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NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 1 of 21

Assessment Schedule – 2006 History: Examine a significant historical situation in the context of change, in an essay (90658) Evidence Statement

Achievement Achievement with Merit Achievement with Excellence CONTENT

Through her / his response to the Through her / his response to the Through the breadth, depth and / or essay question, the candidate has essay question, the candidate has: range of the ideas in her / his response described:  described in detail the to the question, the candidate has:  the changes to a significant changes to a significant  comprehensively described the situation in an historical context situation in an historical changes to a significant situation in  the influence of the situation on context an historical context people.  evaluated the influence of the comprehensively evaluated the situation on people. influence of the situation on (See content guidelines for examples people. of relevant historical information that Evaluation should involve weighing could be included in the candidate’s up the influences that this situation Evaluation should involve the answer.) had on people, e.g. positive comprehensive weighing up of the influences weighed up against influences that this situation had on negative ones or one theory about people, e.g. positive influences the influence contrasted with weighed up against negative ones or another. one theory about the influence contrasted with another. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical (See content guidelines for examples information that could be included of relevant historical information that in the candidate’s answer.) could be included in the candidate’s answer.) STRUCTURE

The candidate has structured and The candidate has structured and The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using organised her / his information organised her / his information using an an appropriate essay format. using an appropriate essay appropriate and effective essay format. format.  Introductory paragraph  Relevant, structured and  Introductory paragraph  Introductory paragraph logically sequenced paragraphs  Relevant, structured and  Relevant, structured, and  Conclusion logically sequenced paragraphs logically sequenced paragraphs  Conclusion  Conclusion

The candidate has provided an The candidate has provided a argument, i.e. the candidate has convincing argument, ie the stated a view and supported it with candidate has a clearly articulated view relevant and accurate evidence. and has supported it with sound reasoning and relevant, accurate, and significant evidence. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 2 of 21

Content Guidelines Topic One: England 1558–1667

Topic One: Essay One Describe the developments that took place in the agricultural economy of early modern England between 1558 and 1667. Evaluate the influence of agriculture on the lives of people during this period.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:  England was an agrarian nation, and rural life totally dominated society. This did not differ greatly even by the end of the period. – From almost anywhere, even from parts of London, one could see fields. – The majority of the population (90–95%) was tied to the land and living in farms and a network of small towns and villages. – Rural land provided wealth in rents, profits, and wages and was the most important employer. There was mixed farming of corn, grain (mostly wheat and barley), and grazing, with meat consumption growing. Wood was coppiced or grown in standards – its maintenance was essential because of the universality of its uses. Mining was a minor, if important, activity. – Labour use was intensive and seasonally conditioned (milking, sowing and harvesting).  The agricultural economy operated only a little above subsistence – the majority of the population lived with little in reserve so that when harvests failed, there were years of poverty and illness.  Food, fuel, clothing, and shelter were all provided by local labour and resources. All agricultural production was for local consumption, with any (generally small) surplus sold in local markets. The dangers and risks of transporting goods, especially during the civil war, inhibited trading outside the local region.  Agricultural production provided the foundation for virtually all other economic activities. – The agricultural economy was a source of demand for urban services and industrial goods Towns had important functions as finishers as well as consumers of agricultural products. Some of the larger towns had multiple specialist market areas for fish, meat, horses, cloth, etc. Industry was largely a myriad of small-scale crafts that employed rural workers at the times when labour demands on farms were less intense. Even the most important industrial trade product (cloth) was based on rural cottage production. Most products were intended for local consumption and agricultural use – scythes, shoes, and stirrups. Most non- mineral raw materials for industry came from the agricultural economy – wool, hides, linen flax, and vegetable dyes. – Agricultural production generated capital for investment in other parts of the economy Most investment in industry and trade came from successful farmers and landowners. – Ownership of rural land acted as a source for status The rural economy affected the profits of landed wealth. Careful management of one’s estates could increase wealth and social status. Successful farmers had the potential for upward social mobility.  Changes in the landscape were local and regional rather than national. Agriculture in many areas was gradually improving with the demand for food and clothing products from a steadily growing population. Fluctuations happened with bad harvests and plague outbreaks.  Increased amounts of land were brought into production: wastelands, swamps, and forests.  Interest (as evidenced in published writings) in improvements in agricultural practice became more widespread. Techniques that could be mentioned were the use of fertilizer (‘denshiring’ marl, and lime), ley farming (a longer fallow period with heavier manuring), water meadowing, growing peas and legumes for soil improvement, and winter animal feed crops (turnips and carrots) as a second crop after the grain was harvested.  Some specialisation occurred, such as animal fattening and market gardening near urban areas.  The gradually decreasing need for labour in rural areas through the period provided people for towns and for the New World colonies.  Good years for agriculture provided the financial surpluses for trade. By the late 17th century, England exported more food than she imported.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:  Agriculture in England had a number of problems that affected the lives of people. – The growing season was about five months. Low temperatures often inhibited growth. Periods of drought could lead to famine. – Poor farming methods tended to drain the fertility of the soil. Cooperation was needed in communities to ensure that this did not happen. – There were conflicts over the use of land—three-field / open field systems, enclosure, use of the manorial courts—that could affect individuals and their capacity to survive. – Access to common pasture was essential to the survival of some farmers. – The clearing of forests for agriculture created timber crises for the poor; the rights of woodbote, firebote, and pannage. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 3 of 21

– The seasonal, labour-intensive nature of agriculture meant that communities were highly dependent on one another at times. – Grain supplies were in high demand at times of food crises as the population expanded. This could lead to disorder and rioting when some were starving.  There were generally observable differences in the lives of people who were lowland or highland farmers. – Lowlands: nucleated villages dominated the landscape of the lowlands often only 2-5 miles apart. Each possessed a resident landlord and a parish church. – Highlands: settlements were more remote and dispersed with many farmhouses standing alone and subsistence farming more evident. Fewer villages had a resident landlord, and social customs relating to grazing and inheritance tended to be different.  Enclosure and other agricultural changes did subject some agricultural workers to eviction from their tenancy, displacement, or unemployment. Candidates may debate the extent of this occurrence, but there were subsequent increases in vagabondage; depopulation in some areas; and a drift to woodlands, fens, and urban centres.  The increase in wheat growing was beneficial to the health of the nation, improving the amount of protein in people’s diets.  Cheaper food created a rise in real wages, stimulating a demand for industrial goods, while improved agriculture created more raw materials for industry—wool. hides, linen flax, and vegetable dyes.  Successful entrepreneurial farmers were able to move up into the gentry class. They often bought out smaller neighbours, left legacies of park-like estates, or invested in industry and trade. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 4 of 21

Topic One: Essay Two Describe the ways in which the practice of popular beliefs was absorbed and changed by the established church in early modern England between 1558 and 1667. Evaluate the influence that popular beliefs had on the lives of people during this period.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:  The pre-Reformation Church over a long period had accommodated the seasonal practices of its people and pre-Christian ceremonies, so there was a blurring of the margins as to what was clearly of pagan origin and what was allowably Christian, e.g. Rogationtide and the beating of the parish bounds, which sought God’s protection for newly planted seeds, was also a pagan fertility rite. But after the 1559 Elizabethan Church Settlement, Protestants wished to eliminate the Roman Catholic customs, ceremonies, and organisations that had a strong hold on the common people. Symbols of traditional Catholicism (paintings, statues, altars, rood screens, and carvings) were destroyed by Elizabethan commissioners, although many were hidden in an effort to preserve them. The 125 holy days of the Catholic calendar were replaced with about 30 Protestant holy days and festivals; but some, like May Day, could not be eliminated. The Major-Generals’ attempt to ban Christmas was almost universally unpopular and ensured that their puritanical administration would never be accepted. Only slowly were traditional forms and ritual altered in a Protestant direction. Some festivals once organised by the pre-Reformation church eventually became embedded folk customs.  The established church was primarily concerned that the continuance of popular beliefs undermined its authority, encouraged immoral conduct, prevented the people from understanding the truth, and possibly contributed to an erosion of attendance. Irreverence during church services was frequently recorded. Sermons —effectively government-written homilies—were used to teach the morality of the Old Testament. Catechisms— simplified instruction books on the basics of the Protestant message—were circulated. During this period of time, there was a substantial increase in the number of clergy with university degrees (23% in 1580 to 84% in 1640). Wrightson concludes that by 1650, England probably never had a better manned and financed Church or a more active preaching ministry and yet failed to eradicate popular beliefs.  Institutional forms of religion were absorbed, yet became only a thin ‘veneer’ over popular religious beliefs (Barry Reay). People transformed the new Protestant beliefs and traditional popular beliefs into new forms. The Bible became a holy talisman, through which God could speak to people. Common people clung to their magic charms and spells in their daily lives and simply added Christian prayers to them. They were often oblivious to (or uninterested in) contradictions in their belief structure and, not appreciating explanations of misfortune in their lives offered by the church, preferred traditional ones. Long-established rituals were more comforting than personal faith despite the disapproval of the established church.  Outright attacks on magic, witchcraft, and other forms of popular religion by the church were even less successful. Church court records provide evidence that popular religious customs continued. Some parish clergy and JP’s responsible for administering the edicts of the established church and government tended to enforce only requirements they favoured or knew that their communities would not resist. Regular church attendance was poor (about 20%). When people did attend, the effect was often negligible or negative. There was a considerable degree of religious indifference. The Church itself had competition from the village’s wise and cunning men and women. Their magic seemed stronger than whatever the new Protestant Church said.  Belief in superstition, magic and witchcraft declined only gradually through 1558–1667. Those who practiced magical arts were still valued by their communities. Practices that were outlawed—such as Candlemas—were transferred from churches to homes. Popular literature such as ballads, almanacs, and chapbooks helped to preserve many elements of traditional culture as folklore satisfying important emotional needs. People proved reluctant to part with things that gave them reassurance, protection or comfort. The decline over time of traditional practices and beliefs appears to have had more to do with the gradual secularisation of society and the growth of legal toleration than with initiatives of the church. By 1660, separation was being drawn between church and civic or communal festivities. There is also some debate as to whether popular culture was abandoned over the period by the governing class because of the propensity of some festivals to turn into disorder and rioting that was difficult to control.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:  Popular beliefs encompassed all sectors of the population. It was not an entity but a range of changing beliefs in different regions where each community had its own customs. Few experienced a formal education or travelled beyond their home village to be exposed to other beliefs.  Religious belief occupied an important place in the lives of people because there was an implicit belief by all in an unseen supernatural world of spirits competing for each human soul. Belief in the devil and the potential salvation or damnation of each soul was a part of popular consciousness.  Religious belief and superstition was important in influencing each individual’s attitudes, values, and perspective on the vicissitudes of life. It seemed to have a stronger hold on the hearts and minds of people. To protect themselves from personal misfortune, a variety of charms, spells, prayers, and herbal remedies were used. Their perceived potential to affect the seasons and weather had a significant influence on an individual’s well-being and survival. People worried about such things as the length and intensity of winter, harvest failure, the success of hunting, and fishing ventures. A series of traditional rites and ceremonies were important in NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 5 of 21

allaying these concerns e.g. New Years Day was to encourage the return of spring, and fasting before Easter helped conserve food for the latter part of winter. Accusations of witchcraft increased in times of economic hardship, when people were less willing to give charity.  Taking part in festivals and ceremonies gave members of a community a sense of identity and were important times of fun and release from the rigours of daily life (e.g. giving gifts on New Years Day reinforced status and obligation ties). The Church did deliberately absorb some of these practices into its own religious calendar as a means of attracting people to its services. On important holy days, work ceased or was reduced so that people could attend religious services, feasts, pageants, revels, and sports.  In contrast, the Church as an institution had a hold in more perfunctory ways over the everyday life of people – the church building was the main meeting place, and the clergy were leaders in every community. – rites of passage: birth, adolescence (confirmation), marriage and death were celebrated there. – it was compulsory for heads of households to attend church regularly, and daily household prayers and grace before meals were said  Anglican clergy frequently complained about the popular ignorance of even basic Christian teaching and the limited church attendance of the majority in their communities. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 6 of 21

Topic One: Essay Three Describe the changes that took place in the relationship between Parliament and the different monarchs in the period 1590 to 1628. Evaluate the extent to which parliamentarians felt they were in a crisis by 1628.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

Elizabeth  Some historians contend that the harmony between Parliament and the Crown present in the mid years of Elizabeth’s reign was beginning to leach away in the last 10-15 years. The 1590s were years of dearth, unemployment, high monopoly levies on common goods, and repeated calls for subsidies as the Spanish war dragged on. The prolongation of the war made the summoning of parliaments more frequent. There was a deal of resentment over purveyance and monopolies. Elizabeth had forbidden discussion of matters she considered within her royal prerogative, so the monopolies debate of 1601 was a clear signal of a widespread grievance the governing class was raising in parliament with the intention of forcing a remedy from the crown.  Nonetheless, it could also be argued that by the end of 1601, Elizabeth had handled the monopolies debate, Irish crisis, and Essex rising with resolution and skill that belied any perception of her authority and popularity decaying. Parliament had, through the 1590’s, set precedents in increasing the number of subsidies granted to a monarch (two in 1589; three in 1593 and 1597; four in 1601). Many parliamentarians looked back on the last 15 years of Elizabeth’s reign as a golden age in which people and ruler united against all odds and with divine providence had survived a period of extreme peril from the malevolence of Roman Catholics. Privy Councillors and MPs cooperated to bring in the poor laws of 1597 and 1601. The range and number of communal and private bills that passed into law in this period (107), given the shortness of the sessions and Elizabeth’s distaste for superfluous legislation, could be seen as testimony to a healthy working relationship between monarch and parliament. Addressing widespread grievances such as monopolies concerns such as the growing numbers of poor, and ensuring that communal and private interests raised in parliament could be benefited by the necessary legislation were critical to that process of providing effective government and political stability. The crown needed a loyal and contented governing class to voluntarily do the work of administering the counties.

James  Despite the general good will that surrounded James’s accession, there was some apprehension about the intentions of this new and ‘foreign’ king. His reputation as author of The Trew Law of Free Monarchies, with its emphasis on the divine right of kings, had preceded him. Consequently, MPs were very sensitive to any perceived attack on their privileges and any absolutist tendencies on his part. This is evidenced by The Form of Apology and Satisfaction in 1604. In his early parliaments, he faced concern over disputed elections, his scheme for full union with Scotland, the crown’s use of monopolies, purveyance and wardship, and the introduction of impositions without parliamentary consent.  It could be argued that these early clashes between James and his parliaments were more apparent than real. The disagreements were over specific issues, such as the Great Contract, rather than a concerted and organised opposition to the crown. Through inadequate council representation in the Commons, James had failed to explain crown policies clearly. He lacked the presence and skills to manage a contentious Commons and too frequently resorted to hectoring them with lengthy speeches. When the Commons refused to agree to him styling himself ‘King of Great Britain’ he took the title by proclamation instead. His use of judges to interpret the law in his favour (eg Bates Case), though resented, was acknowledged as legal. Despite their differences and James’ notorious extravagance, parliament still provided him an unprecedented 3 subsidies in peacetime in 1606 after the Gunpowder Plot. Moreover, James did allow Parliament to sit for much longer sessions to facilitate the passage of communal and private bills. Even though he had little interest in promotion of an official programme of legislation, he was concerned to deal with grievances from the localities brought to Parliament. James may have found the English parliament less benign than the Scottish parliament – ‘a body without a head’, but he still recognised that it was important for effective government as well as for gaining finance.  However, conflict with serious consequences was to arise in James’s last parliaments. In the 1614 Addled Parliament, a new development emerged. Factional divisions at court and in council began to spill over into Parliament. Between 1618 to 1628 one favourite, the Duke of Buckingham was to completely dominate royal policy and the distribution of patronage. Moreover from 1618 the Thirty Years War between Catholic and Protestant began in Europe and was to reawaken anti-Catholic sensibilities in England. The 1621 Parliament was called to obtain subsidies to finance expeditions to retrieve the Palatinate for James’s Protestant son-in- law. Two subsidies were duly voted, but the Commons were also wanting to curtail the impact of the large number of monopolies James had granted. Some councillors and favourites like Buckingham were implicated. To deflect attention from themselves, they encouraged Parliament to revive impeachment and use it against the Lord Chancellor, Francis Bacon, who had approved a number of new monopolies. James did nothing to save Bacon. Instead, he got drawn into his own conflict with Parliament over the direction of foreign policy and especially his intention to arrange a Spanish marriage for his son Charles. The Commons entered a protestation that they ought to be able to discuss these matters, and James angrily tore it from the House journal and dissolved Parliament. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 7 of 21

 Nonetheless, when the option of the Spanish match to solve the Palatinate question failed, James, in an apparent turnaround, invited the 1624 parliament to advise him on foreign policy and agreed to their setting up a committee to supervise the spending of any subsidies raised to implement it. In doing this, James was expecting Parliament to accept the responsibility to fund the foreign policy they advised. Buckingham and Charles encouraged Parliament to recommend war against Spain and to impeach the anti-war Lord Treasurer Cranfield. James also signed a Monopolies Act restricting the royal prerogative for the first time by legislation. Driven to some degree by factional court politics in which Buckingham and Charles played a leading role, Parliament had gained dangerous precedents for restricting the way subsidies were spent, impeaching unpopular ministers, and curbing the royal prerogative by legislation.

Charles  The harmony between Parliament and the crown, so dearly purchased, was soon to fade. Charles’s reliance on Buckingham, lack of negotiating skill, and intransigence over important issues inflamed awkward situations. In the 1625 Parliament, two subsidies for the war with Spain were voted on top of the three from James’s reign and tonnage and poundage for one year. Yet Charles was incensed that he was not given the customary life grant and had royal officers collect it anyway. Parliament criticized Buckingham’s handling of the Mansfeld expedition and questioned why a sea war was not being pursued. Charles was frustrated at the lack of provision for it. To exclude ‘fiery spirits’ from the 1626 Parliament, Charles had seven of the most outspoken MPs made sheriffs. It duly voted 3 subsidies; but in the wake of the Cadiz disaster, the Commons attempted to impeach Buckingham. To save his favourite, Charles chose to dissolve Parliament and forgo the subsidies.  By the time Parliament was recalled in 1628, grievances had mounted to a point of considerable tension between monarch and Parliament. Legislation had dried up, with only 16 statutes passed in the parliaments from 1625. Charles was still collecting tonnage and poundage illegally and was resorting to more impositions and forced loans, jailing 76 gentlemen for non-payment. The growing influence of the Arminian faction in the English church and Catholicism through Henrietta Maria at court fed an anti-Catholic paranoia. The beginning of a second war with France, the La Rochelle debacle, and the introduction of forced billeting of soldiers and martial law on the South Coast further tainted Buckingham’s reputation. Parliament drew up the Petition of Right in an attempt to define the rights of the subject and was prepared to grant Charles five subsidies and tonnage and poundage if he assented to it. Charles reluctantly did so, but the general celebrations that followed the assassination of his ‘evil counsellor’, Buckingham, soured any prospective accord. The Three Resolutions (1629) were passed by a Parliament who had lost hope of redress of their grievances, and Charles was moved to end his wars and rule for a time without troublesome parliaments. Charles had adopted an unfortunate confrontational manner and moved to a radical political position rejecting the traditional basis of effective government: cooperation with the governing class.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:  Leading parliamentarians clearly felt they were in a crisis. Before the 1628 Parliament, Sir Benjamin Rudyard could say, ‘This is the crisis of parliaments. By this we shall know whether parliaments live or die’. He urged his fellow MPs to trust the king ‘thereby to breed a trust in him toward us, for without a mutual confidence a good success is not to be expected’. Sir John Eliot claimed that not only were the ‘essential and fundamental liberties’ of Parliament at issue, but ‘the fate of the whole kingdom is also in the balance’.  Leading MPs knew they were putting their well-being at risk. When they attempted to impeach Buckingham in the previous parliament, Charles had arrested the most vocal members and released them only after Parliament’s vigorous defence of their right to freedom of arrest. Charles did imprison nine MPs in the wake of the Three Resolutions. Sir John Eliot died in jail three years later; others remained in prison till 1640. Those refusing to pay forced loans, impositions, and tonnage and poundage were also arrested and had property confiscated.  England was at war with both Spain and France. Charles was overburdening the amateur administration of the localities with constant demands for money, soldiers, their training and equipment, and coastal defences. Forced billeting of soldiers on the South Coast was resulting in violence and disorder, while the traditional authority of JP’s was being superseded by martial law.  MPs did not yet hold Charles directly responsible. Buckingham had monopolized the royal favour for almost ten years – it was his corruption and evil counsel that was poisoning the commonwealth and causing military disaster on disaster –‘the cause of all our miseries…the grievance of grievances’. If Charles would only permit his impeachment, the kingdom could be saved.  The horrifically destructive Thirty Years War was in progress in Europe. Arminianism and Catholicism at court was ‘the enemy within the gate’. Archbishop of Canterbury George Abbot had been suspended for refusing to license sermons in favour of forced loans in 1626. Buckingham and Charles clearly preferred anti-Calvinist Arminians to be heading the church: Both Richard Montague and William Laud were appointed bishops in 1628, and perhaps more sinister was Laud’s rise to the Privy Council. They were convinced that this would push England toward toleration of Catholicism and absolute monarchy.  The Five Knights Case (1627) indicated that the governing class could not be protected by the courts from either arbitrary taxation or imprisonment. Some MPs believed that the future existence of parliaments depended on preventing the crown from collecting non-parliamentary revenues. Charles believed that the governing class NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 8 of 21

had brought the forced loans upon themselves by refusing to supply his needs in Parliament. Resolution was desperately needed.  Charles unreasonably regarded the airing of legitimate grievances as disloyal and provocative. Although assenting to the Petition of Right, he clearly intended to ignore it. The parliaments of 1590–1624 generally advantaged both the crown and governing class. They provided not only specific financial and legislative benefits but, perhaps more importantly, had acted as a ‘point of contact’ that sustained crown / governing class harmony and co-operation. Charles instead had made it a point of friction that exacerbated growing divisions and misunderstandings to a point of crisis. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 9 of 21

Topic One: Essay Four Describe the changes in government, finance and religion that took place during Charles I’s personal rule (1629 to 1640). Evaluate the influence of these changes on the English governing class.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

Government:  Charles intended to rule by proclamation law until ‘such as have bred this interruption shall have received their punishment’.  The Book of Orders was issued in 1631: It was a series of instructions from Privy Council to JP’s to ensure the laws and procedures were carried out—effectively a check on the efficiency of local government—administration of poor relief, treatment of vagrants, repair of roads and bridges, ‘petty session’ reports, performance of officials, and training of the local militia.  He appointed Lord President of the Council of the North, Thomas Wentworth, the Earl of Strafford, and ensured that royal law was enforced under much tighter controls in the north of England.  In 1633, Strafford went to Ireland and re-established order and respect for the crown. He rid the Irish sea of pirates, enforced regular customs collection, brought the Irish church into line with the reforms in England, and planned further plantations of settlers to improve the Anglicisation of Ireland.

Finance:  The Lord Treasurer, Richard Weston, attempted to cut court expenses (40% of government spending) with little success. He did, however, persuade Charles to end the wars with France (1629) and Spain (1630) given that he would not receive any further supplies from Parliament.  Weston and later Bishop Juxon looked for new means of raising income: – further new impositions – granting new monopolies to companies to bypass the 1624 Monopolies Act – more vigorous exploitation of wardship (increased revenue 300%) – forest fines – fines for gentry staying in London after being instructed to return home – fines for eating meat during Lent – more vigorous enforcement of recusancy fines (increased revenue 500%) – fines for enclosure causing depopulation of the countryside – fines for Distraint of Knighthood – Ship money extended from coastal to inland areas as well.

Religion:  In 1629, Arminian reforms were introduced into the English Church that reminded some of traditional Catholic practices. Clergy were told they must wear only the authorised vestments, the surplice and hood. The communion table was instructed to be placed permanently in the chancel and railed off from the congregation instead of being brought into the body of the Church during services. A prominent cross and candles were required on the table. The congregation were to receive communion kneeling and bow at the name of Jesus.  Preaching was suppressed. In 1629, only licensed preachers could deliver sermons. Catechizing was used as a substitute. Bishops were to check their contents. In 1633, preaching about predestination became a crime. In 1636, the length of sermons was restricted. People were not allowed to leave their own parish to hear a sermon elsewhere.  1633: William Laud becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. Gentry are ordered to increase the income of local clergy and restore impropriated tithes or church lands.  1633: The Book of Sports is reissued and states that after church, people could play sport, drink in alehouses, dance or make music.  1636: Bishop Juxon becomes Lord Treasurer.  1636: A papal agent was received at the royal court. Conversion to Catholicism becomes fashionable in court circles.  The Court of High Commission and Bishop visitations are used to enforce moral standards and uniform compliance with the Prayer Book. Star Chamber is used to humble peers and gentry. Punishments are severe.  Stained glass, organs, and choir-stalls were installed in some churches.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:

Government:  The governing class were deprived of their accustomed leadership role of being a point of contact with the monarch in Parliament and being able to give voice to local grievances and offer advice. The potential for raising one’s standing and reputation in their local community was therefore lost. To some, Charles’s prerogative rule was synonymous with arbitrary rule. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 10 of 21

 Their voluntary contribution to local government as sheriffs and JPs was put under stress by the Book of Orders. It added to their workload considerably and put them off-side with their neighbours, while the peremptory tone of Privy Council instructions would have been a source of considerable irritation that was difficult to ignore.  The governing class became concerned that Strafford’s army in Ireland could be used to rigorously enforce Charles’s Thorough policies in England as well.

Finance:  The end of the wars with France and Spain would have reduced the financial burden of contributing to subsidies for war supplies. It would also have removed forced billeting of soldiers and the accompanying disorder and need for the imposition of martial law.  However, the new means of raising income would have soon wiped away that sense of financial relief and added new burdens that appeared to have little rationale apart from revenue gathering for the crown.  Some gentry used to underassessing themselves for their contribution to subsidies would have looked for innovative ways to avoid or resist paying these new taxes and fines. Failure to pay could mean risking arrest and seizure of property, which would only exacerbate the sense of grievance. For example, John Hampden refused to pay his 20 shillings of ship money and was taken to court in 1635. He was ordered to pay, but the decision was so divided that a nationwide campaign of resistance was initiated. By 1640, only one third of ship money was being paid and local sheriffs were being required to make good the deficit.

Religion:  It became impossible to ignore the Arminian reforms. Alterations to the service affected every parish in the kingdom. Some welcomed the new sense of reverence and order; others were deeply offended. In response to the changes, some church wardens reported violent opposition and riots.  Some gentry would have been incensed that their influence over the local clergy had been replaced by centralised and excessive interference from bishops. In some cases, gentry had been a patron to a clergyman and supplemented their income because they enjoyed their particular brand of preaching. Others were so dispirited by Laud’s attack on impropriations as a means of gentry control of the local clergy that they organised emigration to America in search of greater religious freedom.  The Book of Sports deeply offended Puritans. Concern was raised that it would lead to riotous disorder on Sundays.  The governing class would have been concerned at the growing influence of Arminian bishops at the highest levels of the king’s government.  Calvinist Anglicans blamed Catholic influences at court for the increase of Arminian influence and reforms in the English Church. Queen Henrietta Maria’s devotion to Catholicism and obvious contempt for the English Church brought the court into disrepute. Some believed she was now the predominant influence on Charles and that he had become a crypto-catholic.  The use of prerogative courts and Bishop Visitations to enforce conformity was highly unpopular. The severity of their punishment made popular martyrs of Prynne, Bastwick, and Burton. The fact that they were gentlemen being stigmatised and losing their ears was especially alarming to the governing class.  These issues would have engendered sharp divisions within the governing class between those who supported Charles’s actions (or at least his right to undertake them) and those who did not. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 11 of 21

Topic One: Essay Five Describe the changes that Parliament made between 1642 and 1646 that helped it to win the First Civil War . Evaluate the influence of the Civil War on the lives of people in England.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:  In the early years of the war, Charles was in an advantageous position, holding the North and West and having a loyal, well motivated army with professional expertise and a unified command, poised to march on London, blockade it, and look to the distress caused to its citizens to bring about a collapse of Parliament’s will to resist. Parliament needed to act quickly to utilise its potential resources and prevent this from happening. They established a Committee of Safety to administer the war effort and relied on Lord Lieutenants and county committees to levy compulsory weekly rates (the assessment) and organise defence in the counties. This depended to a large extent on the considerable organisational skill of John Pym to get these separate committees to override their local prejudices and act in unison in the Midland and Eastern Associations. By 1643, London was well-fortified. Charles failed to press his early advantage and attack London.  Parliament realised the strategic importance of taking control of the navy and using it to blockade eastern ports and prevent Charles from making effective use of his European allies.  The introduction of an excise tax on staple items after 1643 and continued customs duties laid the basis for a reasonably effective financial structure to the war effort. These taxes were collected in an efficient and at times ruthless manner from areas under Parliament’s control. By the latter years of the war, over a million pounds was being raised annually for the Parliamentary war effort.  The battle-hardened Scottish army of over 20 000 men joined Parliament’s side in 1643. They were promised in the Solemn League and Covenant that England would adopt a Presbyterian Church system after the war. They tilted the balance in Parliament’s favour from 1644–1646, but victory was by no means assured or automatic.  There was also some dissension amongst Parliamentarians as to their ultimate aim; some sought a negotiated peace with Charles, others aimed for nothing less than the complete military defeat of the King. After Pym died, the Committee of Safety was replaced by a Committee of Both Kingdoms, which was more committed to decisively defeating Charles rather than simply coming to a settlement with him. However, after victory in the north at the Battle of Marston Moor, the parliamentary forces, beset by political divisions emerging again, failed to follow up their military advantage.  The Self-denying Ordinance of 1644 proposed a separation of political and military functions. This released Essex, Manchester, and others of their commands to allow for the establishment of the New Model Army under Fairfax and Cromwell. Men of social status gave way to men of military skill. The new army was to be well-paid, professionally trained and disciplined, and without regional affiliations. It had promotion by merit and encouraged religious enthusiasm and godly discipline. It became an army convinced of the righteousness of its cause and committed to total victory. Its capacity to be a rapid-response, formidable fighting unit brought about a complete military victory for Parliament. Ironically, its existence made the task of establishing a political settlement with the king far more difficult.  When Charles surrenders to the Scots, Parliament pays its debts to the Scottish to take possession of the King and have Scottish forces withdraw from England.

The candidate’s response to the second part of essay question could include:  The war was a huge shock to English society. The taking up of arms against the King represented to many ‘a world tipped upside down’, a society where things would never be quite the same again.  The war split the nation, forcing people to side with the monarchy or Parliament. For some, this was a very difficult choice, as they found themselves torn between loyalty to the King on the one hand and concern for the status of the governing class on the other. It has been estimated that 10% of the adult male population fought in the war.  The gentry in twenty counties pleaded with Parliament to allow them to be neutral, but all areas were dragged into the fighting in some way. Both sides recruited as many men as possible, often from the same areas. Initially, they relied on volunteers; later, they had to forcibly conscript.  Desertion was common. Loyalty was to their county rather than King or Parliament. Most were chiefly concerned with the fortunes of their local community rather than national politics or the possible outcome of the war. In some counties, armed groups, called Clubmen, organised to try to persuade the Royalists and Parliamentarians to take their war somewhere else, usually without success.  Lost lives: bodies stripped of valuables and buried quickly to avoid disease. Some prisoners of war were ransomed back to their families. Others were sold as slaves to Moslem pirates. Some of the wounded and sick were shot. If the effects of disease and the fighting are taken into account among both soldiers and civilians, as many as 100 000 people may have lost their lives.  Accounts tell of soldiers occupying and looting farms and farmhouses and molesting and abusing the occupants. Soldiers on both sides committed atrocities, acting as if they were beyond the law, murdering and raping vulnerable civilians. Those living in towns under attack especially faced the prospect of losing their lives as well as their possessions. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 12 of 21

 Homes and churches were vandalised eg cutting open feather mattresses, destroying books and manuscripts, breaking down fencing, killing animals, spoiling crops, and cutting down fruit trees.  Taxes, forced loans, and sequestration by both sides meant that no one’s property was safe.  Forced billeting. Both sides expected the local population to accommodate their armies.  Normal life virtually stopped in many areas. Travel and trade was extremely hazardous. Goods were often confiscated by soldiers before they got to their destination. Passes were needed for travel.  Women were left on their own to survive. Gender roles were distorted by the war, as women took on extra responsibilities eg Brilliana Harley supervised the defence of a town against Royalist forces.  In 1643, a crowd of women with white ribbons marched for an end to the fighting. They fought barehanded against cavalry before being dispersed.  Charles’s agreement to a truce with Catholic rebels in Ireland gave credence to rumours that he was using Irish Catholic troops who were committing atrocities in England. This had an enormous propaganda effect on those who fought for Parliament and those who had been neutral in the conflict. Further evidence of Charles’s willingness to seek the assistance of Catholics for his cause came when his correspondence was captured after the battle of Naesby. In 1646, when his cause had become desperate, he even offered to make Catholicism the official religion of Ireland.  Nonetheless, some historians believe we may have an exaggerated view of the impact of the war on the daily lives of ordinary people. Life was not continuously disrupted by the fighting, and for many the struggle for subsistence took their full attention. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 13 of 21

Topic One: Essay Six Describe the changes that different radical religious and political groups campaigned for during the Civil War and Interregnum from 1642 till 1660. Evaluate the influence that these groups had on those who held military and political power.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

Religious Radicals:  Religious unity had broken down during the Revolution, and Sects now abounded. There were great differences between them, but each believed in a self-supporting church whose preachers were drawn from the congregation and not appointed by the state or church government. Sects thus opposed the whole concept of a parish church supported by tithes.  The largest of the Sects were the Baptists, who rejected infant baptism as a symbol of the old days of religious coercion. They believed that membership of a church signalled by the baptism ceremony should not be decided until one was old enough to make a conscious commitment to accept Christ’s grace.  Particular (Strict) Baptists accepted the Calvinist belief in Predestination that salvation was available only to the true believer.  General Baptists believed that salvation was available to all. Baptists were among the more moderate sects, though adult rebaptism struck at the authority of the Orthodox ministers who had carried out the original baptisms.  Millenarianism was the belief based on the Book of Revelation in the Bible that the second coming of Christ would be a prelude to his 1 000-year rule on Earth (The Fifth Monarchy). Some millenarians interpreted the events of the 1640s to indicate that this event was imminent and would occur in England. As the chosen Saints, they had to prepare for it. Corrupt earthly rulers must be swept away and replaced by a Godly government and the laws of Moses. To them, Charles I’s execution had heralded the ushering in of the Millenium.  Most people accepted the Scriptures as the Word of God and belief in the Millenium was widespread, but few predicted Christ’s coming so precisely as the Fifth Monarchists. They stressed Christ’s humble origin and, believed that his Elect—the chosen Saints—might appear in any walk of life and could be labourers, servants, or paupers. Strongest in London and Wales, they were largely from the ‘lower orders’ but did include some university men and landowners. They were a very strict sect that believed that immorality, including adultery, should be punished with death.  “Seekers” was a broad term referring to those who were seeking the truth about religion They had often rejected the established Church, seeking the truth through revelation from the Holy Spirit as well as, or instead of, through study of the Bible. They were, consequently, receptive to Quaker ideas.  Quakers were anticlerical and had no regular preachers. They believed in the ‘spirit within’. That is, everyone had a direct contact with God and at gatherings should speak as the Lord moved them to do so. They offended society in many ways. Quakers believed all were equal before God and, consequently, refused to behave deferentially to their social betters. They addressed social superiors with the familiar ‘thee’ and ‘thou’ instead of ‘you’, as was the custom. They objected to the established Church and so refused to pay tithes. They sometimes interrupted other church services or questioned the minister afterwards. Their leader, George Fox, encouraged women to participate in church government and services.  Ranters claimed that true Christians need not believe in the literal truth of the Bible, many of whose stories were simply to illustrate good and evil. Sin and Hell, they claimed, were concepts invented by the propertied classes to scare and control the lower orders. Ranters, who often held their “services” in ale-houses, condoned adultery, blasphemy, and divorce, believing that nothing was sinful to the elect. They succeeded in shocking not only the conservatives but also many of the other sects as well. Ranters were often associated with Quakers. There were many other mostly small sects—Muggletonians, Grindeltonians etc—each with its own peculiarities.

Political Radicals:  The abolition of the prerogative courts and the disruption of the wars had enabled political and religious radicals, who would once have been severely repressed, to flourish. Following Charles I’s execution, radical hopes were high. They welcomed the end of the monarchy and all its trappings and hoped this would open the way for sweeping political, social, and religious reform.  Levellers were so called because it was believed that they wished to ‘level men’s estates’ (ie destroy private property). Certainly, Levellers believed that Parliament should be representative of and responsible to the people and that all should be equal before the law. Before the King’s trial, the Levellers had presented the Army Grandees with a revised Agreement of the People as a proposal for a new constitution. Claiming that all power derived from the ‘free born people’ who trusted their elected representatives with as much of this power as they saw fit, the Agreement wanted: – Parliamentary elections to be held every two years. – An enormous widening of the franchise to include most adult males (though not women, servants or paupers). – Parliament, though it was to have ‘supreme trust’, to be limited in its authority. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 14 of 21

– Everyone to have equal access to law courts and to be equally protected by the law. – The widest possible religious toleration (including Catholics) and no established national church. In short, the Levellers wanted a more democratic society. They were a pressure group more interested in principles than in political realities. It was never clear, for example, how England was to be governed in between the biennial parliaments. Their radicalism threatened vested interests. To landowning gentry, political equality implied unwelcome equality of wealth and status also. At the other end of the social scale, Levellers had little to offer the poor. Their policies were aimed mainly at the “middling sort”.  The Diggers—or True Levellers, as they called themselves—wanted an even more egalitarian society. Their leader, Gerrard Winstanley, believed that all adult males (except criminals) should have the vote and that education should be free for boys and girls up to the age of 18. Winstanley wanted to replace the existing economic system with one of pure communism. Since he believed that state power depended on ownership of property, economic freedom must precede political freedom. Once land was owned and worked communally, an “equal” society needing neither state nor laws would arise.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:

 The most radical of the sectaries aroused horror among more orthodox Christians and conservative gentry. Radical religious ideas could easily lead to revolutionary social and political ideas.  In Bristol (1656), James Nayler, a Quaker, had re-enacted Christ’s entry to Jerusalem. Though he claimed to be only commemorating the event, Parliament charged him under the Blasphemy Act of claiming to be Christ. Cromwell, who admired Nayler’s faith and courage, could not persuade Parliament to drop the case and, with England at war, dared not create disharmony by intervening directly. Councillors in the House argued Nayler’s case and possibly saved his life, but they were unable to save him from being flogged through the streets, pilloried, and having his tongue pierced. Quakers were heavily persecuted, particularly after the Restoration, because of their socially subversive ideas. However much they disturbed society, Quakers and Ranters had little direct interest in politics.  Thomas Venner was the leader of the militant Fifth Monarchists. In their rising in 1661, he and about 50 others held off the London-trained bands for four days before their defeat. Venner and 10 others were executed for treason. They were regarded not as religious cranks but as aggressive and dangerous radicals, who drew revolutionary political conclusions from their beliefs in predestination and millenarianism.  Leveller leader John Lilburne was, in the 1640s, already something of a popular hero for distributing anti- Laudian pamphlets. He fought for Parliament, attaining the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. Once the King was removed, Levellers hoped the Army Grandees would put the Agreement of the People to their regiments. But, not willing to bypass Parliament, they took the Agreement to the Rump in the form of a petition. The Rump promptly shelved it. The Levellers, accusing the Grandees of helping the Rump to build a new kind of tyranny, appealed with speeches and pamphlets to the lower ranks of the Army, in which radical sentiments were strong. Lilburne and other leading Levellers were arrested, but the flow of pamphlets continued. This sparked off army mutinies. Cromwell and Fairfax pursued the mutineers to the village of Burford, where they captured 400 of them. By military law, all 400 could have been shot, but this might have sparked a major rebellion. In the end, only three of the ringleaders were executed and the Leveller movement in the Army died down.  Civilian Levellers continued to campaign, and Lilburne was acquitted of charges of sedition; but the Rump closed the net. – The Treason Act (July 1649) made the definition of treason wide enough to include Leveller activity. – Unauthorised printing presses were tracked down by Parliamentary agents. – A High Court was set up in March 1650 to deal with cases of treason and incitement to mutiny. The accused were denied trial by jury.  Some pamphlets continued to slip through until at least 1655, but in the end the Levellers failed to bring about their revolution. They had an insufficient power base, especially after they lost support in the Army. Lilburne was imprisoned again until his death in 1657.  Gerard Winstanley and the Diggers put their ideas into practice by establishing communes at St George’s Hill (Surrey) and Cobham Heath, immediately attracting the suspicion of local landlords, who saw them as a threat to social order. Fairfax investigated but concluded that a few eccentrics growing vegetables on common land could in no way threaten the security of the state and took no further action. But landlords continued to harass the Diggers until local councils closed their communes down in April 1650. The Diggers never numbered more than a few hundred and were more dangerous for what they represented than for anything they could hope to achieve. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 15 of 21

Content Guidelines Topic Two: New Zealand In The Nineteenth Century

Topic Two: Essay One

Describe developments that took place in the relationship between Māori and Pākehā between 1800 and 1840. Evaluate the influence that contact with Pākehā had on Māori between 1800 and 1840.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:  Initial conflict between Māori and Pākehā caused by misunderstanding, eg Boyd incident, but then much more positive race relations as both Pākehā and Māori realised that they both had things that the other race wanted.  The developments that occurred to Māori warfare as a result of the Musket Wars and the changes that occurred to relations between Māori and Pākehā as a result. Pākehā became crucial to survival as a source of weapons for this new form of warfare.  The increasing involvement of the British Crown in New Zealand despite their reluctance to be involved and the relationship between the crown and Māori. Early Māori links with NSW Governors; chiefs Hongi and Waikato met King George IV in 1820; Elizabeth Affair, Busby and the Declaration of Independence; Captain Hobson as Lieutenant Governor.  Māori conversion to Christianity was very slow to start with; but as the Missionaries became more independent and Māori literacy boomed, Māori “converted” largely through their own agency from 1825 onwards. Many of the changing relationships between Māori and Pākehā centred on the following industries:  Whaling – plenty of contact as Māori worked on whaling ships and travelled to London, Sydney, and Hobart. Ngai Tahu also ran whaling boats. There was also plenty of inter-racial interaction for rest and recreation in the Bay of Islands, which stimulated trade prostitution. Along the east coast from Mahia all the way to Stewart Island there were shore-based whaling stations. Intermarriage between Pākehā whalers and Māori women was very common.  Sealing – there was much less contact between the sealers and Māori, but there was some intermarriage, especially in the Deep South around Stewart Island.  The Timber trade – This was concentrated largely in the far north, especially Hokianga. Māori benefited from shipbuilding as capital was pumped into the hapu associated with the ship builders. Thomas McDonnell’s shipyard at Te Horeke came under the mana of Te Taonui of Te Mahurehure (New Zealand Historical Atlas).  The Flax trade, which along with timber enhanced the importance of the Whangaroa and Hokianga harbours.  The musket trade.  The trade in dried heads.  Māori visiting Europe.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:  Many Māori embraced most aspects of European life, marrying European men and adopting and adapting their tools, artefacts, and weapons etc. for their own use.  Māori Agency—Māori taking Pākehā goods and ideas, using them for their own reasons and spreading them amongst themselves—an idea would include Christianity.  Disease, due to lack of immunity, at certain times and places.  Musket Wars—20 000 killed. A new type of warfare for the old reasons.  Pākehā involvement in inter-tribal affairs (eg Elizabeth Affair).  A two-way process. eg Pākehā imitated Māori medicine as well as vice versa.  Declaration of Independence – a sneak preview of pan-tribalism.  Māori involvement in the major industries referred to above.  Major changes in Māori population distribution. Major movement of iwi during the 1830s caused by musket wars and the desire for trade.  ‘Conversion’ in its various forms.  Māori literacy.  Contact with Europeans provided a source of mana. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 16 of 21

Topic Two: Essay Two Describe events in New Zealand and elsewhere in the 1830s that changed New Zealand’s race relations and led to the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. Evaluate the influence that the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi had on New Zealand’s race relations in the 1840s and 1850s.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:  Changes in the concern by both Māori and Pākehā over “Lawless Europeans” at Kororareka and other European settlements and Samuel Samuel Marsden’s campaign for Colonial Office intervention.  The Elizabeth Affair and its impact on Māori / Pākehā relations. Captain Stewart and the inability of Ngai Tahu to have him tried in a New South Wales Court because of the ambiguous nature of New Zealand’s international status.  La Favorite entering the harbour at Kororareka and the petition organised by Yate and signed by thirteen chiefs referring to the “tribe of Marion”—a reference to the murder of Marion du Fresne and the subsequent killing of a number of Māori by his crew (1773).  The appointment of James Busby as British resident, a low-cost stopgap measure. His relationship with Māori and the few Pākehā settlers was never positive.  Busby’s arrival, his flag for ships trading from New Zealand, and the Declaration of Independence.  The arrival of Baron de Thierry in Tahiti and then Australia, his letter to Busby and Busby’s belief that there was a French plot to take over New Zealand.  The 1835 Declaration of Independence was a radical action taken by Busby. It was to establish Māori sovereignty. The chiefs were to have a parliament. No one followed the laws of the assembly, so it stopped meeting.  The appointment of James Stephen to run the Colonial Office in London. In 1837, he hired William Hobson to write a report on New Zealand. Hobson came to New Zealand and wrote his report. James Stephen agreed with Hobson that there needed to be a Treaty, but the British Government was reluctant.  The first New Zealand printing press in 1835 and its impact on missionary effectiveness and Māori literacy.  E.G. Wakefield and his philosophy of systematic colonisation forced the hand of the British Government.  The departure of the Tory and the intentions of Wakefield’s New Zealand Company.  The arrival of missionaries and the impact on Maori/Pakeha relations.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:  The hastily drafted, ambiguous, inconsistent and contradictory document led to the Māori and the Crown having totally different understandings of what they had promised each other. Hobson believed that New Zealand had been instantly painted “imperial pink” ie it was British but Māori believed that their Rangitiratanga has been guaranteed.  Evaluation of post-treaty race relations conflicts such as the Wairau Incident, Northern War, and the Waitara dispute, which resulted from misunderstandings of the Treaty and the different expectations that each party had of each other.  A belief by Pākehā that the Treaty was New Zealand’s “Magna Carta” and that New Zealand had become British through the stroke of a pen and a Māori belief that the Treaty preserved their Rangatiratanga over their people and the land. This difference in understanding and expectations placed Māori and Pākehā on a collision course.  Māori dissatisfaction with Treaty breaches as demonstrated through the actions of Hone Heke and Kawiti and the Northern War.  Establishment of Settler Government (and the reduction of the authority of the Governor) by Britain through the 1852 Constitution. which basically disenfranchised Māori.  The establishment of Kingitanga as a response to the perceived unwillingness of the Crown to honour their Treaty promises. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 17 of 21

Topic Two: Essay Three Describe developments in New Zealand’s pastoralism industry in the nineteenth century. Evaluate the economic and political influence that pastoralism had on New Zealanders during this time.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:  Pastoralism began in New Zealand before 1840, with many Māori, whalers, and missionaries raising animals on pasture for trade with people nearby, with visiting ships, and for their own consumption.  Most of the early Pākehā settlers also kept animals for their own use (meat, milk, butter, and cheese) or to raise a small amount of income through small-scale trade.  Wakefield had largely discounted the prospect of large sheep runs. His ideal settlement was a close-knit arable farming community, but the east of both the South and North Islands contained vast areas of native grassland, ideal for pastoral farming.  1600 sheep were taken from Australia to Nelson by Charles Bidwill in 1843 and in 1844 Charles Clifford and Frederick Weld drove 350 sheep from Wellington to the Wairarapa via the coast. Others began taking sheep into Otago and Canterbury in significant numbers.  A drought in Australia in 1850 brought Australian sheep and graziers to New Zealand. By 1870, virtually all the open grassland of New Zealand was being used for large scale pastoralism.  One of the most significant factors that led to the pastoralism boom was that the land for sheep runs didn’t have to be bought outright. It could be leased from provincial government or Māori. This allowed most of the capital to be used to buy sheep.  Wool was the most significant export derived from pastoralism until refrigeration reached New Zealand in the early 1880s. This opened up the export of meat, cheese, and butter and made small-scale farming much more viable.  The first refrigerated ship to carry meat from New Zealand to Britain was the Dunedin. The success of this venture led to the establishing of freezing works throughout New Zealand.  Refrigeration allowed the North Island pastoralism to catch up with the South Island. This shift was also due to sheep disease and the overgrazing of sheep farms in the South. Dairy farms became common throughout the country and especially in Taranaki and Southland.  The Liberal Government in the 1890s assisted the breakup of the great estates in the South Island (most of the land was controlled by a small group of affluent run-holders) in order to put “the small man on the land”. They also passed legislation that led to the alienation of significant amounts of Māori land in the North Island (“the greatest estate of all”) in order to open up the North Island to the dairy industry.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:

Economic impact  Wool was New Zealand’s largest export in the nineteenth century, and the wealth that it created encouraged overseas investment in New Zealand, but New Zealanders usually exported the wool without adding value to it. The New Zealand Historical Atlas shows that in 1881, only 18 percent of the wool that was exported was scoured and only 15 percent was washed. Wool didn’t create many jobs for New Zealanders. The work for shearers was seasonal. The wheat industry provided more work than the wool industry.  Refrigeration did lead to all-year-round employment in the meat and dairy industries.  Pastoralism and especially refrigeration led to the New Zealand economy being very closely tied with Britain’s (Belich refers to the “Protein Bridge”).

Political impact  Pastoralism made Canterbury the most politically powerful province during the Provincial era. Some historians have referred to a “Southern Gentry” made up of run-holders and have shown how this small group of men dominated Canterbury and later national politics.  Political power shifted from the South Island to the North Island as refrigeration (and governments) opened up opportunities for farming in Taranaki and the Waikato and the North Island population increased, ending “middle island ascendancy”. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 18 of 21

Topic Two: Essay Four Describe the major changes that took place in New Zealand’s demographics and settlement patterns in the nineteenth century. Evaluate the influence of these changes on the lives of nineteenth century New Zealanders.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

Changes to Māori population numbers  1800–1840: a period of some decline in Māori population from 1800: estimate of between 86 000–100 000 in 1800 to an estimate of 70 000–90 000 in 1840. Significant depopulation took place in some areas of high contact with Pākehā. As many as 20 000 Māori may have died in the musket wars; others died as result of tuberculosis, the measles, and influenza.  1840–1874: a period of rapid decline in the Māori population (47 330 in 1874) due to epidemics, a drop in Māori fertility rates (a hangover from the males that were killed in the musket wars), increasing numbers of Pākehā, war, and confiscation.  1874–1900: a stabilizing of the Māori population due to increased fertility and increasing immunity.

Pākehā population numbers  In 1840, the Pākehā population was about 2000.  Between 1840 and 1858, there was a steady increase (59 413 in 1858). This was the era of the Wakefield settlements. Young men were also attracted to New Zealand. Some population growth due to natural increase. In 1858, the Māori and Pākehā populations were roughly equal.  1858–1881 saw a very rapid increase in the Pākehā population (487 889 in 1881) due to the gold rush and the implementation of Vogel’s Plan. Natural increase still accounted for 61 percent of the population’s growth.  During the “Long Depression” of the 1880s, there was some much-heralded out-migration. More people left New Zealand than arrived in 1888. Despite this, New Zealand’s population kept growing through natural increase.

North Island or South Island dominance?  Until the 1860s, most people lived in the North Island. Two thirds of the Māori population lived north of Taupo, and most migrants went to either the Wakefield settlements or to Auckland.  1860–1890 was a period of “Middle Island Ascendancy” as the gold rush, pastoralism, and Vogel attracted settlers to the South Island. War in the North Island also helped the growth of the Pākehā population of the South Island.  By 1896, the North Island was dominant again. The effects of the “Long Depression” were more acutely obvious in the South; and the timber industry, refrigeration, and confiscation had opened up the North Island for farming. The last major gold strike was in the Coromandel region.

Rural or Urban?  There was gradual urbanisation of the Pākehā population; but even by 1900, Pākehā New Zealand was still largely rural (54.4 percent in 1901).

Other Settlement Patterns  Until 1840, most Pākehā lived on the coastal North Island. Many were itinerant, and most if not all had a close relationship with Māori. Some were “Pākehā-Māori”. They were missionaries, sealers, whalers, traders or worked in timber industry etc.  1840–1860 saw the development of small-scale coastal settlements. These were the planned Wakefield settlements and Auckland. Pastoralism began in the hinterland beyond these settlements.  1860–1900 was the period of great territorial expansion of much wider Pākehā settlement, with large waves of South Island immigration and the development of inland towns and cities in Waikato, Manawatu, and Taranaki. This Pākehā expansion was largely due to confiscation, refrigeration, the timber industry, and the railways.

Gender  For the whole of the nineteenth century, Pākehā men outnumbered women, although this gradually levelled out as the “womb overtook the ship” as the main determinant of New Zealand’s population. There were 622 females for every 1000 males in 1861 and 900 for every 1000 males in 1901.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:  Disease and war led to significant dislocation for Māori in many areas.  The swamping of the Māori population occurred because of the rapidly increasing size of the Pākehā population. This put pressure on Colonial Governments to take control of Māori land through war and confiscation. Pākehā dominance in population “legitimised” legislation that advantaged settlers over Māori as “democratic”.  The population of the South Island led to “Middle Island Ascendancy” and significant political power to Otago and especially Canterbury during the Provincial era. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 19 of 21

 “Atomisation” – evaluation of Miles Fairburn’s theory of atomisation. The Pākehā population primarily functioning as individuals because of the nature of the immigration experience and the immigrants that New Zealand attracted.  “A Man’s Country” – evaluation of Jock Phillips’ view of nineteenth century New Zealand being a male dominated community (“Truth by numbers”). Perhaps regional statistics are more significant than national statistics when looking at social history. Caversham (Dunedin) and some suburbs of Auckland had more women than men for much of the nineteenth century.  The gradual levelling out of the gender ratio led to the “settling down” of the New Zealand male. The beginning of the end for the “frontier society”.  The importance of land. Because of their rural background and events such as the clearances that they had experienced before migrating to New Zealand, many migrants wanted New Zealand to provide them with an independent living on the land. These immigrants longed for access to the land that they believed was being monopolised by Māori in the North Island and large estate holders in the South.  Because so many of New Zealand’s immigrants came from rural areas and settled in rural areas, they were suspicious of the cities and of work in factories. Many had chosen to come to New Zealand rather than move to British cities. They were determined to make sure that New Zealand didn’t suffer from the “old world evils” that had existed in Britain. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 20 of 21

Topic Two: Essay Five Describe the changes that took place in the rights and roles of women in nineteenth century New Zealand society between 1850 and 1900. Evaluate the influence of these changes on the lives of women by 1900.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:  There was a great variety of women’s experiences in nineteenth century New Zealand. These tended to be dependent on location, age, ethnicity, and class.  The most common role for nineteenth century Pākehā women was as a mother, wife, worker, and “colonial helpmeet”. Marriage opportunities were greater in New Zealand than in Britain because of the imbalance in the genders, but this imbalance and the isolated nature of the frontier society brought problems with it as well. These included loneliness, male alcoholism and violence, diseases, and problems with childbirth.  Marriage laws were discriminatory but improved slightly between 1850 and 1900. Deserted wives gained the “right” to their wages and property in 1860, and the 1884 Married Women’s Property Act gave them the right to the wages and property that they had brought into the marriage.  Until 1898, the Divorce Laws made it much easier for a man to divorce his wife than it was for a woman to divorce her husband.  The Contagious Diseases Act of 1869 legislated for the arrest, inspection for venereal disease, and incarceration of women suspected of being prostitutes. Their male clients were not inspected.  The Education Act of 1877 made schooling compulsory for boys and girls, but the curriculum prepared girls for the domestic sphere.  The “woman question” was the subject of articles and debates in the 1860s and 1870s. Mary Ann Muller (Femina), Mary Taylor, and Mary Colclough (Polly Plum) were key writers about women’s rights. In particular, they focused on the injustices of inequalities between women and men before the law and within the constitution.  1850–1900 saw some challenging of women’s roles, eg some questioning of women’s subordinate position in marriage, arguing for schools for girls, establishing cycling clubs, women entering the paid workforce, women’s trade unions (Tailoresses Union), the emergence of the Rational Dress Movement.  Concerns over alcohol abuse advanced the programme for prohibition and temperance.  Women’s suffrage – finally won in 1893. Entry of women into political sphere.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:  Towards the end of the century, some women made it in the workplace despite the patriarchal society (eg Kate Edger, Elizabeth Yates, and Ethel Benjamin) but the majority of women were in a limited range of jobs, most of which were related to their accepted domestic roles.  Rutherford Waddell’s sermon, the Sweating Commission and the Liberal legislation (Factory Acts, Shop and Shop Assistants Act) that resulted helped women improve their working conditions.  Development of trade unions such as the Tailors and Tailoresses Union helped improve pay and working conditions for women.  Very few women had economic independence from men.  Women were appointed to sit on Charitable Aid Board.  Old Age Pensions (1898) were NOT determined by gender (but the amount was rather stingy and Māori received only about half what Pākehā got!)  There was still a double standard in attitudes to sex.  Success of female suffrage by 1900 – 78 percent of women registered for the 1893 election and 85 percent (90 000) of these voted. Only 70 percent of men on the roll voted. The Liberals were elected.  Female voting patterns don’t appear to have been much different to those of men, but male politicians did start to take note of issues concerning women and families.  Meri Mangakahia sought rights for Māori women through Kotahitanga; in 1895, Te Hauke enabled Māori women to discuss land matters / equal rights for women within Kotahitanga.  The franchise movement of the 1880s-90s led to wider debate on the comparative physical and intellectual capabilities of men and women and their social positions.  Although women won the right to vote in 1893, they were not able to stand as parliamentary candidates until 1919.  The National Council of Women was set up in 1896 to agitate for further improvements and a broadening of women’s rights.  Infant Life Protection Act (1896).  The Married Women’s Property Act improved the situation of women but was still well short of equality.  Divorce Act Reform (1898) gave equal access to divorce for men and women.  Factory Act (1896). NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2006 — page 21 of 21

Topic Two: Essay Six Describe the developments that took place in New Zealand’s transport and communications between 1860 and 1900. Evaluate the influence of these developments on the lives of nineteenth century New Zealanders.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:  The first railway in New Zealand was in Christchurch, which was the only major settlement without direct access to the sea. The Superintendent of the Canterbury Province, William Moorhouse (“Railway Billy”), then went on to organise the Lyttelton rail tunnel. This line was opened for passenger transport on 9 December 1867.  Between 1863 and 1870, other provinces also built railways (often with different gauges). From 1870, Central Government (Vogel’s Plan) built most of the railways and they standardised the construction and the equipment.  The building of railways was often the subject of “pork barrelled politics” as politicians campaigned for railways to go through their town or to their region. The route of the North Island Main Trunk Line was eventually decided by a special Select Committee of South Island MHRs.  There was the odd attempt by private companies to invest in railways. The most successful private line ran from Manawatu to Wellington. This was purchased by the Government in 1908. This completed the North Island Main Trunk Line.  The Christchurch to Lyttelton telegraph line was completed in 1861. The Cook Strait Cable was laid in 1866 and by the 1880s, the telegraph network reached across the West Coast and Nelson from Canterbury. From 1876, there was a telegraph connection to Sydney and from there to other parts of the globe.  New Zealand’s first telephone was connected in 1881. By 1900, there were 7150 subscribers and twenty exchanges.  In 1860 there were 107 Post Offices in New Zealand. By 1900 there were 1700. In 1881 New Zealanders posted 22 800 000 pieces of mail.  The development of roads and bridges.  Coastal shipping, steamships from the 1870s, coach services.  Steamship services to the USA were greatly improved as the Union Steamship Company based in Dunedin / Port Chalmers and the New Zealand Shipping Company (based in Christchurch) emerged as major players.  The development of Public Works is a key feature of Belich’s ‘progress industry’ – progressive colonisation on the ground.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:  Increased urbanisation and issues associated with urbanisation – the fear of “Old World Evils”.  Steam and rail significantly reduced the amount of time that it took to travel between Dunedin and Auckland. In 1859, this journey took 360 hours (15 days) by boat. This was reduced to 132 hours (5½ days) by 1879 with a combination of boat and train and further reduced to 74 hours (3 days) by 1898. (There’s an excellent graphic of this on Plate 52 of the New Zealand Historical Atlas).  The ability to travel more quickly between the major centres made New Zealanders feel more like a nation and less like a series of individual settlements.  The development of transport and communications by Central Government gave Central Government great credibility among New Zealanders. This led to the abolition of the Provincial Government system. The development of shipping, roads, bridges and railways made national politics viable—ie an MHR could now represent his electorate and still get to Wellington for Parliamentary sittings.  Improved transport and communications led to the development of a national economy.  The international cable and improved shipping services helped plug New Zealand into the global village, breaking down isolation and greatly improving the standard of newspapers.  The extent of the borrowing in the 1870s, originally £10 million, eventually £20 million, gave New Zealand the highest per capita debt of any British colony.  State postal and telegraphic services and railways became large employers.  Impact on Māori of the North Island Main Trunk Line going through the King Country.  Refrigerated shipping led to the development of the “protein bridge” between New Zealand and Britain and transformed the New Zealand economy.

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