ENG 3040, Advanced Rhetoric (23581)
3 credit hours undergraduate/graduate
Department of English and Philosophy
College of Arts and Sciences
University of Central Missouri
Course Description: Advanced Rhetoric teaches students to write analytic and persuasive papers that use textual sources as part of their own original arguments. They learn to analyze source texts rhetorically, test textual claims against specific instances and experiences, and use these analytic techniques to create original arguments. Through practice, the students learn to use process methods of composition, to write evaluative, exploratory and focused journals, and to create a course portfolio. Through readings and videos, the course also explores the history and dimensions of the field of rhetoric.
Spring, 2008
Dr. Margaret Kantz Office: Martin 236O Office Hours: MWF 8, MW 1, TR 8 and by appointment Tel. 543-8740 Email
Course Information
Meetings: TR 9:30, Martin 330
TEXTS: Barnet & Bedau, Current Issues and Enduring Questions, 8th ed. Smith, Rhetoric and Human Consciousness, 2nd ed. Grimes, Bronx Masquerade Murray, Bottled Up
SUPPLIES: You'll need a folder of some kind to keep your work in. Please write all of your your papers on a typewriter or word processor; bring black or blue ink pens, a pencil, an eraser, and tablet paper to every class meeting.
ALL OUT-OF-CLASS WRITTEN WORK FOR THIS COURSE MUST BE TYPED (double spaced).
COURSE GOALS – MoSTEP: The beginning (pre-service) English 9-12 teacher will demonstrate knowledge of and/or competency in the following areas of study: 1.2 effective oral and written usage. 2.1 how secondary students continue to develop and extend their reading, writing, speaking, viewing, and listening abilities. 2.5 what preconceptions, error patterns, and misconceptions may be found in students’ understanding of how language functions in communication and ways to help correct these misunderstandings. 3.5 how to locate and use a variety of print and non-print reference sources 3.7 how to help students think critically about what they read. 3.8 methods for promoting personalized reactions to reading and the value of sharing those responses. 4.1 a broad range of pre-, during, and post-writing strategies to generate meaning and to clarify understanding. 4.2 varied methods of argument, types of appeals, and persuasive strategies in writing and speaking. 4.3 use of evidence and documentation. 4.4 composing processes to prepare information to share orally, visually, and/or in writing. 4.5 different organizational patterns and strategies used for writing and speaking for different audiences and purposes. 4.6 ways of creating instruction, activities, and experiences that develop varied writing, speaking and presentation skills to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes. 4.8 technology used to enhance learning and reflection on learning 4.9 how to help students develop the capacity to listen so they comprehend, analyze, consider, respond to, and discuss spoken material, non-fiction, fiction, dramatic works, and poetry.
In Advanced Rhetoric you will practice the following skills: - thinking through a situation or problem, including the needs, values, and knowledge of people who might read your work, and to adjust your presentation to fit your purpose and their expectations (i.e., you will solve rhetorical problems) (Dept. Expression Goal #3, Survival Guide, pp. 5 - 6; NCATE 3.2, MOStep 1.2.1, 1.2.3,1.2.5): -planning and carrying out complex writing tasks; -analyzing the purpose, assumed audience, and biases of source texts; -building facts and opinions into original persuasive arguments (Dept. Research Goal #3); -analyzing a complex problem in writing; -using sources that disagree with your point of view and with each other; 2 3
-listening analytically to an argument; and -offering constructive criticism, both oral and written (NCATE 3.4, MOStep 1.2.6, 1.2.7). By the end of the semester, you should be able to analyze a source text rhetorically, test its claims against specific instances and experiences, and use these analytic techniques to create original arguments about the topic (NCATE 2.4, 4.1). Secondary goals of the course are to increase your writing fluency through practice and to increase your understanding of how to handle complex writing tasks. You will also expand your knowledge about the history and dimensions of the field of rhetoric (NCATE 2.6, 3.1, 3.6).
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
BELIEF STATEMENT: The Central educator is a competent, caring, reflective practitioner committed to the premise that all can learn.
MISSION: As a cornerstone of the institution for over 130 years, the University of Central Missouri's Teacher Education Program develops teachers and other school professionals who are well grounded in theory, display competence in content knowledge and instructional strategies, and possess the dispositions to ensure success for all learners. The Teacher Education Program prepares individuals as professional educators for an ever-changing, culturally diverse population. Faculty and candidates provide support and service to schools in meeting their present and future challenges by developing communities that learn through research and scholarly activities. Educator preparation is a campus-wide responsibility, a commitment that reflects the honor and worth of serving a vital profession.
A WORD ABOUT GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION: The official policy of UCM's English Department is that students whose papers contain numerous basic errors of sentence punctuation and grammar should not receive a passing grade. As upperclassmen, you are expected to have developed professional standards of accuracy for your work. If you have not developed the habit of using your handbook and a spell checker, now is the time to do so. One difference between this course and writing in professional situations is that I am always pleased to see corrections on the final drafts of your papers.
ATTENDANCE: Any student who accumulates more than 12 unexcused absences in a MWF class or 8 in a MW or TR class (25 percent for a 3-hour class) will not receive credit for the course. A student with more than 6 unexcused MWF or 4 unexcused TR or MW absences (for a 3-hour course) will have his or her grade lowered by one letter grade. Further absences may result in further grade reduction, as determined by the instructor. A missed tutorial is equivalent to one week of classes or the number of class hours scheduled for a particular tutorial period.
Academic Honesty A violation against academic honesty . . . Is any act which would deceive, cheat, or defraud so as to promote or enhance [a student’s] academic standing. Academic dishonesty also includes knowingly or actively assisting any person in the commission of an offense of academic dishonesty . . . Examples of offenses academic honesty include, but are not limited to . . . Plagiarism . . . Cheating . . . [And] breach of standards of professional ethics . . . “ UCM Planner/Handbook 2001-2002, p. 124). See pp. 123 - 6 of the 2001 - 2002 Planner/Handbook for a full description.
Students with Disabilities Students with documented disabilities who are seeking academic accommodations should contact the office Accessibility Services, Union 220, Tel. 543 - 4421. 2 4
ASSIGNMENTS:
“my position” argument (ungraded) .04 refutation of “my position” argument (ungraded) .04 “My Issue” paper, incorporating at least one factual source and one “ethical argument” source, plus the best of the two previous papers .10 “short debate” argument about an issue, using 2 sources that disagree .10 problem analysis .10 research project .16 portfolio .10 letter to classmate (.04) Self as Writer (.04) portfolio (neatness, completeness, etc.) (.02) 4 rough drafts (2% each, with opportunities for more) .08 6 reading journals (3% each) .18 final exam .10 1.00%
You should expect to need at least 2 - 3 hours of preparation for each hour of class time. Since the concepts and assumptions underlying the assignments may be new to you, you should make time in your schedule to confer with me or with the Writing Center tutors as needed.
ESSAY ASSIGNMENTS
Position: Choose an issue that interests you and argue it. Note that an argument is more than just a personal opinion, because it includes reasons, proofs, definitions, and explanations that other people might find persuasive.
Refutation: Take the other side; refute the arguments in the first essay and add any others that are needed to make the paper convincing.
My Issue: Using the best parts of the first two papers and changing/adding material as needed, write a persuasive essay that takes a stand on the issue, aims the argument at a specifically imagined audience, and acknowledges and deals with contrary arguments.
Short Debate: Choose a topic from B&B, Chs. 16 , 18 - 23, and enter the public discussion. You will include two textbook sources in your essay (using correct citation format for any quotes); if you use Chs 21, 22, or 23, be sure that the sources disagree. Your task is to maintain control of the discussion, using the sources either to support your ideas or a sources of faulty path ideas that you can either concede or refute. Even if you agree entirely with one source, you must have something to say about the issue . This may mean adapting arguments that you agree with to a new audience. Students frequently find that their best approach to a topic is to take a middle course between two extreme positions, refuting extreme ideas and explaining why they take more moderate positions.
Problem Analysis: Choose a topic that interests you and that is sufficiently complex that it does not have any immediate, obvious solution. You will use 1 source from outside the textbook and, if possible, one “ethical argument” source from the “Enduring Issues” section of B&B.
Rhetorical Analysis: Choose a favorite novel, poem, film, or television show. Analyze it rhetorically, using at least three of the approaches we’ve read about this semester. Your final draft should use this rhetorical analysis to make an evaluative argument about the work. 2 5
Portfolio Review & Self-as-writer Essay (NCATE 2.3, MOStep 1.2.1, 1.2.6, 1.2.7)
Part 1: The Free-Write (to be done at home)
Without looking at any of your work, list the essays you’ve done throughout the semester (by title or topic), reflecting on each one, listing any memorable lines or moments, struggles, things you like, things you don’t, major revisions, things you learned, etc.
*Then do the same thing for in-class writings and journal entries.
Using this information, write a 3 - 4 page free-write on your experiences with writing or as a writer, both this semester and in your life until now. This will be the rough draft of your Self as Writer Essay, and should go into the portfolio.
Part 2: Peer Portfolio Review
1. You will bring in all of the work you’ve done throughout the semester, neatly arranged in a folder or binder. You may decorate the folder to make it more personal.
2. You will switch portfolios with a classmate. For homework, you will read the contents of your peer’s portfolio, including the self-as-writer free-write, in order to write a review of the work as a whole. The goal is to offer helpful descriptive and interpretive feedback while looking for possible stylistic and thematic recurrences and obsessions. Then you will write a two-three page letter to the author in which you consider the following questions: *How would you describe the writer’s style or voice? *What are the strengths of the writing? (Cite examples of strong writing.) *How has the writer’s work improved throughout the semester? *How do you connect to the writing? 3. At the next class meeting, students will return portfolios to each other, read the letters from their classmates, and begin Part 3.
Part 3: Writing the Self-as-Writer Essay
1. After reading the peer letter and your own free-write, consider the following questions: *Are you a writer? *What have you learned about yourself as a writer? What are your strengths and weaknesses? *What story can you tell which speaks of you as a writer? *What story can you tell which shows your relationship to writing? *What story can you tell which shows an experience with writing? *Where is your writing taking you? What will you write in the future? *What is your writing style?
2. The essay exploring these questions will be 31/2 - 4 pages long and will have a personal tone. It should be focused and organized around a theme - NOT just a series of answers to the questions.
3. The final portfolio grade will be the total of three grades: the peer review, the portfolio presentation, and the essay grade itself.
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FORMAT: Please type and double-space your papers, including your rough drafts, using the conventions of margins and numbered pages. For safety's sake, write your surname, the date, and the page number in the upper right corner of each page. On the first page of each paper, please write: Your Name ENG 3040 the assignment the number of the draft the date.
CITING SOURCES: Use within-text citations, following MLA format, in all of your papers. Papers using only sources from our textbooks do not need a Works Cited page. All other sources must be cited on a Works Cited page. To cite material taken from the Internet, use a complete address, e.g.: http://www.cs.utk.edu/bentley/salnfo/page.html http://search.yahoo.com/bin/search?p=rape= For your long paper, which will use an interview and other external sources, list ALL of your sources on the Works Cited page. Our class work will include the rhetoric of referring to authorities, but you are expected to know how to write citations.
Grading Scale, Using Researched Analytic Scoring Guide Using All Five Categories A 30 - 26 B 25 - 21 C 20 - 16 D 15 - 11 F 10 – 5 Omitting the “Sources” Category A 24 – 21 B 20 – 17 C 16 – 13 D 12 – 9 F 8 - 4
Table for Converting Letter Grades into Points A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D D-
10% 10 9 8 8 7 6 5 5 4 3 2
16% 16 15 13 12 11 10 8 7 6 4 3
You will notice that I have not specified the cut-off scores for the letter grades. I do not make a final decision about that until after the final exam. Typically, however, A’s begin at about 90%, B’s at about 80%, C’s at about 65%, and D’s at about 50%.
JOURNALS: The journal is writing in which you will plan, evaluate, and think about the coursework. The journal consists of entries typed on individual pages. All journal assignments are posted in the daily syllabus. They will be marked √+, √, √. No late journal entries will be accepted. Evaluative journals are to be submitted with the drafts of papers; they should be no more than a half-page long. The reading journals should be 2 - 3 pages long; they are places for you to digest, meditate on, summarize, challenge, and ask questions about the readings and the course (NCATE 2.3, 4.10). Whenever a chapter from Smith is paired with a reading from Barnet and Bedau, I want you to consider how the theory described in Smith is enacted in the B&B selection and, if possible, to compare and contrast the point of view/uses and concerns of rhetoric/view of human nature in this reading with the perspectives of earlier readings. I’d also like you to speculate about how the social concerns of earlier times might appear in your students’ lives, and on how you might engage them in acts of rhetoric to help them express. Feel free to say “I” and to use a conversational tone and informal punctuation. If you have trouble thinking of things to say, try this list of “mental moves” (from Toby Fulwiler, “Responding to Student Journals”: 2 7
*observations - details, examples, analogies, descriptions *speculations (Fulwiler calls this “the essence of good journals”) *doubts - ideas that you don’t understand or find challenging or troublesome *questions that you formulate about the topic or issue *connections with other readings, other courses, other events *digressions stimulated by the reading *dialogue with me, i.e., talking directly to me *information about the subject from other sources *revisions of opinions expressed in previous journals or on other occasions *posing and solving problems - a fancy way of saying, working your way through an idea on paper, e.g., clarifying a difficulty, answering a question, etc.
I will respond conversationally to what you say. Journal entries will receive two points of credit apiece, as indicated by a √, with extra credit (√+) given for especially thoughtful writing and deductions (√-) for perfunctory or superficial work.
Be sure to write your name, the course name and section number, the assignment (e.g., Reading Journal #1), and the date in the upper right hand corner of the first page.
GRADING: Early drafts of work receive 2% course credit; I mark them √+ (3 points), √, √- (1 point). Final drafts will be graded using the Department’s Analytic Scoring Guide, which you will receive a copy of. Since good writers must have strong critiquing and editing skills, we will spend much of our class time discussing and critiquing (orally and in writing) each others' work. In addition, I will comment orally and in writing on your early drafts, and we will have many all-class discussions about papers. You will learn most from this course and enjoy it most if you set yourself a personal goal to practice constructive criticism--to offer such criticism to your classmates and to ask for it for your own work.
During the final week of class, you may submit a revision of your lowest-graded paper; the new grade will replace the old grade. I will not read the revision, however, unless you attach the original graded paper.
ATTENDANCE AND LATE/MISSING PAPERS: You are expected to attend all class meetings and to submit all work on the assigned due date. Missing drafts and other assignments will be factored into the final grade as missing credit. If you have more than three unexcused absences, the total number will be subtracted from your point total at the end of the semester. Because of the heavy writing schedule and my own workload, I will not accept late papers later than the class meeting immediately after your absence. If you know that you will be absent, please make every effort to have a friend deliver your work to class.
Other Nasty Stuff: I will not accept final drafts of out-of-class projects unless I have previously read at least one preliminary draft. Any student who has demonstrably plagiarized a paper will receive a failing grade for the course. Partial Syllabus NOTE: Dates tell when a reading, journal, etc., is DUE.
Week 1
Tues., 1/15 Course Introduction; we will begin discussing rhetorical concepts using the terms listed in the glossary at the end of this syllabus.; discuss B&B, Ch. 2, pp. 31-41, “Critical Reading” 2 8
Th., 1/17 B&B, Ch. 1, pp. 3 – 30; Smith, Ch 2, pp. 31-74; King, “Letter from the Birmingham Jail,” pp. 910 - 926; continue discussion of rhetorical concepts. Choose topic for “my opinion” paper. NOTE: Please be sure you know something about this topic and really enjoy thinking about it, because you will write 3 papers about it.
Week 2
Tues., 1/22 Smith, Ch. 1, pp. 2 – 15; Essay 1, “my position,” due (2-4 pp): Be sure that you control the discussion, establishing an original main path and using reasonable, fair arguments. Evaluative note: What do you like about this essay? What aspects of it, if any, do you have doubts about? What kinds of criticisms would be most helpful to you? Use the question list on pp. 241 & 423 of B&B as you evaluate your draft. Please use these question lists throughout the semester.
Thurs., 1/24 Read Smith, Ch. 2, pp. 17 - 35; B&B, pp. 856 - 870 (Declarations by Jefferson & Stanton), King, “I Have a Dream”
Week 3
Tues., 1/29 B&B, Ch. 3, pp. 75-104; Reading Journal #1 due: Apply loci to a topic taken from any essay in B&B, pp. 105 -140. Mention examples, if any, of each locus in the essay text; if there isn’t one, invent one: example, definition, description, causes, effects, comparison, contrast, analogy, category. For example , if you choose Charles Fruit’s letter to the Editor on p. 135, you will find a fact-based cause-effect argument (description + cause- effect inference) in paragraphs 2-3. But you won’t find a definition of the phrase “paying for organs,” or an example, a comparison, a contrast, or an analogy. So you would have to invent a paragraph of discussion for each missing locus, and you would need to develop Fruit’s cause-effect argument to explain why people would probably behave as he says they would.
Thurs., 1/31 Essay 2 due: a refutation of Essay 1 (2-4 pp), with evaluative journal (1/2 page) B&B, Ch. 2, pp. 31-51
Week 4
Tues., 2/5 B&B, Ch. 5; draft of “My Issue” paper due, with evaluative note: *In this paper you take sides, make your argument, and include the best arguments from the other paper in order to either concede or refute them. Evaluative note: What do you like best about this paper? What aspects of it do you have doubts about? Who controls this paper, you or your sources? Who’s your audience, and why do they need to hear what you have to say?
Thurs., 2/7 Reading Journal #2 due: analysis of any essay in B&B, Chs. 3 or 5 OR download the lyrics to “The Star-Spangled Banner,” “America the Beautiful,” and “Lift Every Voice and Sing” and write about them as anthems; make a conscious effort to use the terms & concepts we’ve discussed and to practice the mental moves described on pp. 5 - 6 of this syllabus
Week 5 2 9
Tues., 2/12 Smith, Ch 3; B&B, “Crito,” pp. 881 – 895; bring a 1-page summary of “Crito” to class, along with a list of any words that you didn’t understand final draft of “My Issue” due, with evaluative journal be sure to attach previous draft to the final draft; bring your handbook and be sure to attach previous draft to the final draft. Journal: In what ways do your revisions represent improvements over the original drafts? What do you still feel unsure about? What have you learned about argument from doing this assignment?
Thurs., 2/14 B&B, Ch. 12, pp. 454 – 463; HAVE THE TOPIC FOR YOUR SHORT DEBATE ESSAY CHOSEN; in-class exercise on the two essays in B&B that you’ve chosen for your Short Debate paper
Week 6
Tues., 2/19 Meet in CC Classroom (TBA). Go to the Public Agenda website; in “Select an Issue,“ choose an issue to read about, and read about it in “Understanding the Issue” and “Public Opinion.” Then do the following: 1) Go to “Fact File”; look at least 12 of the graphics listed. Note (write down) the source of the information (in small print at the bottom of the screen) and its date; write 1 sentence for each graphic that explains or describes the information given in the graphic. 2) Look at People’s Chief Concerns and Red Flags for this issue. What do the Red Flags suggest about people’s awareness of the facts and their understanding of the issue? Which of the Chief Concerns do you share? 3) Read the Perspectives for this issue. Which perspective seems most reasonable to you, and why? Which key values do you most support, and why? Are your favorite values emphasized in different perspectives? If so, what compromises or trade-off might have to happen for your view of things to prevail? 4) When you put these facts, perspectives, and concerns together, what patterns or trends do you see? Based on this information, what predictions might you make on this issue for the next few years? 5) What did you learn about this issue? 6) What information, if any, on this issue might be relevant to the Short Debate paper that you’ll be writing next week? 7) If you were going to research this topic, how would you decide which sources to use (look in “Sources and Resources
Reading Journal 3 due: Public Agenda ex. from Monday (discuss)
Thurs., 2/21 first draft of short debate essay due, with evaluative journal; Advice: To find an audience, you might try referring to a source as an example of people who hold a wrong view, or you might use a source as the occasion that impels you to not only refute his arguments but also to say something about the larger issue. Your audience is either the author of your source or people who might agree with these writers’ arguments. (4 pp) Be sure that you, not the sources, control the argument. Also – try using a Rogerian approach with this audience.
Week 7 Tues., 2/26 polished drafts of Short Debate papers due
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Thurs., 2/28 Smith, Ch. 5; B&B, Swift, pp. 179 - 187; Reading Journal #4 due: How does “A Modest Proposal” make use of the demonstrative organization recommended in the Rhetoroica ad Herennium (Smith, 119 – 120)? Why is the stasis system (pp. 120 – 124) unsuitable for Swift’s essay? Which, if any, of the logical fallacies (pp. 126 – 27) did Swift use in “Modest Proposal”? How well did Swift succeed in presenting himself as “a good man, skilled in speaking” (p. 130)? What tropes (pp. 138 – 140), if any did Swift use in this essay? Why do you think there are so few of them?
Discuss the form of a proposal.
Week 8
Tues., 3/4 final draft of short debate essay due, with evaluative journal: Is this draft any better than the first one? How so? How not? Why? (More politely: What were your new goals for this draft in terms of content, style, structure, and purpose? What specific things are you most pleased with? What if anything about this draft dissatisfies you?)
Thurs., 3/6 Smith, Ch. 7, pp. 197 - 208, 213 - 25; B&B Utopia, The Prince, pp. 743 - 766 ; discuss the structure of a problem analysis
S P R I N G B R E A K
Week 9
Tues., 3/18 draft of problem analysis essay due, with evaluative journal
Thurs., 3/20 discuss research topics; Smith, Ch. 8, pp. 233 - 4, 239 - 46, 252 - 9, 263 - 4
Week 10
Tues., 2/25 final draft of problem analysis essay due, with evaluative journal
Thurs., 2/27 Smith, Ch. 10 (Freud & Marx), pp. 295 - 311
Week 11 Tues., 4/1 Reading Journal 5 due: Choose your favorite TV show or a movie that you’re very familiar with; analyze it, applying some of the theories to it that we’ve read about in Smith OR do this exercise but write about either the film we saw last week or Frindle
Thurs., 4/3 B&B, Orwell, pp. 825 – 831; Smith, Ch. 11
Week 12 Tues., 4/8 rough draft of research project due
Thurs., 4/10 polished draft of research project due, with evaluative journal
Week 13 Tues., 4/15 Smith, Ch. 12, pp. 367 - 381 2 11
Thurs., 4/17 Smith, Ch. 12, pp. 381 – 395; bell hooks video; Reading Journal 6 due: Using the same piece that you used for J. 5, discuss it using some of the theories that we’ve encountered in the last two weeks
Week 14 Tues., 4/22 final draft of research project due, with evaluative journal; in-class writing
Thurs., 4/24 exchange portfolios with classmate; NFOA, Part 1
Week 15
Tues., 4/29 return portfolios to owners with letter; draft due: Self as Writer
Thurs., 5/1 course evaluations ; portfolios due
Week 16
Thurs., 5/8 Final Exam, 8-10 a.m.; read Glaspell, Trifles, B&B, pp. 945-955
Glossary adherence: your goal, vis-a-vis your audience audience: the group whose agenda, misconceptions, basic values, and need to know must be understood if you want to create an effective argument background – factual information needed to establish a context for the argument about to be made, usually provided early in the argument claim - an assertion or point that you want readers to believe; it may or may not need to be supported with proofs concession - an admission that part of an opponent’s argument is true, right, relevant, etc.; usually made to show the writer’s fair mindedness and mastery of the subject; often used to set up a refutation data - factual support for an argument demonstration of problem's existence, extent, severity - needed in arguments about situations that readers might not otherwise take seriously; shows that the situation does in fact exist, that it has a certain extent (note that a single case of the Ebola virus on the UCM campus might be enough of an extent), and that it is causing harm. Note that some aspects may be assumed, e.g., that the Ebola virus causes harm. How much needs to be demonstrated to an audience depends, of course, on their knowledge, their values, their agenda, etc. Thus, audience analysis is a prerequisite for effective argument. emotional proof- the emotions, principles and values that an audience finds convincing; e.g., appeals to cost effectiveness vs. completeness in health insurance debates; usually more convincing than logical proofs ethical proof - the personal credibility established by a writer in an argument; created through demonstration of subject knowledge and conventions of presentation as well as trust deriving 2 12
from the kinds of arguments made, especially the values on which the arguments rest; the ideal is Isocrates’ and Quintilian’s “good man speaking well”; according to Aristotle, this is the most powerful kind of proof exigence: the quality of urgency or relevance that makes an issue worth discussing faulty path - the mistaken, irrelevant, or otherwise unsatisfactory view of an issue that you wish to move people away from hierarchy of values - what every argument ultimately comes down to, i.e., that one consideration is more important than another logical proof - reasons and facts, as opposed to values (emotional and ethical proofs); overrated in most textbook treatments of persuasive writing; probably the weakest of the three kinds of proof (remember Reginald Denny? O.J. Simpson?)
Loci: plural of locus, Greek for “place”; a technique for creating (inventing) arguments described by Aristotle in Book 1 of his Rhetoric. The idea is that “places” offer a set of templates that a rhetorician can apply to any topic to create arguments on that topic. Traditional loci include, but are not limited to, description, example, definition, comparison, contrast, categorization, narrative, process, cause, effect, and division into parts or steps (analysis). Having thought of possible arguments, the rhetorician can then evaluate and refine them to fit the knowledge, interests, and needs of the audience, arrange them in an effective order, and decorate them with colorful and appropriate vocabulary, imagery, and sentence patterns. TOO MANY TEXTBOOKS STILL MISTAKENLY USE LOCI AS A WAY TO ORGANIZE A WRITING COURSE main path - the point(s) on which you want to gain the adherence of your audience objectivity - a mirage. Since all arguments occur within a social context and we as rhetoricians, and our audiences, also occur within social contexts, we cannot be objective. Instead, we can and should try to be knowledgeable and fair (note that this claim rests on my assumption that you value fairness and knowledge). occasion – a specific context that makes the argument relevant. Sometimes the argument’s purpose is to alert the audience that the occasion exists, as when Ebola virus is present on the UCM campus; at other times, it may be assumed as being current proof - factual/nonfactual support for arguments, including eyewitness testimony, reasons, etc. reason - a statement given to support a claim; often a statement of cause-effect or of principle (“He wouldn’t have shot Aunt Edith because he loved her”; less often, a statement of fact (“He couldn’t have shot Aunt Edith because at the time he was at St. Luke’s having an emergency appendectomy.”) persona - the “self” presented to the audience; ideally, a good person speaking well. problem case - a specific situation that contains all of the interesting aspects of a problem situation, e.g., the captured female soldier in “Women in Battle” 2 13 problem statement (A but B) - a statement of the conflict or contradictions in a situation that make it problematic; often stated early in an argument, often linked by a conjunction like “but” or “however” refutation - a rebuttal of an argument, usually made by showing that an opponent’s information is wrong or irrelevant because other facts or values apply solution - a proposal for dealing with a problem; often incorrectly thought of as a proposal for getting rid of the problem (a “solution” for war, or world hunger?) testimony - factual proof obtained through personal observation; often derided as being subjective-- but on the other hand, how else are you ever going to know anything? Very powerful when used as a problem case, i.e, to set up an argument, esp. the values on which it will be based, e.g., (“Based on my experience of having my friend murdered, I support capital punishment as retribution. Other arguments about deterrence and the sanctity of life simply don’t weigh as much because . . . .”)