Running Head: A COMPARATIVE STUDY AND ANALYSIS

A Comparative Study and Analysis 1

A Comparative Study and Analysis of Three Educational/Psychological Theorists

Thomas E. Crawford

Northern Arizona University A Comparative Study and Analysis 2

Abstract

Many theories of teaching/learning have been developed. Three of the significant theories are those of Jean Piaget, Benjamin Bloom, and Howard Gardner. The three performed their research and developed their theories in very different contemporary settings. As such, there is both similarity and dissimilarity between them. The theorists have been compared and contrasted for the purpose of discovering those similarities and dissimilarities. Interesting patterns emerged, notably, de facto parallels despite semantic differences, and an evolution of philosophy. An examination of current practice in my own classrooms is also included. A Comparative Study and Analysis 3

A Comparative Study and Analysis of Three Educational/Psychological Theorists

There have been many teaching and learning theories developed and utilized over the last

100 – 200 years. Some share commonalities and some differ greatly in their scope and method.

Jean Piaget, Benjamin Bloom, and Howard Gardner developed three of the more prevalent theoretical models. At the surface, these theories appear disparate. However, upon closer examination similarities begin to emerge. Furthermore, what may appear as a simple divergence in thought may in fact be an outright refutation of one’s theory by another. The objective of this paper is to introduce each theorist’s concept and then examine their similarities and differences.

Jean Piaget

Piaget’s theory included four distinct stages of cognitive development, each dependant upon physiological development and experience. He assigned chronological age ranges for each stage, expressing that each stage is necessary but exact age may vary. (Hughes, 2005)

These four stages are, in order:

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - two years) In this stage, children behave impulsively and perception is dependant upon what is occurring at the moment.

The Preoperational Stage (two- seven years) Still firmly rooted in the present, children in this stage may envision future events and ponder past events. They “have difficulty distinguishing fantasy from reality.” (Schunk, 2004, p.449)

The Concrete Operational Stage (seven – eleven years) This stage is marked by significant cognitive development. There is some increase in abstract thought.

The Formal Operational Stage (eleven – adult) In this stage children are increasingly able to think in hypothetical terms. They tend toward a new, comparative type egocentrism. A Comparative Study and Analysis 4

Benjamin Bloom

Bloom’s taxonomy contains “three overlapping domains” (Lamb & Johnson, 2003) the first of which (cognitive) contains six levels.

Bellis (n.d.) described those levels in developmental order:

Knowledge – “the remembering of previously learned material.” This is the lowest level

of the cognitive domain.

Comprehension – “the ability to grasp the meaning of material and goes just beyond the

knowledge level.” This is the lowest level of understanding.

Application – “…refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete

principles and theories.” This level calls for greater understanding than comprehension.

Analysis – learning outcomes require an understanding of both the content and the

structural form of material.

Synthesis – “…refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole.” Learning

requires creativity and the “formulation of new patterns or structures.

Evaluation – “…the ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose.” Learning

in this area is dependant upon, or contains the previous elements.

Howard Gardner

Gardner is best known for his theory of multiple intelligences. He identified seven intelligences (but has since identified at least two more). The first seven are grouped into three areas: the first two sometimes known as the school-type, the next three associated with the arts, and the last two he termed “personal intelligences.” (Smith, 2002)

The list of intelligences is as follows:

Linguistic Intelligence – The ability to interpret written and spoken language, the capacity to A Comparative Study and Analysis 5 be taught languages, and the ability to utilize language to achieve objectives.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence – The capacities to logically analyze problems, perform mathematical operations, and examine problems scientifically.

Musical Intelligence – This involves skills in “performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.” (Smith, 2002)

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence – The ability to use one’s “whole body or parts of the body to solve problems.” (Smith, 2002)

Spatial Intelligence - The aptitude to distinguish and utilize patterns in large spaces and small areas.

Interpersonal Intelligence – The ability to understand other people and their motives. This ability affords one to interact well with others.

Intrapersonal Intelligence – The ability for people to understand themselves, in much the same way that Interpersonal Intelligence operates in relationships with others.

Gardner has seen knowledge as what one uses to resolve problems, and potentially finding or creating new problems, “thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.”

(Matrisciano, 2001) He also saw the distinction between humans and lower forms of life as “the ability to use symbols.” (Matrisciano, 2001)

Comparisons

Of the three theorists, two appear more similar and one appears most dissimilar. Piaget’s stages and Bloom’s taxonomy both are sequentially based while Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is not. In the case of Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development the “Sequence

…is invariant.” (Coon, 1989, p.1) Similarly, in Blooms taxonomy, “each subsequent level depends upon the student’s ability to perform at the level or levels that precede it.” (Eisner, A Comparative Study and Analysis 6

2004, p.3) The implication, then, is that no one can think, behave, or learn at a level beyond that to which they have progressed. For many, this appears perfectly logical. However, Gardner disputed this theoretical model. He challenged the cognitive development work of Piaget, presenting evidence to show that at any one time a child may be at very different stages (for example, in number development and spatial/visual maturation). (Smith, 2002)

In this, Gardner has contradicted the theory of necessary sequence. Furthermore, his disagreement goes beyond that of sequence. His “intelligences” are not dependant upon physiological development as were Piaget’s “stages.” “Piaget took for granted that the development of the intellect was as linear as the development of the body. (Matrisciano, 2001, p.2) Gardner saw the existence of “idiot savants and child prodigies” (Matrisciano, 2001, p.3) as further challenges to Piaget’s theory of linearity.

Interestingly, despite the obvious similarities between Piaget and Bloom (especially in the area of linearity) Bloom and Gardner may display more similarity. While Bloom did not seem to share Gardner’s view of separate intelligences, (he preferred to believe that “even world-famous high-achieving adults…were seldom regarded as child prodigies …They realized goals born of guidance and effort rather than raw genetic capacity.”) (Eisner, 2004, p.5) he did recognize that some individuals, idiot savants for example, had special abilities. The job of the educator, then, is to provide an environment conducive to each student’s aptitude. (Eisner, 2004) While not an open acknowledgement of the existence of multiple intelligences (indeed, the preponderance of

Bloom’s work predates that of Gardner) his illustration of individual aptitudes is comparable to

Gardner’s individual intelligences. Moreover, Bloom acknowledged the theory of giftedness.

While this concept was problematic for Bloom - he was concerned that educators would be more engaged in identifying giftedness over its development - he nonetheless recognized gifts as part A Comparative Study and Analysis 7 of human ability. The difference between Bloom and Gardner in this regard is largely semantic.

Bloom refers to giftedness, while Gardner refers to intelligences.

As we examine these three theorists, interesting relationships come into view. While at first

Gardner appears to be the “odd man out,” upon further analysis, Bloom virtually emerges as a bridge between the theories of Piaget and those of Gardner.

Educational theories are constantly evolving. As theorists continually research education and learning, the understanding of human intelligence becomes ever clearer. Some theories fall away, some modified. When connections are discovered between theories, it can validate both.

Current Practice

In my lower grade classrooms, I am primarily operating with the concept of Bloom’s taxonomy while in the upper grades I recognize Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences. In the early grades, the process is slow, moving in small steps through the first three of Bloom’s levels until there is sufficient learning to progress to Analysis. Pace then quickens. Music theory becomes important; the student must be able to decode a complex language. When a student has played for about two years, they move into the Synthesis level.

When a music student has played for about a year, it becomes evident if that student truly possesses Musical Intelligence. Prior to that, the playing of an instrument is largely an exercise in technique. Moving beyond technique (irrespective of a student’s facility) requires Musical

Intelligence. It does require a trained musician to recognize it in a student, though often others

(teachers, counselors, parents) may suspect it is present.

URL of the Graphic Organizer: http://dana.ucc.nau.edu/~tec38/etc547/theorists.html A Comparative Study and Analysis 8

References

Bellis, Mary (n.d.). Benjamin Bloom’s model of critical thinking. Retrieved July 12, 2005 from

http://inventors.about.com/library/lessons/bl_benjamin_bloom.htm

Coon, D. (1989). Piaget’s Cognitive Stages. In Introduction to psychology, exploration and

application: St. Paul: West Publishing Company. Retrieved from

http://www.noteaccess.com/APPROACHES/ArtEd/ChildDev/PiagetCogS.htm

Eisner, E. W. (2004). Benjamin Bloom 1913 – 99. UNESCO: International Bureau of

Education, vol. XXX, (no. 3). Retrieved July 12, 2005 from http://www.cyc-net.org/cyc-

online/cycol-0404-bloom.html

Hughes, S. (2005). Jean Piaget’s educational theory. Retrieved July 12, 2005 from

http://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Piaget.htm

Lamb, A. & Johnson, L. (2003). Critical and creative thinking – Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved

July 12, 2005 from http://eduscap[es.com/tap/topic69.htm

Matrisciano, M. (2001). Howard Gardner’s educational theory. Retrieved July 12, 2005 from

http://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Gardner.htm

Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories, an educational perspective. Upper Saddle River, New

Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Smith, M.K. (2002). Howard Gardner and multiple intelligences. In The Encyclopedia of

Informal Education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm A Comparative Study and Analysis 9

The Peer Review Reflection Form

1. What are the strong aspects of your paper?

A wide variety of good references, each with unique viewpoints. Salient comparisons.

2. How do you want to improve your paper if you have more time to work on it?

I would like to be able to explore Gardner’s study of both Piaget and Bloom, noting in greater depth his research and opinions of each. As always, keeping to five pages is a difficult task.

3. In what aspects did you help your peers to improve their papers?

My team wrote excellent papers. My help consisted mostly of APA formatting details and suggestions for references.

4. In what aspects did your peers help you to improve your papers? I missed several APA formatting details as well as having omitted an important section of the paper.

5. What are the things that you may not learn without the peer reviewing process? It is easy to miss the finer points of writing, especially with the requirements of APA style.