CHAPTER 11 EMERGING FORMS OF VIOLENCE

Pre-Lecture You Are the Criminologist Time: 5–10 minutes Discussion Note: Facilitate the review of this lesson’s major topics by using the review questions as direct questions or PowerPoint slides. Answers are found throughout this lesson plan and at the end of the chapter.

This activity focuses students on the realities of being a criminologist. Purpose This exercise creates dialogue for students to apply concepts learned in this chapter to real world events. Instructor Directions 1. Direct students to read the “You Are the Criminologist” scenario at the beginning of Chapter 11 (page 304). 2. You might wish to assign students to a partner or a group. Direct them to review the discussion questions at the end of the scenario and prepare a response to each question. Facilitate a class dialogue centered on the discussion questions. 3. You may also use this as an individual activity and ask students to turn in their comments on a separate piece of paper, noting how they came to their conclusions.

Lecture Time: Two 50-minute sessions Slides: 1–36 (first session), 37–74 (second session) I. Introduction A. Crimes emerging only in the sense of our increasing awareness of them B. Less common forms of violence 1. Domestic violence 2. Hate crimes 3. Terrorism 4. Multicides C. Do not share a common thread of motivation D. Not easily profiled E. Increasingly in need of social control II. Domestic Violence A. Overview 1. Purpose of the family: provide emotionally warm and safe place for all its members 2. Public awareness of domestic violence fairly recent phenomenon 3. Increasingly defined as a social and criminal problem in need of formal social control 4. Difficult to control/estimate a. Occurs outside of the public eye b. Among the least reported crimes (1) Fear of reprisal (2) Not wanting the abuser to get in trouble (3) Not defining the behavior as abusive (4) Not wanting others to find out (5) Feeling as though nothing can be done B. Intimate partner abuse 1. Types a. Spousal abuse b. Child abuse c. Elder abuse d. Sibling abuse e. Any abuse of current or former heterosexual or homosexual intimate partners 2. Alternative terms a. “Domestic abuse” (1) Often assumed to be synonymous with spousal abuse (2) Criticism of this term (a) Ignores the gendered nature of the problem (the majority of the victims are women and the offenders are men) (b) Ignores violence between couples who are not living together (c) Ignores nonviolent abuse b. “Spousal abuse”—ignores violence among dating couples and same-sex partner violence c. “Intimate partner abuse”—most inclusive term 3. Forms a. Physical battering and intimidation b. Sexual battering c. Psychological battering (includes verbal abuse and threats) d. Destruction of property and pets e. Any other aggressive act towards an intimate or formal intimate 4. Estimates of intimate partner abuse a. National Violence Against Women victimization survey (1) 22% of women (2) 7% of men b. Bureau of Justice: more than 960,000 violent victimizations of women c. Current decline (unsure whether actual abuse or just reporting of intimate partner abuse declined) 5. Racial, ethnicity, and class differences a. African-Americans and lower-class people overrepresented in official statistics (1) Racial and class bias on the part of law enforcement and the criminal justice system (2) Lack of access to better resources (e.g., therapists, civil lawyers) b. Exists across all racial, ethnic, and class lines 6. Patterns in intimate partner abuse a. Controlling behaviors (includes controlling finances, dress, and time) b. Fear and intimidation (includes displaying or discharging weapons) c. Manipulation (includes acts of coercion) d. Excessive rule making (includes curfews or prohibitions) e. Isolation (includes forced physical isolation or isolation from friends and family) 7. Theories a. Intergenerational transmission of violence (1) Observed or experienced childhood violence increases the likelihood of intimate partner abuse or victimization as an adult (2) Supported by research b. Social stress (1) Stress is caused by lack of access to money, housing, education, and employment, and it leads people to commit intimate partner abuse. (2) Proponents assume that violence occurs mainly in low-income families. (3) Research shows that violence cuts across all classes, and higher-class violence is more likely to be hidden. c. Feminist theories (1) Focus is on male domination. (2) Men’s use of violence against women arises from men’s power over women in the family and in society. (3) Men have been socialized to be aggressive and even encouraged to use violence to keep women in line. (4) Evidence does suggest that intimate partner abuse is more prevalent in patriarchal societies. (5) Criticism: cannot explain same-sex violent relationships between women or female violence directed at males. 8. Criminal justice response a. History (1) Laws condoned intimate partner abuse by a husband against his wife. (2) Church law: “women were ‘subject to their men’ and need to be corrected through castigation or punishment.” (3) Napoleonic Civil Code: absolute power in the family to the head male member and recognized only attempted murder as violence. (4) British Common Law: “rule of thumb” allowed men to beat their wives with sticks as long as they were no bigger than the thickness of their thumb. (5) United States: (a) Puritan policy against wife beating (only punished informally) (b) Belief that intimate partner abuse is a personal matter (c) Minimal action by police and court personnel (6) Domestic violence rarely addressed by the criminal justice system in any formal or meaningful way. b. Modern response (1) Influences (a) Pressure from feminists and battered women’s advocates (b) Lawsuits against criminal justice personnel alleging inadequate responses to intimate partner abuse (c) New research concerning police response (2) Mandatory and presumptive arrest policies (3) Continues to be room for improvement C. Stalking 1. Overview a. General definition: willful, repeated, and malicious following, harassing, or threatening of another person (legal definitions differ from state to state) b. Estimated 200,000 to 1.4 million annually in the United States 2. Typologies a. Michael Zona (1) Erotomanic (a) Believe they are passionately loved by their stalking victims (b) Most often stalk people whom they do not know except through the media, entertainment, and/or politics (2) Love obsessional (a) May also hold the delusional belief that they are passionately loved by their stalking victims (b) Often delusional about other issues in their lives (c) Stalk people they do not know (3) Simple obsessional (a) Prior relationship with their victims (b) Start stalking when the relationship ends or they perceive some sort of mistreatment on the part of the stalking victim b. Roberts and Dziegielewski (1) Nuisance stalker (someone who continually targets and harasses the victim) (2) Domestic stalker (3) Erotomanic stalker (4) Delusional stalker c. R. M. Holmes (1) The celebrity stalkersimilar to the erotomanic or delusional stalker (2) The lust stalkera sexual stalker who stalks strangers who possess certain characteristics because of a depraved sense of sexual lust (3) The hit stalkera stalker who is hired by someone to kill someone else (4) The love-scorned stalkerstalkers who want and think that they have a relationship with a known victim (5) The domestic stalkerstalkers who are currently or were previously intimately involved with the victim (6) The political stalkerstalkers who stalk political personalities for the sake of expressing their political ideology 3. Relationships between stalkers and their victims a. Strangers b. Acquaintances c. Intimates or former intimates (domestic stalking) (1) Most common (80%) (2) High correlation with stalking and intimate partner abuse (80%) (3) More likely to threaten or be violent with their victims (4) More likely to make person-to-person harassing contact (5) Stalking may be precipitated by a single event (e.g., end of relationship) (a) Victims particularly vulnerable when partners try to win them back and/or control their behaviors (Coleman, 1997) (b) Separation assault (most vulnerable when a relationship is ending) 4. Stalking behaviors a. Coleman, 1997 (1) Violent behavior stalkers (a) Broke into or attempted to break into the victim’s home or car (b) Violated restraining orders (c) Threatened, attempted, or did physical harm to the victim (d) Physically harmed or threatened to harm themselves (e) Stole/read mail (f) Damaged property of victim’s new partner (2) Harassing behavior stalkers (a) Called the victim at home, work, or school (b) Followed or watched the victim (c) Made hang-up calls (d) Came unwanted to the home, work, or school of the victim (e) Sent unwanted gifts, letters, or photos (f) Left unwanted messages on the answering machine (g) Made threats against or harmed the victim’s new partner b. Meloy, 1996 (1) Sending of aggressive letters (2) Unwanted following (3) Property damage (4) Annoying phone calls (5) Assaults (6) Gift giving c. Burgess (1) Written and verbal communications (2) Unsolicited and unrecognized claims of romantic involvement on the part of the victims (3) Surveillance (4) Harassment (5) Loitering (6) Intense fear and psychological distress to the victim 5. Cyberstalking (Emma Oglivie, J. A. Hitchcock) a. Forms (1) E-mail stalking (a) Using e-mail to initiate stalking behavior (b) Direct communication through e-mail (2) Internet stalking (communication through the general format of the Internet) (3) Computer stalking (involves computer control that may employ viruses) b. Anonymity of the perpetrators c. Tracing the suspects very difficult for law enforcement 6. Motivation a. Types (1) Control (i.e., need to control the victim or the desire to reestablish a relationship) (2) Obsession (3) Jealousy (4) Revenge (5) Anger b. Research (U.S. Department of Justice) (1) 21% said that the stalkers wanted to control them (2) 20% said that the stalker wanted to keep them in the relationship (3) 16% said that the stalker wanted to scare them (4) 12% unsure (5) 7% said that the stalker was mentally ill or abusing drugs/alcohol (6) 5% said that the stalker liked or wanted attention (7) 1% said that the stalker wanted to catch the victims doing something 7. Correlation with psychological and physical abuse 8. Criminal justice response a. All states have antistalking statutes b. Majority of stalking in the context of intimate partner abuse cases addressed through domestic violence laws D. Child abuse 1. Forms a. Nonaccidental physical injury b. Sexual abuse or exploitation c. Emotional or psychological injury d. Neglect or maltreatment to a person under the age of 18 years (or the age specified by the law of the state) 2. Prevalence a. Difficult to determine (1) Many victims too young to communicate (2) Embarrassed/afraid to report (3) Reluctance to get involved in a family matter b. 1995 survey (1) 1.8 million adolescents (12–17) sexually assaulted (2) 3.9 million adolescents severely physically assaulted (3) 2.1 adolescents experienced physical punishment (4) Girls more likely to report sexual assaults (5) Boys more likely to report physical assaults c. Official statistics (1) Most likely to be committed by acquaintances who do not take care of the children (63% of reported) (2) Parents and other caretakers (19%) (3) Strangers (10%) 3. Race and class differences: some studies show higher risk for African- American children 4. Negative consequences a. Greater risk of aggressive behavior themselves, PTSD, conduct disorders, anxiety, depression, and suicide b. Intergenerational transmission 5. Theories of explanation a. Perpetrator experienced or observed violence b. Presence of unrelated adults in the home (1) Connection between stepparents and child abuse (2) Stepparents may have less emotional attachment (3) More likely to report abuse to solve problems or express their frustration c. Isolation and alienation (1) Do not have a support system to deal with stress (2) May be more likely to resort to abuse 6. Criminal justice response a. Children historically regarded as the property of their parents (parents could do as they saw fit) b. Child labor laws c. Juvenile court system d. Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (1974) (1) Federal funding at the state level for prevention and response to child abuse (2) Helped establish child abuse statutes in which parents may be prosecuted for abusing their children III. Pedophilia A. Definition: unnatural desire for sexual relations with children B. Characteristics of pedophiles 1. Categories (Burgess) a. Fixated pedophile—never moves beyond the attraction he or she felt for children when he or she was a child b. Regressed pedophile—often turns to children in response to stressful life events (e.g., domestic problems, job pressures) c. Mysoped—makes the ritual connection between fatal sexual violence and personal gratification (abducts children for the purpose of torturing and eventually killing them to achieve sexual gratification) 2. Age and sex specific a. Pedophile: prefer children of a certain sex and within a certain age cohort, under 15 or 16 years old b. Hebephile: desires an erotic relationship with a child between puberty and approximately age 15 years 3. Common backgrounds a. Not close to their fathers b. Came from homes where alcohol was a problem c. Weak verbal skills d. Close feelings with their mothers 4. Derive sexual gratification from child pornography C. Treatment of pedophiles 1. Pedophiles are more difficult to treat than other sex offenders 2. Statewide sex offender registries a. Inform the community b. Act as a deterrent c. No evidence yet of effect on recidivism 3. Physiological assessment of sexual arousal D. Law enforcement approach to pedophilia 1. Focus on ways to predict pedophiliac behavior 2. Fighting trafficking of minors a. Interdisciplinary task force (law enforcement and social service agencies) b. Vigorous investigation by the criminal justice system IV. Hate crimes A. Overview 1. Definition a. Intentional selection of a victim based on race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation b. Motivated by prejudice (not greed, jealousy, anger, politics, etc.) 2. National Hate Crime Law (1993) 3. Statistics (Uniform Crime Report) a. 7,489 hate crime incidents in 2003 b. 50% race c. 18% religion d. 17% sexual orientation e. 13% ethnicity/national orientation f. 1% disability 4. Types of hate crimes (Levin and McDevitt) a. Thrill-seeking hate crimes (1) Sadistic thrill: inflicting pain and suffering on those they hate is the reward (2) Not necessarily a precipitating event b. Reactive hate crimes (1) Use a precipitating event to serve as a catalyst to express anger (2) Justify acts by arguing that they were protecting their community from outsiders (3) Almost always takes place in the perpetrators’ neighborhood, school, or workplace c. Mission hate crimes (1) Rarest form (2) Perpetrators often psychotic (3) Belief that their mission is to rid the world of evil by attacking members of a despised group 5. Hate groups a. Direct violence against an undesirable group of people based on that group’s skin color, ethnic background, religion, or sexual orientation b. Often believe that they are chosen people and are doing the work of God in their perpetration of violence B. Ku Klux Klan 1. Founded 1865 2. Targeted African-Americans a. Hanged b. Burned c. Lynched d. Beaten e. Raped f. Harassed g. Intimidated 3. Ku Klux Klan Act (1871) a. Established severe penalties for these criminal acts b. Forced the Klan to operate in a more clandestine fashion 4. History a. End of the Civil War to 1915 (1) Newly freed blacks began to prosper under Reconstruction. (2) Resentful whites responded with a campaign of terror to restore the pre-Civil War social and economic order. b. 1915 to WWII (1) William Simmons launched a campaign of hate directed at Catholics and Jews. (2) Blacks became a lesser, but not an ignored, target of violence. c. After World War II to modern era (1) Brutal attacks in response to civil rights and desegregation (2) 1980s: leaders were arrested, prosecuted, and incarcerated for their illegal activities (3) Membership declining C. Identity churches 1. White supremacy: believe they are the chosen people and are therefore naturally superior to all other races 2. Hatred and violence towards Jews (see them as responsible for America’s economic problems) 3. Early leader—Dr. Wesley Swift 4. Branches a. Aryan Nations (1) Founded by Richard Butler in Hayden Lake, Idaho (2) Draws on the precepts of Butler’s Church of Jesus Christ Christian (3) Focuses violence on Jews and African-Americans b. Posse Comitatus (1) Latin for “power of the county” (2) Believes that the federal government has no rightful control (3) Refuse to observe the laws of the state or federal government, including a refusal to pay taxes (4) Enforce local laws by carrying guns and rifles c. The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord (CSA) (1) Paramilitary group based in Missouri and Arkansas (2) Believed that the country was drifting inexorably toward a complete economic failure (3) Trained its followers in military preparedness (4) Disbanded in the mid-1980s after an attack on a courthouse in Missouri and the murder of an Arkansas state trooper d. Christian-Patriot Defense League (1) Centered in Louisville, Illinois (2) Ultraconservative survivalist group immersed in military training (3) Maintain a constant state of military preparedness for inevitable war (4) Mission: to alert patriots of the impending catastrophe of the coming of the Anti-Christ and to be prepared to deal with it e. The Order (“The Silent Brotherhood”) (1) Underground arm of Aryan Nation (2) Major goal of overthrowing the U.S. government, often referred to as the “Zionist Occupation Government” (3) Believes Jews are responsible for all of America’s social and economic ills and must be eliminated (4) Encourages the assassination of public officials, including police, judges, bankers, business leaders, and journalists who are sympathetic to Jews f. The Committee of the States (loosely the same beliefs as the Posse Comitatus) (1) Power belongs to the base political unit, the county (2) Courts are operating under martial law in opposition to the ideals of the Founding Fathers (3) Government laws inferior to group D. Skinheads 1. History a. Originally a British subculture group that emerged in the 1960s b. Values of the struggling working class c. Expressed dislike of government and big business 2. Reborn as a racist and extremely political organization (neo-Nazi skinheads) 3. Not all skinheads engage in hate crimes or violent acts 4. FBI categories a. Criminally motivated b. Hate motivated 5. Ultimate goal: to eradicate target minorities (Jews, blacks, other minorities) from the face of the earth to ensure white power and white supremacy 6. Recruitment increased since September 11, 2001 E. Responding to hate crimes 1. Hate crime legislation a. Substantive crimes (1) Based on the Anti-Defamation League’s Model Hate Crime Law (2) Separate “intimidation” offense is added to the criminal statutes b. Sentence enhancements: upgrade an existing offense or increase the penalty for offenses that are found to be motivated by prejudice c. Reporting statutes: require states to collect data on hate crimes in order to generate statistics on the problem 2. Justifications for creating specialized responses a. Crime can be expected to have special effects on the victim. b. Hate crimes have deleterious effects on communities. c. Expression of bias in this type of crime is separable from the crime itself. V. Terrorism A. Definition: the premeditated, deliberate, systematic murder, mayhem, and threatening of the innocent to create fear and intimidation in order to gain a political or tactical advantage, usually to influence an audience B. Types of terrorists 1. Revolutionary a. Ultimate goal: replace the existing government with one they support b. Use violence to frighten those in power c. Example: Palestinian Liberation Organization 2. Political a. Violence towards outsiders, people or groups who oppose the terrorists’ political ideology b. Examples (1) Oklahoma City bombings (2) Ku Klux Klan (3) Aryan Nations 3. Nationalist a. Promote the interests of a minority group persecuted under majority rule b. Focus on ethnic or religious groups 4. Cause-based a. Violence used by groups who espouse a particular cause b. Examples (1) Osama Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda (2) Antiabortion groups (3) Animal Liberation Front (4) Earth First! (radical environmental protection group) 5. State sponsored a. Governmental regime uses terror (1) Force citizens into obedience (2) Oppresses certain groups (3) Squash political dissent b. Examples (1) Iraq (2) Iran (3) Sudan 6. Other distinctions a. Domestic and international terrorism b. Enforcement and agitational c. Instrumental, demonstrative, prophylactic, and incidental C. Incidence of terrorism 1. Increased dramatically since the mid-1960s 2. Most common methods a. Armed attack (46%) b. Bombing (29%) c. Kidnapping (16%) d. Assault (4%) e. Suicide bomb (3%) f. Other (2%) g. Arson (1%) 3. U.S. interests primary target in 10% of worldwide incidents 4. Reasons for increase a. Political issues b. Increased access to modern transportation (Wayne Kerstetter) c. Modern communication technology D. Characteristics of terrorism 1. To be effective, it must generate a high level of fear within the intended audience. 2. Terrorists must be willing to wield some form of formidable power for a particular purpose for which they are willing to die. 3. The terrorist act must be cost effective and, as a form of nonverbal communication, must get across the group’s ideological point. 4. Shared goals and behavioral experiences (Daniel Goleman): a. Life-threatening experience in youth, such as disease or war (may have blunted their sense of vulnerability and led them to deny the risk of death) b. Sense of anomie due to social/personal conditions (emotionally and psychologically attach themselves to an ideology that parallels their own needs and offers them a potential solution c. Mainly young, unmarried males d. Make calculated moves to bring attention to the perceived injustices e. Psychosis (1) Anthony Cooper: typical terrorist is either a criminal or a psychopath but not a psychotic (2) Others disagree (3) Terrorist may suffer from depression and despair over a perceived lack of self-worth f. Strentz (1) Leader of a leftist terrorist group (a) Either male or female (b) 25–40 years old (c) Some college education (d) Middle class (e) Urban and sophisticated (f) Speaks several languages (g) Dedicated and professional political activist (2) Foreign terrorists: tend to be male and slightly older g. Cultural factors (Luigi Bonanati) (1) Terrorism as one of only a few strategies open to persons outside of a major power to focus world attention on their plight h. Gwynn Nettler (1) No rules: consciously violate all conventions (2) No innocents: fight the unjust system, which includes all people within that system who do not side with them (3) Economy: frighten tens of thousands or even millions of people by a single act (4) Publicity: seek publicity, which in turn encourages more terrorism (5) Individual therapy: find their acts to be enjoyable or therapeutic; fighting for a just cause gives purpose to a life that is otherwise meaningless (6) Varied objectives: seek to acquire or exercise power E. Response to terrorism 1. World’s responses to terrorism a. SWAT teams b. Hostage negotiation squads c. Perceived hardening of the judiciary system’s attitude toward terrorism d. Increased security at airports, train stations, and public facilities 2. Cooperation among all major world powers—Anti-Terrorism Assistance Program (U.S. Department of State) a. Enhancing the antiterrorism skills of participating countries b. Strengthening the bilateral ties of the United States with friendly countries c. Fostering an increased respect for human rights by sharing modern, humane, and effective antiterrorism techniques with international civil authorities 3. Department of Homeland Security: coordinates the efforts of law enforcement agencies, especially at the federal level, to combat terrorism 4. USA Patriot Act a. Funding for counterterrorist activity b. Enhanced technical support c. Broadens the government’s ability to collect electronic evidence d. Provides guidelines for detaining terrorists e. Gives the FBI greater power to perform warrantless seizures f. Criticism: infringement on American citizens’ rights VI. Multicide A. Mass murder 1. Definition: killing of a number of people at one time and in one place 2. Characteristics of mass murderers a. Tend to kill in the area where they reside b. Survivalist model (Park Dietz) (1) Males (2) Problem drinkers (3) Depressive personalities (4) Collectors of firearms, hand grenades, and silencers (5) Survivalist mentality (6) Expectation of approaching global catastrophe 3. Typology of mass murderers (Dietz) a. Family annihilator (1) Senior male in the household (2) Drinking problem/depression (3) Murders each member in the household (sometimes even the family pets) (4) Takes his own life or “forces” the police to kill him b. Pseudocommando (1) Preoccupied with firearms (2) Deliberates for quite a while before committing his crime (3) Usually killed by the police at the scene c. Set-and-run killer (1) No intention of dying (2) May set a bomb in a building or an automobile and then either watch the explosion from a distance or immediately leave the scene (3) May have only one victim in mind, with no concern for the others who die incidentally (4) Varied motivation (a) Revenge (b) Anger (c) Money (d) Ideology B. Serial murder 1. Definition: refers to the killing of a number of people (usually three or more) over the course of more than a month 2. Examples a. Ted Bundy b. Randy Craft c. John Wayne Gacy d. David Berkowitz e. Arthur Shawcross f. Gary L. Ridgeway, the “Green River Killer” g. Dennis Rader, the “BTK Killer” h. Aileen Wuornos 3. Characteristics a. Some serial killers travel long distances in their search for victims, as well as to confuse law enforcement b. Others do all their killing in their home area or nearby area c. Motivation (1) Internal psychological demands (2) Voices or visions (3) Psychological gain (e.g., pleasure and hedonistic achievement) (4) Material gain (e.g., money, inheritance, the ownership of a business) d. Ability to blend into society and appear to be normal citizens e. No single, standard profile f. Female serial killers (Keeney and Heide) (1) Most often motivated by material gain (2) More likely to use more passive forms of violence (smothering or poisoning) (3) More likely to lure their victims to their death (4) More likely to be diagnosed with a broad range of mental disorders (5) Older than their male counterparts 4. Typology of serial murderers (Holmes and DeBurger) a. Visionary (1) Propelled by voices or visions (2) Psychotic, suffering a severe break with reality (3) Geographically stable (4) Crime reflects his or her disoriented personalitythe crime scene is chaotic with a great deal of physical evidence b. Missionary (1) Goal: to rid the community or the world of an undesirable type of person (2) Not psychotic or compelled by outside influences c. Hedonist (1) Connection between fatal violence and personal/sexual gratification (2) May commit acts of necrophilia, mutilate bodies, and collect personal souvenirs d. Power/control seeker (1) Achieves gratification from the complete possession of the victim (2) Eroticized possession of the victim as an object in the same fashion as the hedonistic killer has eroticized aggression VII. Conclusion A. Awareness and attempts at intervention, prevention, and response are in their infancy. B. More and continued attention must be paid to understanding the characteristics, motivations, and rationalizations of those who commit violent personal crimes. C. As our understanding of these forms of violence grows, we will be better equipped to develop appropriate law enforcement and criminal justice responses. D. Until then, we can expect to see more of these and other “emerging” forms of violence.

Post-Lecture Lesson Review

Time: 5–10 minutes Discussion Note: Facilitate the review of this lesson’s major topics by using the review questions as direct questions or PowerPoint slides. Answers are found throughout this lesson plan and at the end of the chapter.

A. Review the “Chapter Spotlight” (page 322). B. Have students discuss the questions in “Putting It All Together” (pages 322–323).