere geology oceanography biosphere geosphere open system closed system hydrosphere outer core hypothesis inner core plate tectonics positive feedback mechanism lithosphere mantle system meteorology theory Earth Science

Final Exam Questions 1. Geology is traditionally divided into two broad areas. Name and describe these two subdivisions. 2. What are the two sources of energy for the Earth System? 3. Identify and draw a diagram illustrating the two layers from the upper portion of the Earth’s interior. 4. Draw a cross-sectional view of the entire Earth and label the layers of the Earth’s interior. 5. What principles were used to develop the geologic time scale? Describe each principle. 6. How does a scientific hypothesis differ from a scientific theory? Give an example of each. 7. Define the four major open-system spheres making up the Earth. 8. What is Earth System Science and explain how it is related to the four major open-systems 9. Define positive and negative feedback mechanisms and provide an example using an earth process. 10. Briefly describe the steps in the scientific method and explain why the scientific method is useful. 11. What is chemical differentiation and how does this concept relate the internal structure of the earth? 12. What are the basic differences between the disciplines of physical and historical geology? 13. How does chemical differentiation describe the varying density changes throughout the Earth’s interior? 14. Describe how a hypothesis may be elevated to scientific theory. 15. Describe the relationship between the flow of energy and matter within an isolated, closed and open system. 16. The Earth is regarded as a ______system Why? 17. How is the study of Earth processes related to people and the natural environment? 18. Define the term “system” and explain how systems relate to the study of the Earth. 19. What characteristics make the Earth unique? 20. Briefly explain the concept of Plate Tectonics and in your explanation discuss the three primary plate boundaries.

Chapter-2- Matter and Minerals Vocabulary Terms atom ion ore atomic number isotope periodic table chemical compound luster proton cleavage mass number metallic bond covalent bond ionic bond mineral rock density mineralogy rock-forming minerals electron Mohs scale silicate element neutron silicon-oxygen tetrahedron fracture streak valence electron atomic mass feldspars

Final Exam Questions 21. Describe the bonding characteristics of both the covalent and ionic bonds. 22. What is the difference between a mineral and a rock? 23. Although minerals possess an orderly internal arrangement of atoms, most mineral samples do not exhibit their crystal form. Why? 24. Why are silicates the most important group of minerals? 25. What is the purpose of the valance electron shell? 26. Draw a diagram showing the typical atom model and identify the protons, electrons, and neutrons. 27. Define an ion and the differences between a cation and anion. Give two examples of cations and two examples of anions. 28. Draw a diagram of a silicate-tetrahedron. Define at least 3-important characteristics that make this particular compound important to minerals and rocks. 29. Why is color generally the most unreliable physical property to use when identifying a mineral? 30. Define the differences between the physical properties cleavage and fracture. 31. Choose two minerals that you know and indicate their chemical make-up and their uses. 32. What is the definition of a mineral and list three examples of material that does not qualify as a mineral? 33. What mineral is the hardest known substance in nature and what properties make this particular mineral the hardest natural substance known to man? 34. If you found a glassy-appearing mineral while rock and mineral hunting, and had hopes that it was a diamond, what simple test might help you make a determination? Explain you’re rational. 35. Explain why it might be difficult to identify a mineral by its color. 36. List the three main particles of an atom and explain how they differ from one another. 37. If the number of electrons in a neutrally charged atom is 35 and the atomic mass is 80, calculate the following: a. The number of protons b. The atomic number c. The number of neutrons 38. What is Mohs scale of hardness? List Mohs the minerals that make up Mohs scale of hardness form softest to hardest. Identify various “tools” that one can use in the field to measure the hardness of minerals. 39. Choose 3 mineral physical properties and describe how the method used to determine each property. 40. What is your favorite mineral and what physical property tests would describe your mineral.

Chapter-3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

Vocabulary Terms Andesitic composition evaporate deposit lithification composition Basaltic composition extrusive igneous rock mafic composition nonfoliated Bowen’s reaction series felsic composition lava strata Contact metamorphism phaneritic texture magma sediment Sedimentary rock aphanitic texture metamorphic rock pegmatite Clastic sedimentary rock granitic composition foliation protolith Chemical sedimentary rock igneous rock metamorphism Bio-clastic sedimentary rock intrusive igneous rock texture

Final Exam Questions 41. In general, what happens in terms of composition as crystallization proceeds down the Bowen’s reaction series (cooling of magma)? 42. What is the difference between magma and lava? 43. What are the two criteria used to classify igneous rocks? 44. What are two conditions or situations that are thought to promote the melting of rocks? 45. Describe the difference between a phaneritic and aphanitic textures and what geological environment allows theses textures to form. 46. Why are the crystals of pegmatites so large? 47. How are granite and rhyolite different? In what way are they similar? 48. Given the igneous rocks basalt, rhyolite, and andesite, arrange these rocks in order of increasing silica. 49. Explain the statement “One rock is the raw material for another” using the concept of the rock cycle. 50. If a lava flow at the Earth’s surface had a mafic composition, what rock type would the flow likely be? What igneous rock would form from the same magma if it did not reach the surface but instead crystallize at great depth? 51. Relate the classification of igneous rocks to Bowen’s reaction series 52. What minerals are most common in detrital sedimentary rocks? Why are these minerals so abundant? 53. What is the basis for distinguishing among clastic sedimentary rocks? 54. Distinguish between two categories of chemical sedimentary rocks. 55. What are evaporates deposits? Name a rock that is an evaporate. 56. Define lithification and identify at least two types of “natural cement” that create sedimentary rocks. 57. What is probably the most single characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks? 58. What is metamorphism? What are the agents of change? 59. Distinguish between regional and contact metamorphism. 60. What textural feature would easily distinguish schist and gneiss from quartzite and marble? 61. How do metamorphic rocks differ from the igneous and sedimentary rocks from which they formed?

Chapter -4, Weathering and Mass Wasting Vocabulary Terms Angle of repose frost wedging rockslide Chemical weathering horizon land slide Soil creep internal processes slump Debris flow lahar soil Earthflow leaching soil profile Erosion mass wasting spheroidal weathering Exfoliation dome mechanical weathering weathering External processes mudflow Fall parent material Flow regolith

Final Exam Questions 62. If two identical rocks were weathered, one mechanically and the other chemically, how would the products of weathering for the two rocks differ? 63. How does mechanical weathering add to the effectiveness of chemical weathering? 64. Describe the formation of an exfoliation dome. Give an example of such a feature a. Which type of weathering will predominate? b. Which of the rocks will weather most rapidly? Why? 65. Heat speeds up chemical reaction. Why then does chemical weathering proceed slowly in a hot desert?

66. How is carbonic acid (H2CO3) formed in nature? What results when this acid reacts with potassium feldspar (orthoclase)? 67. What is the difference between regolith and soil? 68. List the characteristics associated with each of the horizons in a well-developed soil profile. 69. Name the primary ore of aluminum and describe its formation. 70. What role does mass wasting play in sculpting the Earth’s landscape? 71. What is the controlling force of mass wasting? What other factors are important and serve as “triggers” for mass wasting events? 72. Distinguish among fall, slide, and flow. 73. Why can rock avalanches move at great speeds? 74. Compare and contrast mudflow and earthflow. 75. Since soil creep is an imperceptibly slow process, what evidence might indicate to you that this phenomenon is affecting a slope? Illustrate your answer with a diagram showing evidence of soil creep. Chapter -5, Running Water and Groundwater Vocabulary Terms alluvial fan cut bank meander water table aquifer discharge oxbow lake zone of saturation aquitard dissolved load permeability artesian well drainage basin point bar base level evapotranspiration porosity bed load flood runoff braided stream gradient stream valley capacity groundwater suspended load competence hydrologic cycle transpiration cone of depression infiltration unsaturated zone

76. Sketch a diagram and describe the movement of water through the hydrologic cycle.

77. What is evapotranspiration?

78. Draw a simple sketch of a drainage basin and divide and label each.

79. Describe the three ways a stream transport its load.

80. What is the difference between capacity and competency?

81. Describe and sketch the development of a meander bend, including how an oxbow lake forms.

82. Describe the characteristics of a braided stream channel and what might cause the stream to become a braided system.

83. What is base level and how does it influence stream activity?

84. Explain why V-shaped valleys often contain rapids and/or water falls

85. How does an alluvial fan differ from a delta?

86. Make a simple sketch of the four basic drainage patterns and label each drainage pattern.

87. What percentage of freshwater is groundwater? How does this change if glacial ice is excluded?

88. What are two geological roles of groundwater?

89. Define groundwater and relate it to the water table.

90. Distinguish between porosity and permeability.

91. Describe the difference between an aquifer and aquitard.

92. How does a heavily pumping well (pumping groundwater) affect the water table? 93. Sketch a simple cross-section of an artesian system with a flowing well. Label the aquitards, aquifer, and pressure surface.

94. What happened to the San Joaquin Valley as the result of excessive groundwater pumping?

95. Which aquifer system would be most effective in purifying polluted groundwater: coarse gravel, sand, or cavernous limestone?

96. Describe two ways in which sinkholes form.

Chapter -6, Plate Tectonics Vocabulary Terms asthenosphere Pangaea volcanic island

continental drift partial melting

convergent boundary plate tectonics

deep-ocean trench rift valley

divergent boundary seafloor spreading

island arc slab pull

lithosphere subduction zone

lithospheric plate supercontinent

magnetic reversal tectonic plate

paleomagnetism transform boundary

97. Briefly describe the view held by most geologists regarding the ocean basins and continents prior to the 1960’s

98. What was the first line of evidence that led early investigators to suspect the continents were once connected?

99. Explain why the discovery of the fossil remains of Mesosaurus in both South America and Africa, but nowhere else, supports the continental drift hypothesis. 100. What two aspects of Wegener’s continental drift hypotheses were objectionable to most Earth scientists?

101. What major ocean floor feature was discovered by oceanographers following World War II?

102. Compare and contrast the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

103. List the seven largest lithospheric plates.

104. List the three types of plate boundaries and describe the relative motion at each of them

105. Draw distinct diagrams that represent the divergent, convergent, and transform tectonic boundaries.

106. What is the average rate of seafloor spreading in modern oceans?

107. Briefly describe the process of continental rifting. Where is it occurring today?

108. Explain why the rate of lithosphere production roughly balances the rate at which it is destroyed?

109. Compare a continental volcanic arc and a volcanic arc island are.

110. Why does oceanic lithosphere subduct while continental lithosphere does not?

111. Differentiate between transform faults and the two other types of plate boundaries.

112. Describe how Fred Vine and D.H. Matthews related the seafloor-spreading hypothesis to magnetic reversals.

113. Briefly explain the process of convection. Draw a diagram showing convection.

114. Describe slab pull and ridge push. Which of these forces contributes more to plate motion?

115. What role are mantle plumes thought to play in the convective flow of the mantle?

116. Briefly describe the two models proposed for mantle-plate convection. What is lacking in each of these models?

Chapter -8 Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior Vocabulary Terms aftershock inner core secondary (S) wave asthenosphere intensity seismic gaps body wave lithosphere seismic waves core magnitude seismogram crust mantle seismograph earthquake Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale seismology elastic rebound moment magnitude surface wave epicenter outer core fault primary (P) wave focus Richter Scale

117. What is an earthquake? Under what circumstances do earthquakes occur?

118. How are faults, foci, and epicenters related?

119. Sketch or explain what is meant by the elastic rebound theory.

120. Faults that are experiencing no active creep may be considered safe. Rebut or defend the statement.

121. Why the San Andreas is sometimes referred to as fault system?

122. Describe the principle of a seismograph

123. List the major differences between P,S, and surface waves.

124. Which types of seismic waves tend to cause the greatest destruction to buildings?

125. Briefly describe the triangulation method used to determine the epicenter of an earthquake.

126. Describe the differences between the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, Richter Scale, and the moment magnitude scale.

127. How much more energy does an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter Scale release compared to an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.0.

128. Where does the greatest amount of seismic activity occur?

129. What type of plate boundary is associated with Earth’s largest earthquakes?

130. What is a tsunami? How is one generated?

131. Are accurate, short-range earthquake predictions possible using modern instruments?

132. What is the value of long-range earthquake forecasts?

133. Briefly describe how seismic waves are used to probe the Earth’s interior.

134. How do continental crust and oceanic crust differ?

135. Contrast the physical makeup of the asthenosphere and the lithosphere.

136. How are the inner and outer cores different? How are they similar? Chapter -9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity Vocabulary Terms aa flow fissure pumice

batholith flood basalt pyroclastic flow

caldera geothermal gradient scoria

cinder cone intrusions shield volcano

composite cone island arc sill

concordant laccolith stock

conduit lahars tabular

continental volcanic arc nuee ardent viscosity

dike pahoehoe flow volatiles

disconcordant plutons volcano

137. List three factors that determine the nature of a volcanic eruption. What role does each play?

138. What is viscosity? How does the chemistry (concentration of SiO2) influence magma’s viscosity? How does temperature influence magma’s viscosity?

139. Why is a volcano fed by highly viscous magma likely to be greater threat to life and property than a volcano supplied with very fluid magma?

140. Describe the characteristics of pahoehoe and aa lava flows. What main factor distinguishes the difference in flow rates between each type of basaltic lava flow?

142. List the main gasses released during a volcanic eruption.

143. How do volcanic bombs differ from blocks of pyroclastic debris?

144. What is scoria? How is scoria different from pumice?

145. Compare a volcanic crater to a caldera.

146. Compare and contrast the three main types of volcanoes (consider size, composition, shape and eruptive style). 147. Name a prominent volcano for each of the three main types.

148. Sketch a volcano and identify its morphologic parts: crater, volcanic conduit, flanks, magma chamber, and caldera (assuming the volcano is dormant)

149. Extensive pyroclastic flow deposits are associated with which volcanic structure?

150. How to the eruptions that created the Columbia Plateau differ from eruptions that create large composite cones?

151. What is Shiprock, New Mexico, and how did it form?

152. Draw a diagram of various intrusive bodies and label the following: dike, sill, batholith, and laccolith structures

153. What is the largest of all intrusive igneous bodies? Is it tabular or massive? Concordant of discordant?

154. Define geothermal gradient.

155. Describe the three ways that solid rocks in the upper mantle and crust may melt to become magma.

156. What is decompression melting and how does it occur. What is partial melting?

157. How is magma generated along convergent plate boundaries?

158. Volcanism at divergent plate boundaries is associated with which rock type?

159. Volcanism at ocean to continent plate boundary is associated with what type of igneous rocks?

160. Describe four natural hazards associated with volcanoes.

161. What are the four changes in a volcanic area that are monitored in order to detect the migration of magma?

Chapter -11 Geologic Time Vocabulary Terms angular unconformity fossil Paleozoic era

Archean eon fossil succession period

catastrophism geologic time scale Phanerozoic eon

Cenozoic era Hadean eon Precambrian

conformable half-life Proterozoic eon

cross-cutting relationships inclusions radiometric dating disconformity Mesozoic era relative dating eon nonconformity superposition epoch original horizontality unconformity era paleontology uniformitarianism

162. Contrast catastrophism and uniformitarianism. How did each philosophy view the age of the Earth?

163. Distinguish between numerical dates and relative dates.

164. Sketch and label three simple diagrams that illustrate each of the following: superposition, original horizontality, and cross-cutting relationships

165. What is the significance of an unconformity?

166. Distinguish among angular unconformity, disconformities, and nonconformity

167. Describe several ways that an animal or plant can be preserved as a fossil.

168. What conditions favor the preservation of an organism as a fossil?

169. Why is radiometric dating a reliable method for determining numerical ages?

170. List the four basic units that make up the geologic time scale.

171. Why is “zoic” part of so many names on the geologic time scale?

172. What term applies to all of geologic time prior to the Phanerozoic eon? Why is this span not divided into as many smaller time units as the Phanerozoic eon?

173. Briefly explain why it is often difficult to assign a reliable numerical date to a sample of sedimentary rock. Chapter -12 Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic Time Vocabulary Terms banded Iron Formation

cratons

outgassing

planetesimals

protoplanets

solar nebula

stromatolites

supercontinents

supercontinent cycle

supernova

174. Explain why the earth is just the right size.

175. Why is Earth’s molten, metallic core important to humans today?

176. Why is Earth’s location in the solar system ideal for the development of higher life- forms?

177. What two elements made up most of the very early universe?

178. What is meant by outgassing, and what modern phenomenon serves that role today?

179. Outgassing produced Earth’s early atmosphere, which was rich in what two gasses?

180. Why is the evolution of a type of bacteria that employed photosynthesis to produce food important to most modern organisms?

181. What was the source of water for the first oceans?

182. How does the ocean remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere? What role do tiny marine organism, such as foraminifera, play?

183. Explain why Precambrian history is more difficult to decipher than more recent geological history.

184. What is the supercontinent cycle?

185. How can the movement of continents trigger climate change? 186. During which period of geologic history did the supercontinent of Pangaea come into existence?

187. During which period of geologic history did Pangaea begin to break apart?

188. Why do some researchers think that asteroids, or carbonaceous chrondrites, played an important role in the development of life on Earth?

189. What is the Cambrian Explosion?

190. What animal group was dominating in Cambrian seas?

191. What major development allowed reptiles to move inland?

192. What event is thought to have ended the reign of the dinosaurs?

193. What animal group became the dominant land animals of the Cenozoic era?

194. How did the demise of the large Mesozoic reptiles impact the development of mammals?

Chapter -16 The Earth’s Atmosphere Vocabulary Terms Air greenhouse effect stratosphere

Autumnal equinox infrared summer solstice

Conduction mesosphere thermosphere

Convection ozone Tropic of Cancer

Electromagnetic spectrum radiation Tropic of Capricorn

Environmental lapse rate spring equinox troposphere

Ultraviolet visible light winter solstice

195. Distinguish between weather and climate.

196. Why are water vapor and aerosols important constituents of Earth’s atmosphere?

197. What is ozone? Why is ozone important to life on Earth?

198. The atmosphere is divided vertically into four layers on the basis of temperature. List the names of these layers in order (from lowest to highest) and describe how temperature changes in each layer. Illustrate the layers of the atmosphere by drawing a diagram. 199. What is the environmental lapse rate and how is it determined?

200. Why do temperatures increase in the stratosphere?

201. Briefly explain the primary cause of the seasons.

202. What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn?

203. After examining Table 16.1, write a general statement that relates the season, the latitude, and the length of daylight.

204. Distinguish between heat and temperature.

205. Describe the three basic mechanisms of heat transfer. Which mechanism is least important as a means of heat transfer in the atmosphere?

206. Draw a diagram showing the electromagnetic spectrum. Label the following:

Wave length, long and short wave lengths, visible light spectrum, and the names of various types of radiation

207. Explain why the atmosphere is heated chiefly by radiation from Earth’s surface rather than by direct solar radiation.

208. Which gases are primary heat absorbers in the lower atmosphere? Which one is most important?

209. List the factors that cause land and water to heat and cool differently.

210. How does cloud cover influence the maximum temperature on an overcast day? How is the nighttime minimum influenced by clouds?

211. Why do isotherms shift north and south from season to season?

Chapter -17 Clouds and Moisture Vocabulary Terms Adiabatic processes cloud condensation

Dew-point temperature DAR evaporation Humidity latent heat orographic lifting

Precipitation rain shadow relative humidity

Saturation WAR

212. Summarize the processes by which water changes from on state of matter to another. Indicate whether energy is absorbed or released.

213. What is latent heat?

214. List the four mechanisms that cause air to rise.

215. Explain why the Great Basin area of the western United States is so dry. What term is applied to the situation?

216. Describe adiabatic temperature changes in a parcel of air that rises and sinks.

217. Explain the difference between the environmental lapse rate and adiabatic cooling.

218. Distinguish between unstable and stable air.

219. What type of weather is associated with unstable air?

220. As you drink an ice-cold beverage on a warm humid day, the outside of the glass or bottle becomes wet. Explain.

221. What is the function of condensation nuclei in cloud formation?

222. What is the basis for the classification of clouds?

223. Why are high clouds always thin?

224. Which cloud types are associated with the following characteristics: thunder, halos, precipitation, hail, mackerel sky, lightning, mares’ tails?

225. List the forms of precipitation and the circumstances of their formation.

Chapter -21 Modern Astronomy Vocabulary Terms Astronomical unit ecliptic geocentric

Heliocentric lunar eclipse phases of the Moon

Plane of ecliptic Ptolemaic system retrograde motion

Solar eclipse 226. Explain the geocentric view of the universe.

227. Describe what produces the retrograde motion of Mars. What geometric arrangements did Ptolemy use to explain the motion?

228. What major change did Copernicus make in the Ptolemaic system? Why was this change philosophically different?

229. What data did Tycho Brahe collect that was useful to Johannes Kepler in his quest to describe planetary motion?

230. Who discovered that planetary orbits were ellipses rather than circles?

231. Newton discovered that the orbits of the planets are the result of opposing forces. Briefly explain these forces.

232. Describe the three laws of planetary motion proposed by Johannes Kepler. Provide a diagram that illustrates each planetary law.

233. Describe the three primary motions of Earth.

234. Define the elliptic.

235. What is the approximate length of the cycle of the phases of the Moon?

236. What phenomenon results from the fact that the Moon’s period of rotation and revolution are the same?

237. The moon rotates very slowly (once in 27 1/3 days) on its axis. How does this affect the lunar surface temperature?

238. Draw a diagram that illustrates the phases of the moon. How many earth days does it take for the moon to transition from one phase to another?

239. Sketch the locations of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse and during a lunar eclipse. In other words, what is the Sun-Moon-Earth geometry during these eclipse events?

240. How many eclipses occur each year?

241. Solar eclipses are slight more common than lunar eclipses. Why then, is it more likely that your region of the country will experience a lunar eclipse?

242. What is the approximate time that a lunar and solar eclipse last?