======Cell Division======I. Cells Divide: need reproduce, grow, repair - Prokaryotes - Binary Fission 1. DNA attaches to cell membrane & replicate 2. Cell membrane grows 3. Cell divide in 2 - Eukaryotes: Cell Cycle - Karyokenesis: divide nucleus & cytokenesis: division o cytoplasm - Cell cycle - Growth: interphase: longest 1. Gap 1: cell functions normally 2. Synthesis: DNA replication, DNA coils around histons (proteins) 3. Gap 2: normal metabolism & growth - Division: mitosis: M Phase 1. Prophase: nuclear membrane dissapear, chromosomes visible, spindle (o microtubules) forms 2. Metaphase: cromosomes line up @ equator 3. Anaphase: chromatids separate & go to opposite sides o cell 4. Telophase: nuclear membrane reforms; spindle dissapear 5. Cytokenesis - in Animals: contracting ring o microtubules = cleavage furrow - plants: Cell plate formed by fusing vesicles II. Definitions - Chromosomes: DNA coiled on histone (visible) - Homologous chromosomes: ones w/ similar gene arrangement - Autosomes: sex chromosomes - Diploid: 2N - Haploid: N - Somatic: body cell (2N) - Gamete: sex cell (N) III. Meiosis: division in sex cells (spores or gametes) - Meiosis I 1. Interphase I: DNA replicate 2. Prophase I: Snapsis (crossing over): homologous chromosomes exchange pieces after pairing up to form tetrads - create genetic variation 3. Metaphase I: tetrads line up in center o cell 4. Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes separate 5. Telophase: (cytokenesis): cell rest; enters interkenesis - Meiosis II 1. Prophase II: spindle form 2. Metaphase II: chromosomes line up in center 3. Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate 4. Telophase II: nucleus reform, cytokenesis - Spermatogenesis: development of sperm (4 cells form) - Oogenesis: unequal division o cytoplasm => 1 egg & 3 polar bodies - Result: polar bodies are disintegrated/reabsorbed IV. Reproduction in Cells: Differences - Asexually: 1 cell divide into 2 => offspring - : fast, w/o specialized organs, preserves genetic formula - : change only by mutation, disease/stress kills cell - Sexually: 2 cells produce a genetically distinct offspring - : adapt to change/stress, diversity, - : exact genetic formula not passed on - Mitosis v. Meiois - Mitosis in somatic cells produces 2 identical daughter diploid cells - Meiosis in gametes/spores produce 4 genetically diverse haploid sex cells V. Genetic Variation - Crossing over: Prophase I - Independent assortment o homologous chromosomes: Metaphase I? - Random Joining o Gametes VI. Cell Cycle Control - Growth Factors: stimulate cell division (PDGF: increase # o platelets if cut) - Density Dependent Inhibition: cell needs a substrate/surface to divide - Cancer cells missing this - Restriction Point: time in G1 cells; decides to divide or no - G0 cell in a nondividing state - Regulatory proteins: kinase: phosphoralation controls enzymes involved in cell division - Cyclin: concentration effects kinase - Chemicals - Drugs: Colchicine: destroys spindle (inhibit) - Hormones: cytokinin stimulate cell division in plant - Surface: Volume ratio > SA & < vol ; b/c cell recieves needed material and disposes of trash through membrane - Genome: genetic material: volume ratio ======Evolution: Ch. 20======- Evolution: change over time - Support: 1. Fossil records 2. Comparative anatomy i. homologous structures: same structures, different functions (ex: wings & arms) ii. analogous structures: same function, different structures (ex: insect wings & bird wings) iii. Vestigal structures: small body part w/ no functions (ex: tailbone) 3. Comparative Embryology 4. Molecular Biology - Historical figures 1. Carolus Linnaeus: no evolution; creationist; Father o Taxonomy 2. George Cuvier: Catastrophism: change in fossil record due to catastrophes, not evolution 3. James Hutlon: gradualism: earth is the result o gradual change (based on geology) 4. Charles Lyell: uniformitarianism: change in balanced (no evol.); if a mountain forms it’ll erode 5. Jean Baptiste Lamarck: Acquired Characteristics: (ex: giraffe: stretch neck=>long neck) 6. Charles Darwin & Wallace: Theory o Evolution & Natural Selection - Theory o Evolution: descent w/ modification: all organism gradually evolved from a common ancestor - Natural Selection: best adapted organism survive to reproduce & pass their traits on - Steps 1. Overproduction: # o offsprings > # environment can support 2. Greater # o variation 3. Competition for limited resources 4. Best adapted animals survive to reproduce 5. Inheritance o surviving traits - Adaptations - Camouflage: (ex: M&M) - Mimicry: imitate poison/bad tasting/dangerous animal (ex: Chocolate) - Hardy Weinberg Equation 2 2 - p + 2pg + q = 1; p + q = 1 - p: frequency o dominant allel - q: frequency o recessive allele 2 - p : freq. O dominant genotype 2 - q : freq. O recessive genotype - Hardy-Weinberg only works if: - Big population - Random mating - No changes in overall gene pool due to mutation - No migration (in/out o population) - All genotypes have equal reproductive success (no selection) - Microevolution: change in the gene pool (all alleles present) over a period o time - Genetic drift: random increase or decrease o allele: especially in small population - Founder FX: small group separated from the main pop. (geographically) - Bottleneck: decrease in population size due to catastrophic event - Gene flow: immigration/emmigration - Mutation - Natural Selection - Nonrandom Mating: increased homozygous organisms - Inbreeding: Europe - Assortive mating: when organism attracted to certain char. => that char’s allele increase - Variations - Polymorphism: many forms o different traits in a population - Prevents major events from destroy the entire population, yeah that’d suck - Variation is preserved by: 1. sexual reproduction 2. Diploidy: hidden recessive alleles reappear 3. Balanced poumorphism: maintain frequency o different alleles - heterozygous advantage - hybrid vigor (plants) 4. Geographic Variation: humidity, temperature, cline: graded altitude 5. Frequency Dependent Selection: Natural Selection - Types o Natural Selection 1. Stablizing Selection: removes both extremes 2. Directional Selection: favors one extreme 3. Diversifying/Disruptive Selection: favors both extremes - Speciation: formation o new species: organism that can interbreed & share common char - Reproductive isolating mechanism: 1. Prezygotic barriers: prevent fertilization - Habitat isolation - Temporal isolation: reproduce @ different seasons o daytiimes - Behavioral: different mating rituals - Mechanical - Gametic: egg/spern don’t recognize each other 2. Postzygotic Barriers: occurs after fertilization and cause reproductive failure - Hybrid inviability: zygote dies or hybrid dies young due to chromosomes problems - Hybrid sterility: mules - Hybrid breakdown: hybrid’s offspring are inviable or infertil 3. Types o speciation - Allopatric: geographic barrier divides a species and prevents interbreeding - Sympatric: new population from within the same geographic area - Polyploidy: nondisjunction; increased # o chromosomes - Hybridization: reproduction between different species - Adaptive radiation: evolution o many species from a common ancestor 4. Speed o speciation - Gradualism: gradual evolution (anagenesis) - Darwin support; fossils only show major changes (incomplete fossil records) - Punctuated Equilibrium: (cladogenesis) - Gould and Eldridge: support; fossils & allopatric speciation support - Short periods o change followed by long periods o no change - Orgin o Life - Environment o Ancient Earth: 35-40 bil years ago: Little O2, lighting, volcanoes, meteors, UV - Hypotheses o Orgin o Life - Panspermia: life from meteorites/comets which have amino acids - Life appear near ocean vents: minerals, heat - Creation - Chemical Evolution 1. Synthesis and Accumalation o monomers: (Oparin, Haldane) (Miller/Urey recreate early earth): lack o O2 2. Join monomers: (Fox): solutions o hot surface form polypeptides through dehydration synthesis 3. Protobionts form: primitive cells, grow, petabolize, respond to environment 4. Evolve genetic material: RNA: it can self assemble and act as an enzyme or irbozyme 5. Protobionts take RNA 6. Phtotosynthesis : cells learn to survive in presence o O2 ======Heredity======I. Definitions - gene: unit o heredity, exon: comes in different alleles - genotype, phenotype, homozygous (purebred), heterozygous (hybrid), dominant, recessive, locus (gene’s location on chromosome) I. Mendels Laws - Law o Segregation: 2 alleles/trait and each parent contributes one  monohybrid cross - Law o Independent Assortment: dyhybrid cross: dominant and recessive alleles for different genes are sorted into gametes independently - Do crosses II. Types o Inheritance 1. Mendelian: dominant traits hide recessive traits 2. Incomplete Dominance: in hybrids, dominant & recessive alleles are expressed… - AA = red, Aa = pink, aa = white ( ex: snapdragons) 3. Multiple (>2) Alleles/Gene: (ex: blood types) 4. Codominance: both alleles are expressed (ex: AB blood contain A & B markers  antigen proteins on cell surface) 5. Sex-Linked Inheritance: genes on X or Y chromosome (ex: hemophilia, color blindness; on X) 6. Polygenetic: trait controlled by 2+ genes (ex: skin/hair color) 7. Pleiotrophy: gene w/ 1+ phenotypic effect 8. Epistasis: 2 genes interact to control 1 trait 9. Gene linkage: genes on same chromosome - genes inherited together unless crossing over occurs - closer the genes are the less crossing over occurs & the less number o recombinants - number o recombinant * 100 = %crossing over # o offsrpings & number o map units apart III. Genetic Defect 1. Nondisjunction: homologous/chromosomes do not separate in Anaphase I or II 2. Gametes w/ 3 or 1 o chromosomes 3. Aneuploidy: missing or extra set o chromosomes: 3N, 4N, or 1N 4. Translocation: 1 part o chromosome breaks off and attaches to another 5. Deletion: part or all o chromosome is missing - Examples: - Down Syndrome: nondisjunction, trisomy 21 - Turners Syndrome: nondisjunction, XO - Klinefelters Syndrome: nondisjunction, XXY - Cri du Chat: deletion o chromosome 5 - Huntingtons: autosomal dominant - Metafemale: nondisjuntion, XXX - Tay Sachs, Sickle Cell Anemia: autosomal recessive - X: inactivation: 1 X chromosome does not form chromatin, it remains ia coiled barr body - Not all cells in embryo have an X or the same X inactivated (in most cases) (ex: black & yellow coloring on calico cat: different Xs inactivated) IV. Pedigree ======5 Kingdom Survey: oh brother…======- Bacteria: unicellular, prokaryote, no nucleus - Cell Strucutre - Cell wall: peptidoglycan: not cellulose: protection - Cell membrane: control enter/exit cell - Capsule: sticky layer that surrounds cell wall (protection) - Ribosome - Circular DNA: in nucleoid: Pasmid - Flagella - Pili/pillus: attach bacteria together for DNA exchange - Reproduction - Asexual: binary fission - Produce identical daughter cells - DNA replicates, cell grows and divide - Spore Formation: endospore (only eubacteria) - Dormant cells, survive harsh conditions - Sexual: Genetic Recombination - Transformation: bacteria take DNA from environment - Transduction: virus inserts DNA into bacteria - Conjugation: DNA exchange (in plasmids) through pili: pass drug resistance - Eubacteria clasification - Food: heterotrophs: obtain food from others - Phtotheterotroph: eat photosynthetic things Chemoheterotrophs: eat things that make food using chemicals - Saprobes: feed on dead animal/plants - Parasites: obtain food from host - Autotrophs - Photosynthetic - Chemosynthetic: use chemicals, store energy as H2S - Energy - Aerobic Respiration - Obligate Aerobes: die w/o O2 - Facultative Aerobes: survive best w/ O2, can survive with out - Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation) - Obligate Anaerobes: die in O2 - Facultative Anaerobe: survive but don’t like O2 - Classify Eubacteria - Shape: Cocus(o); bacillus (0); spirillium (S) - Number: mono (o); diplo (oo); strepto (oooooo); staphylo (grapes) - Staining (grams stain): + (purple: single cell wall, thick) - (red: double cell wall  outer wall: peptidyl glycan) - Kingdom Archaebacteria - No peptidoglycan cell walls, plasma membrane, have different lipids than other organisms, small ribosomes - Types 1. Methanogens: anaerobic, heterotrophic, produce CH4 (methane) 2. Exetreme halophiles: (salt lovers): found in salt lake, spoil salted foods, most aerobic/hetertrophic 3. Thermoacidophiles: (heat & acid lovers): mineral springs, thermal ocean volcanic vents, chemoautotrophs; H2S  energy sources - Examples o Eubacteria 1. Cyanobacteria: prokaryotic, photosynthetic: using chlorophyll a & phycobilin pigments - heterocysts: specialized cells: fix nitrogen in NH3 (using enzymes) to create nucleotides - - 2. Chemosynthetic bacteria: autotrophs, nitrifying convert NO2 to NO3 3. Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria: heterotrophs, live in modules (plant roots), mutualistic 4. Spirochetes: coiled bacteria w/ internal flagella II. INSERT VIRUS PAGE******************** a. III. Kingdom Protista - Varied Characteristics: Misc. - Convergent evolution: similar traits that evolved separatedly - Algaelike (plantlike): photosynthetic w/ chlorophyll a (may be other pigments) 1. Euglenophyta - 1-3 flagella @ apical (leading) end - pellicles: protein strips that replace cell wall - heterotrophic: if no light - eye spot allows phototaxis: move in response to light 2. Dinaflagellata - posterior & transverse flagellum - Bioluminescnet: produce nerve toxins 3. Cholorophyta: Au algaeu (yellow) - 1-2 flagella (apical) 4. Bacillariophyta: diatoms - tests (shells) o silica (SiO2) 5. Chlorophta: green algae - chlorophyll a & b: cellulose cell wall, carbohydrates stored as starch - Reproduction differs: - Isogamous: sperm = egg in size - Anisogamous: sperm != egg in size - Oogamous: large egg, small movable sperm enters female - Colonies => multicelular => plants 6. Phaeophyta: brown algae, multicellular, flagellated sperm 7. Rhodophyta: red algae, multicellular - phycobilins: red accesory pigments - Protozoa: animal like: heterotrophs 1. Rhizopododa: amoebas use pseudopia to engulf food by phagocytosis 2. Foaminifera: calcium carbonate tests 3. Zoomastigophora: Zooflagellates - parasitic (spread disease) or mutualistic (aid digest) 4. Sporozoa: parasites o animal, stationary except for spores (ex: malaria) 5. Ciliophora: cilia: most complex - structures: mouth, pore, contractile vacuole, macronucleus, several micronucleii - Fungus-like 1. Acrasiomycota: (cellular slime mold): Life Cycle a. spore form amoebas which migrate in a colony when the bacteria they eat disappears b. stalk w/ capsule top forms and releases spore c. cyclic AMP stimulates this (secreted by amoeba w/o food) 2. Myxomycota a. form as mass which eats decaying vegetation till lack o H2O/food b. capsule forms & releases haploid amoebas which merge to become diploid cells 3. Oomycota: H2O mold, downy, mildew, white rust a. form filaments (hyphae) release enzymes to breakdown & absorb surrounding substances b. coenocytic, cellulose cell wall i. IV. Kingdom Fungi A. Definitions 1. filament (hyphae): mass together in mycelium 2. septa (cross walls) divide fungi into compartiments with 1 nucleus a. if no septa, then multinucleate (coenocytic) 3. cell walls o chitin (nitrogenous polysaccharide) 4. Parasitic or saprobic 5. Haustoria: hyphae that penetrates hosts II. Sexual Reproduction Stages 1. Plamogamy: 2 different fungi cells fuse to form a cell w/ 2 haploid nucleii (kikaryon) 2. Karyogamy: 2 haploid nuclei form 1 diploid nucleus 3. Meiosis: haploid daughter cells form haploid spores and hyphae B. Asexual Reproduction 1. fragmentation: breaking up o hyphae 2. budding: pinch o small hyphall outgrowth 3. asexual spores a. sporangiospores: in sporangia (sacks) on sporangiophore (stalks) b. conidia: conidiophores: @ top I specialized hypha sackless C. Sexual Reproduction Classification 1. Zygomycota: lack septa : except by reproductive filaments a. sexual reproduction produce zygospores which produce hypha b. bread mold 2. Ascomycota a. septa, sexual reproduction produces ascospores, dikaryotic hypha undergo mitosis to create terminal hypha cells b. after meoisis, mitosis => 8 haploid ascospores in ascus (sack produced) c. asci grouped in ascocarp: specialized fruiting body d. yeast, truffle, powdery mildew 3. Basidiomycota a. septa, sexual reproduction => haploid basidiospores; undergo mitosis => dikaryotic hyphae in fruiting body or basidiocarp (ex: mushroom) b. Karyogamy in terminal hyphal cell (blasidia); meiosis => 4 haploid basidiospores 4. Deoteromycota a. no observable reproduction cycle (ex: penicillum) 5. Liches a. algae: nitrogen fixation or sugar from photosynthesis (chlorophyta or cyanobacteria) b. fungi (ascomycete): protect algae from UV ray, light, toxin, grazers, provides H2O 6. Mycorrhizae: mutualism: fungi & plant root a. plant: sugar b. fungus: aid plant, absorb H2O, mineral, phosphorous (a) Kingdom Plantae A. Adaptations to Survive 1. Diploid Sporophyte dominate (except in moss) a. 2 copies o genetic material masks mutations 2. Cuticle: waxy covering prevents desication 3. Vascular System: allows plants to be farther from water a. allows cell specialization b. xylem: water, up c. phloem: sugar, down 4. Sperm packaged as pollen v. flagellated (swim in H2O) 5. Gametophytes: protected in overy 6. Adapt to seasons (water/light) a. decidious: drop leaves in dormant season => less loss o H2O b. desert animals brief bloom after spring rain This is sooooooooooooooo boring!!!  B. Basic Information for Divisions Division Name Dominant Fluid Sperm Dispersal Other Generation Transport (i)Moss, Gametophy Nonvascular Flagellate Spores Bryophtaliverwor te d t, hornwor t (ii)Club Sporophyte Tracheophyte Flagellate Spores Woody trees Lycophytamoss or vascular d (strobili) extinct, epiphytes, herbacieous (iii)Horsetai Sporophyte Tracheophyte Flagellate Spores Extinct woody Spherophytals or vascular d (strobili tree/herbaceous (iv)Fern Sporophyte Tracheophyte Flagellate Spores Sori on fern Pterophyta or vascular d (strobili fronds = sporangio clusters Coniferophy Confider Sporophyte Tracheophyte Wind Seeds Type o ta s or vascular spread gymnosperm pollen (v)Floweri Sporophyte Tracheophyte Wind/ani Seeds angiosperm Anthophytang or vascular mal plants spread pollen

2. Definitions a. Epiphytes: plants living on other plants b. Herbaceous: c. Strobili: spore bearing cones C. Reproduction in Bryophta, Lycophta, Sphenophta, and Pterophyta 1. Gametes are produced in gametangia on the surface of gametophytes a. male gametangium: anthedrium produces flagellated sperm which swim to egg b. female gametangia: archegonium produce egg with sperm swims through H2O to fertilize c. diploid zygote forms; diploid structure on gametophyte (stalk w/ capsule containing haploid spores) d. spores produce haploid gametophytes D. Seed producing plants 1. male (microspores) & female (macrospores) are produced by micro/macrosporangium O (microsporangium)  oooooo (microspore mother cells) –meiosis oooo (4 haploid microspores)  …… (pollen grain, male gametophyte)  ooo (flowering) or oooo (conifer)  o vegetative tube (cell: grows pollen tube) + oo or ooo (sperms)

O (megasporangium) –meiosis oooo (4 haploids: 3 disentigrate) –o o (megaspore, female gametophyte) –mitosis o (egg: 1 in flowering plant, 2 in conifers) 2. Ovules formed by nucellius, megaspore, and integuments (tissue layers surrounding the megasporagium) a. micropyle: opening in integuments for pollen to reach egg 3. Pollen contacts megasporangium a. Tube Cell directs growht o pollen tube to micropyle b. Fertilization => zygote (sporophyte generation) integuments: seed coat 4. Coniferophyta: type o gymnosperm: naked seed a. pollen carriying male cones, ovule carrying female cones b. 1-3 years to develope E. Reproduction in Flowering Plants (Anthophyta or Angiosperms) 1. Female: Carpel/pistil containing: ovary, style, stigma 2. Male: stamen containing anter (w/ pollen) and filament 3. Petal/Sepal: attrack pollinators, ovules protected by ovary, ovary developing into fruit to aid dispersal are evolutionary advances 4. Agiosperm reproduction a. pollen lands on stigma b. pollen tube (long cell with tube nucleus and sperm) grows down style to ovary c. megaspore undergoes meiosis => 4 haploid megaspores (1 survive) d. megaspore that survive divide 3x by mitosis => 8 nucleii (6 undergo cytokenesis) e. Embryo sack: 3 antipodals, 2 polar nuclei, 2 synergids, 1 egg f. 2 Sperm enter & Double fertilization: sperm fertilizes egg => zygote & sperm fertilizes polar nuclei => endosperm (food) (a) SEE PICTURE Last kingdom Hallelujah. (b) Kingdom Animalia A. Characteristics 1. Multicellular, eukaryote, heterotroph 2. Store carbonhydrates as glycogen 3. No cell walls 4. Unique cell junction a. tight (no fluid leaks) b. desmosomes (anchor) c. gap (communication) 5. Muscular (mvt) & nervous (message) to tissue 6. Reproduce sexually and diploid dominant 7. Zygote undergoes cleavage (mitosis) a. zygote  blastula (circle-ly shaped)  gastrula (kidney shaped)  embryonic tissue 8. Metamorphisis a. complete: egg larvae  pupa  adult b. incomplete: no pupa stage B. Explanation for Chart Terms 1. Symmetry: radial (no head, tail, left, right; only oral and aboral sides) a. Bilateria: dorsal, ventral, posterior, anterioer, left/right side are mirror images b. Cephalization: concentration of senses & nerve tissue at anterion c. Movement, adapted for movemnt 2. Development: Germ Layers a. Gastrula: lined w/ ectoderm, inside: mesoderm; concave part lined w/ endoderm; concave lagoon: archenteron i. Ectoderm: covers embryo surface, creates epidermis & (sometimes) central nervous system ii. Endoderm: digestive track, liver, lungs iii. Mesoderm: muscles, organs found in triploblastic, not diploblastic (i) SEE HALFSHEET 3. Ceolom: fluid filled cavity lined w/ mesoderm, which cusions and grows internal organs 4. Comparison: Char Protostome Deuterostomes Cleavage Cell invide at angle Radial (straight) cell divide; Determinant: cell fate determined at division indeterminant Blastopore (opening Becomes mouth Becomes anus in gastrula) (ii)Schizocoelous: mesoderm split to form Enterocoelos:Archenteron Ceolomceolom outpocketinen form coleum C. Phylums: 1. Porifera: filter H2O through flagellated choanocytes a. water exits thorugh the sculum b. amoebocytesa: digest & distribute food c. spicule: skeletal needles: CaCO3 or SiO2 2. Cnidaria: body forms a. medusa: shape like jellyfish b. polyp: cylinder w/ rising tentacles 3. Platyhelminthes a. free-living flatworms: carnivore/scavenger live in H2O b. Flukes: internal /external animal paraistes, suck tissue fluid/blood c. Tapeworms: internal parasites (vertibrate digestive track): has proglottids (segments) 4. Nematoda: complete digestive track a. free soil dwellers: decompose / recycle nutrients 5. Rotifer: microscopic a. use cilia to filter feed, complete, digestive track 6. Mollusca: most have shells (internal or external) a. Bivalves: shell w/ 2parts b. May have digestive track/nervous system 7. Annelida a. Leeches: suckers for motion/attachment b. Polychaete worms – marine – build, burrow, swim 8. Arthropoda a. jointed appendages, nervous system, specialized body segments, chitin exoskeleton b. nymph: born ina miniature adult or c. larvae: cloth self w/ pupa, metamorphisis adult 9. Echinodermata a. maybe radial symmetry as adult not as larvae 10. Chordates: at some stage o life have: a. Notochord: rod between gut & nerve cord b. Dorsal Hollow nerve cord: forms CNS c. Pharyngoal slits: allow H2O enter mouth & leavel w/o going through digestive system\ i. invertibrates: filter food ii. vertibrates: gas exchange d. Muscular post anal tail 11. Vertabrates a. greater cephlaization (senses/brain) b. cranium & vertebral column (protected & support) c. regenerate ATP (cell resp) d. closed circulary tory system 12. Invertabrates a. filter food b. cilia move food in intestines c. segmented D. Phylogeny: hypothesis Deuterostome Invertibrate Vertibrate: Aganatha: jawless fish Urochordata Cephalochordata DevopeJaws: Placederm: extinct (turnicates) (lacelets) Skeletal Elements & appendages: Chondrichthyes ii. Lungs & lung derivatives: Osteichthes: bony fish Legs & tetrapods: Amphibians Amnion (fluid filled eggo around embryo): reptile Hair (mammals) Feathers (Aves)

======Plants======I. Characteristics Char Dicot Monocot Cotyledon: storage tissue w/ 2 Cotyledon 1 cotyledon nutrition for seedling Leaf Venation Netted Parallel Flower parts Multiples o 4/5 Multiples o 3 Vascular bundles Arranged in circle Scattered Root Tap Fibrous II. Plant Tissues A. Ground Tissue 1. Parenchyma: thin walls, photosynthesis, secretion, storage 2. Collenchyma: thick/flexible wall, support 3. Schlerenchyma: thicker walls, support B. Dermal Tissue 1. epidermis, guard cells, specialized surface cells 2. secrete waxy, protective cuticle C. Vascular Tissues 1. Xylem a. carry water/minerals UP b. 2ndary cell wall => extra support (pits = area w/o 2o cell wall) c. dead @ maturity d. Types o Xylem i. Tracheids: long tapered; pits @ end where H2O passes between cells ii. Vessel members/elements: short, wide, water passes through perforation (areas w/ no cell walls) iii. Vessel elements: more evolutionary advanced 2. Phloem: carries sugar in seive tube a. living, no nuclei/ribosomes, pore (form seize plates where cytoplasms of 2 cells touch) b. companion cells (living parenchyma) next to seive tubes are connected w/ plasmodesmata (tubes o cytoplasm) provide phsiological support from nuclei III. Seed A. Embryo + Seed Coat + Endosperm or cotyledon (digested endosperm, storage) 1. Embryo a. Epicotyl: shoot tip b. Plumule: young leaves attached to epicotyl c. Hypocotyl: shoot, attached to cotyledon below epicotyl d. Radicle: root below hypocotyl e. Coleoptile: surrounds/protects epicotyl in some monocots IV. Germination & Development A. Mature Seed Remains Dormant til Environmental Cues Signal 1. water, temp., light, seed coat damage (fire) B. Germination begins: 1. Imbibition: absorbe H2O => activate enzyme => biochem. Process start & crack seed coat a. radicle anchor, hypocotyle lengthen 2. Primary Growth: occur @ apical meristem @ tip o root/shoot in dividing meristematic cells 3. Growing Root PICTURE a. stem growing is same except w/o root cap C. Primary growth in primary tissues (ex: primary xylem & primary phloem: all plants undergo) 1. Secondary Growth: woody dicot, conifer, grow all plants life a. occurs in lateral meristem (2 types) i. vascular cambium: secondary xylem & secondary phloem ii. Cork Cambium: Periderm: protective materials; line woody plants III. Primary Structure A. Roots PICTURE 1. Epidermis: protect & produce new root hairs 2. Cortex: stores starch, space for cell resperation 3. Casparian strip: fatty substance (sunerin) between endodermis cells: H2O impenetrable, H2O must go through endodermis cells 4. Endodermis: control H2O movement into vascular cylinder & prevent H2O flow back to cortex 5. Pericycle: produce lateral root 6. Vascular cylinder/Stele: phloem, xylem, pericycle 7. Vascular bundle: pith, xylem, phloem, pericycle B. Stems 1. Epidermis: covered by cutin (cuticle): contains guard/stinging cells 2. Cortex: ground tissue; may have chloroplasts 3. Vascular cambium: 1 cell layer undifferentiated 4. Vascular cylinder: xylem, pith, ploem 5. Vascular bundle: pith, xylem, plhoem, vascular cambium V. Secondary Structure 1. Cork Cambium: produces periderm; orginates in cortex o stem & pericycle o roots 2. Vascular cambium: meristematic; produces new cells which differentiate into 2ndary xylem & 2nd ary plhoem 3. Xylem: (sapwood): recently dead; increase stem girth & root girth; transport H2O 4. Xylem: (heartwood): long dead, support, not transport 5. Phloem: increase stem/root girth; cells beyond 2nd ary phloem fall off as xylem/phloem expand 6. Periderm: replace shed epidermis, made o cork cells with subernin A. Alternate growth dormancy o vascular cambium produces annual rings in 2nd ary xylem 1. determine tree age 2. determine rainfall history VI. Leaf Structure 1. Epidermis: may have trichomes (hair, scale, gland, etc) 2. Cuticle: prevents transpiration: H2O loss 3. Pallisade Mesophyl: parenchyma: photosymthesis 4. Spongy Mesophyll: parenchyma cells; intercellular space give CO2n to photo cells and I2 toi respiration cells 5. Bundle Sheath Cells: preven tair bunbble from slowing H2O movement & make anaerobic are for CO2 fixing in C4 plants 6. Guard cells: open/close stomata VII. Transport: o H2O A. Apoplast: H2O moves through cell walls w/o entering cell (dead cells) B. Symplast: H2O move through plasmodesmata (tubes) from 1 cell’s cytoplasm to the next C. Symplast is only way material can pass endodermis 1. water always passes, some minerals (K+ yes; Na+: no) D. Water moves by: 1. Osmosis: soil  xylem: concentration gradient b/c water goes up xylem and some minerals not pass endodermis a. creates root pressure: which to a small extent forces water up xylem 2. Capillary action: cause H2O to go up xylem a. adhesion: water attracted to other substances (ex. Sides o tue) b. miniscus c. small effect in cell walls 3. Cohesion-Tension Theory: major cause H2O to go up xylem a. transpiration: H2O evaporates in leaves, creates negative pressure (tension) in xylem b. Cohesion: H2O attracted to self c. Bulk Flow: H2O leaves; leaf pulls chain o H2O molecules behind it VIII. Stomata Control A. Effects 1. Open Stomata: CO2; transpiration, H2O go up xylem 2. Closed: H2O & CO2: not available => no photosynthesis B. Guard cells: thick microfibrils (radially) encircle on outside 1. H2O enter guard cell => expand => open 2. H2O diffuses out o guard cell => shrink => close C. Factors 1. Temperature increase => close stomata 2. Stomata open if there’s less CO2 in leaf 3. Stomata open in day (Co2 used => less CO2) & closed at night when CO2 not used + 4. K enter guard cell => concentration gradient => H2O enter cell => stomata open 5. K+ enter guard cell => charge, neuetralized by pump Cl- in guard cells or H+ out IX. Transport o Sugar A. Translocation: carbohydrate from source  sink ; pressure flow hypothesis B. Steps 1. Carbohydrate use active transport to enter sieve tube cells a. concentration in upper seive-tube cells greater than in sink 2. Water enters seive tubes since sugar entering created a concentration gradient 3. Pressure builds in seive tube cells and H2O and sugars are forced downward into sink through seive tube cells 4. Sugar removed by active transport at sink (concentration increase at sink) => greater concentrate of water in cell => water diffuse out of cell and releaves pressure C. Source: a cell that creates sugars into H2O soluable molecules Sink: cell converting sugar into non-water soluable starch 1. roots can be sources if there’s little photosynthesis X. Plant Hormones A. Auxin: (IAA-Idoleacetic Acid) 1. increase cell growth: elongation a. increase H+ in primary cell wall => loosen cellulose fibers & wall plasticity => Tugor pressure cause cell to expand b. Influence photo/geotrophism 2. Location a. root/shoot tip, leaves, fruit, germinating seeds b. move through polar (active) transport B. Gibberellin: gibberellic acid; over 60 variations: GAI, GAZ 1. increase cell growth a. synthesize leaves, root, seeds, move to shoot tips b. fruit development seed germination, aging in leaf c. increase concentration => bolting: rapid elongation C. Cytokinins 1. increase cell division: cytokenesis a. roots produced, then moved b. effect direction of organ development: root or shoot; increase growth o lateral bud (lessen apical dominance, delay senescence: aging) D. Ethylene: gas 1. promotes ripening (fills intercellular space), increase flower production a. with Auxin: inhibits elongation in root/stem/leaf, effect leaf abscission (age & drop) E. Abscisic Acid: ABA 1. growth inhibitor a. maintain seed dormancy, abscission, delays buds, forms scales to prepare for overwintering XI. Plants Response: (growth wise) to environment - stimuli: Trophism A. Phototrophism (light) 1. Auxin moves by active transport from apical meristem to zone o elongation a. unequal light => auxin concentrate in shady side of zone o elongation 2. Differential growth: plant grows toward light B. Gravitrophism/geotrophism 1. horizontal stem: auxin concentrate on lower side & stem bend upward 2. Horizontal root: auxin @ root tip concentrates on lower side o root in great concentration => inhibit growth 3. Starch: stored in plastids or statoligth; concentrates at lower end o cells & effect auxin movement C. Thigmotrophism 1. plants wrap around objects they come in contact with XII. Photperiodism: plants response to changes in photoperiod: day/night length A. Circadian rythm: measures photoperiod: is endogenous: accurate w/o external cues 1. Phytochrome: Pr or P660 & Pfr or P730 a. Pr + red = Pfr, Pfr + far red = Pr 2. Pfr resets circadian rhythm clock 3. Pr synthesizes by plant leaves 4. Pr & Pfr are at equilibrium in daylight (sun gives of both type o reds) 5. Pr accumulates @ night a. Pr breaks down slower b. Some plants convert Pfr to Pr 6. Daybreak: Pr  Pfr rapidity => equilibrium 7. Night length sets clock a. dark in day: no change b. red @ night => reset for shortrter night (far red reverses this effect) B. Flowering 1. Long Day: flower spring early summer 2. Short Day: day length decrease: late summer, early fall; if day less or night greater than critical length 3. Day netural: flowering independent on photoperiod C. Florigin: undiscovered flowering hormone; phytochrome may effect germination We’re done! We’re done! We’re done! Aw… there’s more.  ======Animal Reproduction & Development======- Reproduction: production of sperm & egg, befroe fertilization - Development: fertilized egg  organism - Primary sex characteristic: directly involved in reproduction - Secondary sex characteristics: indicate sexual maturity, readiness, use to attriact opposite sex IV. Human Reproductive Anatomy A. Female 1. Ovary: (2) – eggs produced here 2. Oviduct: Fallopian Tubes: (2): take egg from ovary  uterus 3. Uterus: fertilized ovum (egg) attaches to endometrium (inside wall) a. embryo developes here til birth b. cervix: opening into vagina 4. Body goes through vagina & into world B. Male 1. Testes (2) a. contain seminiferous tubules (produce sperm) b. contain interstitial cells: produce sex hormones c. contained in scrotum: outside body because need lower temperature for sperm production 2. Epididymis tube: final mature/storage o sperm 3. Vas deferens: transport sperm (epidymisurethra) 4. Seminal vesicles: at ejaculation, secrete: a. vas deferens muscus: liquid for sperm b. fructose: energy for sperm c. prostaglandins: increase uterine contractions so sperm enters uterus 5. Prostate Gland: release alkaline fluid to neutralize acidity o urethra/vagina from urine 6. Bulbour ethral (Cowper’s) Glands: secrete fluid into urethra 7. Penis: transport urine, urethra, semen (fluid w/ sperm & secretion) C. Sperm 1. Sperm head: haploid nucleus; w/ an acrosome (lysosome w/ enzymes to enter ege) on top 2. Midpiece: flagellum (made by centrioles); mitochondria nearby to give ATP for motion a. sperm head 3. Tail: moves sperm V. Gametogenisis: meiototic cell divide (egg in female oogenesis and sperm in male spermatogenesis) A. Oogenesis begin at embryonic development 1. oogonia divide mitosis into primary oocytes which divide by meiosis till prophase I 2. at puberty, primary oocytes enter metaphase I 3. Development occurs within follicle (circling cells that protect/nourish egg) a. Secondary oocytes: 1 cell has most of cytoplasm; other form polar bodies & disintigrate, => egg well suplied 4. Ovulation: follicle release 2nd ary oocyte a. sperm fertilize in oviduct => meiosis II begin to form zygote B. Spermatogenesis: begin at puberty 1. Spermatognoia divide through mitosis: primary spermatocytes a. meiosis I => 2nd ary spermatocytes, meiosis II => 4 spermatids b. sertoli cells: nourish developing sperm I. Menstrual Cycle A. Steps 1. hypothalmus/aterior pituitary: begin cycle a. less estrogen & progesterone => hypothalmus secrete GnRH: stimulates anterior pituitarty to produce FSH & LH 2. FSH cause follicle/egg develop 3. FSH cause follicle/egg to secrete estrogen 4. Ovulation (positive feedback): increased estrogen => anterior pituitary (through GnRH from hypothalmus) => greater LH => ovulation 5. Follicle now: corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone 6. Estrogen & progesterone => endometrium (uterus inner lining): w/ nutrient & blood vessel rich tissues 7. Negative feedback: end cycle a. greater estrogen & progesterone => hypothalmus tell anterior pituitary to decrease FSH and LH produced 8. No FSH/LH => corpus luteum fall apart => no estrogen/progesterone => endometrium disintegrates (menstrual flow) 9. If pregnant: human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) maintain corpus luteum & estrogen & progesterone & endometrium a. HCG replace estrogen & progesterone w/ placenta for embryo B. Ovarian Cycle 1. Fallicular Phase: egg develop, follicle secrete estrogen 2. Ovulation: midcycle egg release 3. Luteal phase: secrete estrogen/progesterone from corpus luteum (postovulation) C. Male Cycle 1. GnRH (from Hypothalmus), FSH, & LH (or ICSH: intersticial cells stimulating hormone) secrete by anterior pituitary a. LH => testes produce testosterone & androgens b. LH & testosterone => sertoli cell increase development o sperm 2. Constant in males II. Embryonic Development: (fetus=embryo resembling infant): Echinoderm A. Ferilization: sperm enter secondary oocyte 1. Recognition: zona pellucida (glycoprotein layer on egg) assures only sperm w/ human protein (bind w/ zona pellucida) & fertilize 2. Penetration: sperm enters oocyte; plasma membrane fuse 3. Vitelline layer (zona pellucida in man) forms fertilization membrane that block other sperm 4. Meiosis II: in 2nd ary oocyte continue to produce egg & polar body 5. Nucleii fuse, DNA replicate: 23 chromosomes B. Cleavage: cell divide w/o growth; creates blastomeres w/ little cytoplasm 1. embryo polarity: upper: animal pole, lower: vegetal pole: yolk (stored food)  material denser b/c its @ bottom 2. Polar Cleavage: (early cleavages) divide cells pole to pole; Equatorial Cleavage: divide across 3. Radial & Spiral Cleavages: early deuterostomes’ cleavage are radial; protostomes: spiral 4. Indeterminate & Determinate cleavages: C. Morula: solid ball o cell D. Blastula: circulary cavity: 1 cell thick; liquid filled; cavity: blastocoel E. Gastrula: formation o blastopore, archenteron, 3 germ layers F. Extra Embryonic Membrane Development: 1. Chorion: outer membrane, forms part o placenta (gas, food, waste exchange) a. birds use gas exchange b. mammal form iumplants into endometruim 2. Allantois: sac buds of archenteron, layer below chorion a. birds/reptiles: waste store, then combine w/ chorion for gas exchange b. mammals: carries waste to placenta, forms unbilical cord (connect embryo to placenta) 3. Amnionic Cavity: cushions embryo 4. Yolk Sack a. Birds/Reptile: yolk sac membrane edigests enclosed yold b. Mammals: use placenta, not yold sack, for nutrition (yolk sac is empty) G. Organogenesis: devlopment o organs 1. Chordates form a. Notochord: dorsal surface o mesoderm germ layer form notochord: rod that provide support in lower chordate; vertebraes o higher chordates are formed from nearby cells b. Neural Tube: neural plate => neural groove => neural tube = CNS & neural chest (teeth, bones, skull muscle, skin pigment) III. Embryonic Development: Specifically A. Frog 1. Grey Crescent: indeterminate 2. Cells migrate over blasopore to form a dorsal lip a. bottom/side blastopore: ventral/lateral lip 3. Yold plug (vetegeal plug): very rich B. Bird 1. Blastodisc on top o yold is the site o cleavage 2. Primitive streak: elongated blastopore (noncircular) C. Mammals 1. Blastula (Blastocytst): has trophoblast (outer ring cells) & embryonic disk (inner ring o cells) 2. Trophoblast: attached to endometruim: produces HCG & form chorion 3. Embryonic Disk: inner cell mass clusters at one pole flattening to the embryonic disk (like blastodisk) - primitive streak, then gastrulation, then development o embryo & extraembryonic membranes IV. Factors that influence Development A. Nonuniform distribution o cytoplasm 1. Grey crescent, yolk, animal/vegetal pole, axes B. Embryonic induction: when cells act as organizers & secrete chemicals that effect development C. Homeostatic genes: turn on/off other genes which code for substances that effect development 1. Homeobox: found in many phyla (DNA Sequences) D. Before determination a cell’s function is determined by outside factor that may change E. Lineage map: shows fate o cells during cell division ======Animal Systems======I. Body Tissues A. Epithelial cells: cover free body surfaces 1. Function: protect, absorb, filtrate, secrete 2. Char: continuous sheets joined by cell junctions, avascular, regenerate easily 3. Shape: cuboidal, columnar, squamos (stack) Arrangement: simple (1 layer), stratified (multiple layers) B. Connective Tissues: support 1. Char: slow heal, extracellular matrix, contains fibers, survives abuse 2. Function: support, protect, binds tissues 3. Types a. Bone (osseous): in lunae cavity, collagen fibers, Ca2+ salt, hard ex-cell. Matrix b. Cartilage: ex: elastic, hyaline (joint, larnyx); fibrocartilage (ear: disk in back) c. Dense: (Fibrous): tendon (muscle  bone); ligaments (bone @ joint) d. Loose: blood, adipose, reticular (immune system), Areolar (cushion protect organs) C. Nervous Tissues: neurons send/receive message D. Muscle tissues 1. Types a. Skeletal/Striated: voluntary, multinucleate, cylindrical, stripe b. Cardiac muscle: heart, striated, 1 nucleus, involuntary, intercolated disks (cell junctions)s c. Smooth/Vesceral: wall o hollow organ, 1 nucleus, pointed cell @ each end VI. Integumentary (Skin/Covering) System A. Function 1. Protection: for deeper tissues from damage by… a. mechanical (bumps): skin contains keratin (toughens cells) i. lotsa keratin in hair/nails, which are part o skin ii. pressure sensors alert nervous system: to move or suffer damage b. Chemical: keratin keeps water in skin & makes skin impermeable to some chemicals c. Bacteria: unbroken surface, acid mantle (skin secretions contain acid: inhibits bacteria) d. UV: pigment melanin(darkens skin) e. Thermal: heat/cold receptors allow you to know outside temperature 2. Excretion: gets rid o waste 3. Body Temperature Regulation a. Heat Loss: sweat glands activate and blood vessels dialate (grow); blood rushes into capillary beds (heat leaves skin through sweat) b. Heat retention: blood vessels constrict; blood avoid capillary beds 4. Synthesis o vitamin D (help bones pick up calcium): - Modified a form o cholesterol converted to vitament D in presence o sunlight B. Skin Strucutres: 3 layers 1. Epidermis: outer layer; made o stratified (layered) epithelial cells; avascular (no blood vessels) a. Layer o epidermis completely replaced every 35-40 days i. Stratum corneum: outer layer: 20-30 cel layers thick; made o cleat cells; protection & keep water inside; most o epidermis ii. Stratuum lucidum: flatter; keratinized; begin to die iii. Stratum granulosum: keratinizing begin iv. Stratum spinosum: some mitosis v. Stratum germinativisum (basale): growing layer, mitosis occurs, produces millions o new cells per day 2. Dermis: “hide”; made o connective tissue a. 2 regions: thicker than epidermis i. Papillary layer: upper layer has ridges (cause finger print) = dermal papillae = loops & whorls o fingerprints; receptors ii. Reticular Layer: contain blood vessles; sweat & oil glands; sensor receptors (touch & pain); phagocytes (WBC: eat bacteria, ect. Around skin/wound); elastic fibers & collagen (connective tissue) 3. Subcutaneous Tissue: adipose tissue (fat that cushions & protects) a. anchors skin to underlying organs b. not a “real” layer o the skin c. hair originates in the dermis C. Skin appendages: in dermis 1. Exocrine glands: release secretions via duc a. Subaceous glands: (oil = sebum) i. keep skin soft & moist ii. kill bacteria iii. empty in hair follicles  clogged acne => b. Suderiferous gland (sweat) gland i. found all over body ii. ducts end in pores iii. temperature regulation 2. Hair: protection/warmth/insulation: protection especially in nasal passage 3. Nail: contain keratin (hard); contain nerve endings  ouchie if nail teared VII. Bone VIII. Function 1. Support, anchor organ 2. Protection for soft organs 3. Movement (liver) 4. Storage (fat in internal cavity; minerals: Ca +2 (required in blood for nerve transmission, muscle contraction, blood clotting), K+, P-3, Na+, Mg+2) 5. Blood Cell Formation: hematopoiesis: occurs in marrow (yellow marrow in middle, stores fat; red marrow @ end: makers o blood cell) A. Classification o Bones 1. Types o bone tissue (osseous) a. Compact bone: dense, smooth, homogeous (constant appearance) b. Spongy bone: has lots o open space, needle like 2. Shape a. Long bone; length > width; usually compact (ex: femur, finger) b. Short bone: cube like; mostly spongy; (ex: wrist, ankle) c. Flat Bone: thin, curved, 2 layers compact w/ spongy in middle (ex: rib, skull) d. Irregular bone: the “others” category (ex: vertebrae, hip) 1. Structure o Bone 1. Diaphysis: shaft, midle length, compact, contain yellow marrow (fat storage) 2. Epiphysis: end o bone shaft, covered by connective tissue or periosteum; compact & spongy bone (red marrow) covered by cartilage (articular cartilage): allow for movement & reduce friction B. Bone Formation & Growth 1. Most bones form using cartilage (hyaline) 2. Ossification (bone formation) involves 2 steps a. cartilage is covered by osteoblasts (bone forming cells) b. enclosed cartilage is digested, leaves medullary cavity 3. Growth o bone is controlled by growth hormone & sex hormone C. Bone Remodeling (change in bone strength & thickness) 1. Response to 2 factors a. Calcium level i. Ca+2 low: PTH (parathyroid hormone) causes Ca2+ to be released; osteoclasts (bone destroying cells) break down bone to release Ca2+ ii. Ca2+ high: PTH activates osteoblasts & Ca2+ deposited in bone b. Stress: pull o gravity & muscles i. high stress (activity: exercising); osteoblasts form more bone; thicken & strengthen bones ii. low stress (inactivity/bed rest): boones lose mass & atrophy (shrink) D. Joints (Articulations) 1. Functions a. hold bones together b. allow movement 2. Classfication a. functions: amount o mvt allowed i. Synarthrose: immovable: commin axial skeleton: (ex: skull bones; slitures) ii. Amphiarthrose: slightly movable: common in axial skeleton (ex: vertebrae) iii. Diarthrose: freely movable: common in appendicular skeleton: (ex: wrist, elbow) b. Structurally i. Fibrous joints: joined by (fibrous) connective tissue; allow no movement (ex: skull bone) ii. Cartilaginous joints: cartilage in between bones: (ex: pelvis, vertebrae) iii. Synovial joints: bone ends are separated by a cavity filled w/ synovial fluid (ex: plane joint: carpals; hinge joint: elbow/knee; pivot join: radius/ulna; condyloid joint: knuckles; saddle joint: carpal/metacarpal; ball & socket joint: hip/shoulders) IX. Muscular System A. Functions (by contracting) 1. produce movement a. Skeletal muscles (striated): loco motion: walk/lift b. Smooth/cardiac muscles: move blood & maintain blood pressure c. Smooth muscles in hollow organs: foreceps, fluid through body channels 2. Maintain posture 3. Stabilize joints 4. Generate heat X. Skeletal Muscle Anatomy 1. Plasma membrane: sarcolemma 2. Organelles a. mitochondria b. myofibrils: ribbon ish: fill cytoplasm (striations) i. striations a. Light Bands (I) have Z lines b. Dark bands (A) ii. Sarcomere: region o myofibril b/t 2 light boands (from on Z line to another); many sacromere in a microfibril a. made o 2 myofilaments i. Thick: containprotein myosin & ATPase enzymes ii. Thin: contain proteins actin & regulatory protein c. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: SR: specialized smooth ER: surrounds each myofibril; store & release calcium (used in muscle contraction/relaxation) B. Types o Muscles 1. Prime movers: muscle that causes a particular movement (ex: flex arm/bicep) 2. Antagonists: muscles that oppose or reverse movements (ex: extend arm: triceps) 3. Synergist: muscles that help the prime movers by producing the same movement or reducing unnecessary movement (ex: stabilize wrist joint to make fist) 4. Fixation: hold bone still or stabilize the origin o the muscle (specialized synergids) C. Muscle Attachment: muscle attached to bone or other connective tissue @ 2 points 1. Origin: muscle attached to immovable or less movable bone 2. Insertion: muscle attached to moveable bone: insertion moves toward origin during contraction D. Muscle Naming: structural/functional characteristics 1. Direction o fibers a. Rectus: straight fibers b. Oblicque: slanted fibers 2. Relative size: Maximus; minimus; longus 3. Location o muscle: often named for bones associated with (ex: temporales: temporal bone) 4. Number o orgins (ex: biceps, triceps, quadriceps) 5. Location o orgin/insertion (attached to bone) (ex: sternocleidmastoid: orgin is sternum clavicle, insertion is on mastoid process (temporal bone)) 6. Shape o muscle (ex: deltoid: triangle) 7. Action o Muscle Muscle cells have 2 unique properties - Irritability: can receive/respond to stimula - Contractibilty: ability to shorten Sliding Filament Theory 1. Muscle cell stimulation: by a nerve cell (motor neurons) a. Nerve impulse reaches axon terminal or end o nerve cell (near muscle) b. Neurotransmitter: chemical: releases acetylcholine (ACh) into the synaptic cleft (region b/t muscle cell and nerve cell) c. ACh attaches to receptors on sarcolemma d. Sodium Na+ ions rush into muscle cell (ACh makes membrane temporarily permeable to Na+: depolarization) e. Electrical current (or charge) is generated and passed from 1 cell to another => action potential (cells now know to contract) 2. Ca+2 ions are released from the Sarcoplasmic reticulum 3. Ca+2 binds to troponin on actin (thin filament) 4. Troponin & Tropomyosin change shape and expose the active site for binding to myosin (thick filament) 5. Myosin binds to actin (thin filament) & form a cross bridge - ATP binds w/ myocin before it picks up actin 6. ADP + P released from myosin (energy for cross bridge) 7. Myocin head flex @ 45o angle & pull actin filament toward the center of the sarcomere 8. Myocin picks up a new ATP & releases the actin active site 9. Myocin binds the another active site and the process repeats (5-8) til muscle completely contracts/shortens Muscle Relaxation: lengthen to resting stage 1. ACh is inactivated by an enzyme cholinesterase 2. Ca+2 is pumped back into the SR via active transport (use ATP) Active sites on actin are covered & actin filament returns to normal length XI. Digestive System - Type o Diets: : herbivore (plants, algae: sponge), carnivore, omnivoer (roaches) - Feeding Mechanisms 1. Suspension feeding: sift food particles from H2O 2. Substrate feeding: live on or in food (ex: larva, earthworm  deposit feeders) 3. Fluid fleeding: suck mutrients from living host: (ex: aphids (phloem from plants); leeches, mosquitos, butterflies) 4. Bulk Feeding: eat large pieces o food; have adaptations to kill prety or tear pieces o meat - Digestive Compartiments 1. Food Vacuoles: intracellular digestion: simple digestion, food vacuole fuse w/ lysosomes (contain hydrolytic enzymes which break down food using water) (ex: sponge, paramecium) 2. Gastrovascular Cavity: incomplete digestive tract: 1 opening; (ex: dniderians, flatworms) 3. Alimentary Canal: complete digest tract a. Digestive Tube between 2 opening: mouth & anus b. Food moves in 1 direction & allows for specialization for digestion/absorbtion (ex: roundworm, segmented worms) - Digestive Process 1. Oral Cavity mechanical digestion, chemical digestion (saliva: salivary amylase <_- hydrolyze starch & glycogen); tongue –food bolus 2. Food Enters (bolus) in Pharynx & into esophagus - moves through peristasis : smooth muscle contraction 3. Stomach a. Top o stomach: Cardiac Orifice (Sphicter): open to allow bolus to enter (Acid reflex/heartburn: when sphincter doesn’t close & acid from stomach enter esophogus) b. Epithelial cells secrete gastric juices (mainly HCl, pH=2) i. denatures protein ii. kill bacteria iii. break down extracellular matrix (which holds group o cells together) c. Enzyme: Pepsin: hydrolyzes protein 2 forms: Pepsinogen (inactive form) –GastricJuices Pepsin (active form) d. Muscus: protect lining from digestion by pepsin or acid e. Smooth muscles: churn food w/ acid (chyme f. Bottom o stomach: pyloric sphincter: allow food to enter to small intestine (2-6 hr) 4. Small Intestines: mostdigestion and absorbtion o nutrients 5. Large Intestine: colon: reabsorbs water (that small intestine misses); pass waste out (12-24 hr) E. coli: get nutrients from waste => vitamins and gas (we absorbs vitamins: esp. Vitamin K) (diharreah: not enough H2O absorbed; Constipation: too much) - Digestion Hormones 1. Gastrin: secreted by stomach; stimulates production o gastric juice; low pH: inhibits grastin & decrease gastric juice (when there’s no food in stomach) 2. Secretin: released from intestinal wall when chyme enters duodenum (1st part o small intestine); signals pancrease to produce bicarbonate to neutralize/buffer acid 3. Cholecystokinin: CCK: produced in duodenum, cause gall bladder to contract and release bile, causes pancreas to release enzymes 4. Enterogastrone: if chyme is rich in fats (break down o fats take longer, but more energy result) inhibits peristalsis in the stomach & slows entry o food into small intestine (chyme) - Enzymes: - Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides  salivary amylase:mouth/throat/stomach  Smaller Polysacchardes  pancreatic amylase  disaccarides  more pancreatic amylase  monosaccharides - Proteins: made o polypeptides or AA Chains Protein  pepsin (stomach acid)  polypeptide  Chymotrypsin  small polypeptides  carboxypeptidease/aminopeptidase  amino acids - Lipids: fats are insoluable in water Fat  bile/salt  form fat droplets (emulsification)  lipase  fatty acids & glycerol - Folds in Small Intestine: Villi (projections) : absorb stuff; epiphelial cells covering capillaries & the lymphatic system - Monomers enter epithelial cells by active or passive trasport & enter capillaries via lymphatic vessels - small intestin parts: duodenum (1st; digestion); ileum & Jejunum (absorbtion) XII. Circulatory/Respitory System - Function: Transport O2, nutrients, wastes, hormones, throughout body A. Types: 1. Gastrovascular cavity: nutrients diffuse into cells (ex: cniderians, flatworms) 2. Open circulatory System: most arthropods, (insect, crustaceao, some mollusk) - blood and intestinal fluid are combined into hemolymph - hemolypmh bathes internal organ directly - heart pumps hemolymph out o vessels and return through pores (sinuses) 3. Close Circulatory System (earthworm, some mollusks, squid, vertebrates) - blood confined to blood vessels (separate from lymph or intestinal fluid) - gas exchange occurs in capillaries (nutrient absorbed in intestine) XIII. Components o closed system 1. Heart a. Atrium (atria): returns blood to heart b. Ventricles: pumps blood out of heart (1 or 2) 2. Blood Vessels a. Arteries: carries blood away from heart; branches into arterioles b. Capillaries: site o gas exchange c. Veins: return blood to heart: branch into venules 3. Blood (connective tissue) B. Circulation in Vertebrates 1. Fish: 2 chambered heart: 1 atrium, 1 ventricle: single circulation: blood leaves the heart, is oxygenated (via gill capillaries), passes through body, returns to heart 2. Amphibians: 3 chambered heart: 2 atria, 1 ventricle: oxygen rich & poor blood mix in ventricle - double circulation: O2 poor blood enters heart and leaves/O2 rich blood enters & then leaves 3. Mammals: 4 chambered heart: (2 atria, 2 ventricle) - double circulation: no mixing o O2 blood & O2 poor blood XIV. Heart Anatomy 1. Right Atrium: O2 poor blood return via vena cava (superior: above; inferior) 2. Left Atrium: O2 rich blood return to heart via pulmonary vein 3. Right Ventricle: larger and more muscular than atria: pumps blood into pulmonary artery (lung) 4. Left Ventricle: pumps in aorta (body) 5. Valves: prevent backflow o blood (defect in valve = heart murmur) a. Atrioventicular (AV) valve: between atrium & ventricle i. Right AV valve: tricuspid ii. Left AV valve: mistril or bicuspid b. Semilunar valve: between ventricle & artery i. pulmonary semilunar valve ii. aorta semilunar valve C. Cardiac (Heart) Cycle: sequence o events in a heart beat (.8 sec) 1. Heart tissue cells (cardiac muscle, nervous) are myogenic or autorythmic (self excitable: contract w/o nerve impulse) 2. Controlled by a. Pacemaker (sinocitrial (SA) node): found in upper right wall o atrium (right); set rate o contraction; sends message to AV node & contracts atria b. Atrioventicular node: lower wall o right atrium; sends message to rest o heart: causing ventricles to contract (bundle branches  perkingy fibers trans message) 3. 2 Stages a. System: contraction o ventricle: (higher, forces blood out o heart) b. Diastole: relaxation o the ventricle (heart fill w/ blood) (a) SKIP TO… XV. Endocrine System XVI. Functions 1. growth & development 2. metabolism regulation 3. response to environmental changes (stress) 4. controls reproduction, development, birth A. Chemical Messenger 1. Hormones: secreted by cells and effect the activity o other cells (target cells): carried by blood, 3 types a. Steriods: fat-soluable; produced from cholesterol, pass through cell membrane and nuclear membrane; activate genes in nucles (ex: sex hormones: activate genes for growht/development during puberty) b. Amino Acid based: H2O soluable; modified from amino acid tyrosine; bind to a receptor on the cells surface which triggers a second messenger within the cell to relay hormone message (ex: epinepherine: fight o rflight response) c. Peptide Hormone: H2O soluable; made from a chain o amino acids (peptide) ; act as signals for the nervous system, bind to cell surface & use a second messenger sys. (ex: oxytocin: uterine contraction) 2. Other messengers a. phermones: animal use this to attract mates b. local regulator: (ex: histamine, prostaglandins: inflammatory system) B. Regulation o Hormone Release 1. Negative Feedback: hormones work as antagonist (ex: high hormone level to glucagon prevents other hormone from being produced or low levels o glucagon stimulates hormone production) 2. Positive Feedback: changes or presence o a hormone or stimulus that cause an amplification (great increase) in hormone (ex: birth: pressure o baby on uterus cause more oxytocin => more contraction) C. Vertibrate Endocrine System 1. Hypothalmus a. region o lower brain b. integrates nervous/endocrine system c. has neurosecretory cells d. makes ADH (antiduiretic hormone) & oxytocin (uterine contraction @ childbirth) e. regulates pituitary gland 2. Pituitary Gland @ base o hypothalmus a. made o 2 lobes i. Posterior lobe: neurophysis: storage/release o ADH & oxytocin ii. Anterior lobe: acdenohypophysis: produces many hormones (ex: GH: growth hormone; LH: Lutenizing hormone; FSH: follicle stimulating hormone; TSH: tyroid stimulating hormone) 3. Thyroid Gland (neck); 2 lobes a. produces thyroid hormones required for development & homeostasis i. Development: bone formation & nerve cell branching ii. Homeostasis: blood pressure, heart rate, metabolism b. T3: Triiodothyrone & T4 = Thyroxine: amino acid hormones - tyrosine and iodine (salt) neede to make these - controls metabolism - hormones: too much (hyperthyroidism) or too little (hypotheyroidism) bad c. Calcitonin: lower blood calcium 4. Parathyroid Gland a. 4 glands on thyroid b. secrete PTH (parathyroid hormone); causes blood Ca+2 (antagonist o calcitonin) 1. stimulates reabsorbtion o Ca2+ in kidneys & intestines (requires Vitamin D) 2. Stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone matrix & release Ca2+ into blood 3. 41.12 on pg. 928 5. Pancreas (exocrine (digestion) & endocrine (blood glucose)) a. Endocrine cells: islets o langerhans 1. Alpha cells: secrete glucagon (peptide hormone made o AA chain) ; breakdown o glycogen 2. Beta cells: secrete insulin (peptide hormone): help cells take in glucose & help liver store glucose (glycogen) b. Negative feedback: glucagon up; insulin down c. Hypoglycema d. 41.13 on pg. 929 for blood sugar control: 6. Adrenal Glands: by kidney a. help body deal w/ stress b. 2 parts 1. cortex: outer: causes production and release o corticosteroids - glucocorticoid: involved in glucose metabolism (increased blood glucose => greater energy to deal w/ stress) - mineral corticoids: involved in H2O / salt balance 2. Medulla: inner: short term stress; involves the nervous system a. epinepherine: fight or flight response (constricts blood vessel) b. Norepinepherine: blood pressure 7. Gonads: ovaries/testes a. produces androgens: steroid hormone: involved in male reproduction development & maintenance (ex: testosterone) b. produce estrogens: female reproduction development & maintenance c. produce progestins: involved in maintaining/preparing uterous for development d. controled by 2 hormones from pituitary gland i. LH: luterizing hormone ii. FHS: follicle stimulating hormone 8. Pineal Gland: behind hypothalmus in brain a. produce meelatonin: biological/circadian rhythms 9. Thymus Glands: above heart a. produce thymosin which matures T cells - peptide hormone doesn’t enter cell: it attach to surface receptor D. Hormones triggerings 1. hormone (usually steriod) diffuse through membrane  cytoplasm  nucleus; hormone binds to a receptor protein in nucleus => protein activate gene 2. Hormone (usu. Peptide) binds to receptor protein on plasma membrane (receptor-mediated endocytosis); protein stiimulates second messenger production a. Cyclic AMP: (cAMP) triggers enzyme that generate specific cellular changes 2+ b. Inositol triphosphate: IP3: produced from membrane phospholipds: trigger release o Ca from ER, which activate enzyme ======Animal Behavior======- Ethology: study o animal behavior - Behavioral ecology: study o behavior to explain how behavior increases animal’s reproductive success XVII. Kinds o Animal Behavior A. Instinct: inherited B. Fixed Action Pattern (FAP): innate behaviors which follow a pattern even if the end desired can no longer be fulfilled; caused by a stimulus C. Imprinting: acquired innate behavior during critical period 1. Lonenz: found thatgosling (til 2 days old) accept moving objects as mommy XVIII. Associated learning: animal understnads 2 events are connected 1. classical conditioning: animal perform act for substitute stimulus 2. Pavlov’s dogs: salivate for bell after repeated bell ringing before dinner D. Trial & Error: operant conditioning 1. Skinner: reward or punish rat based on lever they pushed a. if forgotten/reversed: extinction b. positive/negative reinforcement E. Habituation: animal disregard meanlingless stimuli F. Observational Learning: animal copies another animal 1. Japanese monkesy wash potatoes (one does, they all do) G. Insight: new situation & animal acts in a way that generates a desired outcome XIX. Chimp climbs/stacks boxes for food that is out o reach H. Some inate abiliities come only after maturation (isolated bird & flying) - inherited behaviors (innate) increase for fitness - Innate: good behaviors passed down for fitness - Associative: benefit from unexpected repeated events - Habituation: ignore repetitive events - Observation/Insight: learn new stuff w/o receiving reinforcements; time => behavior acquired I. Animal Movement 1. Kinesis: undirect movement in response to the environment, change in speed; so animals can remain in favorable environment (ex: roaches and light) 2. Taxis: directed movement in response to stimulus (to or away from stimulus) (ex: phototaxis: move toward light  moth) 3. Migration: seasonal/environmental changes II. Communication in Animals A. Chemicals or pheromones 1. releases pheromones: cause immediate/specific behavior changes 2. primer pheromones cause physiological changes B. Visual 1. aggressive, showy courting behavior a. linbergen discover in sickle back fish C. Auditory: sounds (esp. over water or @ night) D. Tactile: care, grooming, maturing 1. Frisch: bees cance to share food location III. Foraging Behaviors: maximize food eaten, minimize energy/dnager A. Herd/Flock/School 1. concealment 2. vigillance 3. defense B. Packs can take down/corner large prey C. Starch images: if new require extra scrutiny/time, ect IV. Social Behavior: solitary or in group A. aggressive or submissive: compete for food/mate/territory 1. ritualized => less dangerous & less time consuming B. Dominance Hierarchies 1. power/status o individual relationships or in groups a. less fighting C. Territorial active use/defend land 1. provide mate/food D. Altruistic Behavior 1. Defend other, help raise other’s young a. increase own & other’s fitness: kin selection (ex: Belding’s ground squirrel warn others; bees work so queen can reproduce: haplodiploid (girls diploid, boys haploid)) ======Ecology======- distribution/abundance o organism & their interactions with their environment I. Definitions A. population: group o individuals o same species living in the same area B. community: group o populations living in same area C. ecosystem: interrelationship between organism in a community & their environment D. biosphere: all regions o earth that contain living things 1. top few meters soil; lowest 10 km air; water bodies E. Habitat: place where org. usually lives (include: vegetation, other organism, temp, soil quality, H2O) F. Niche: all biotic & abiotic resources in the environment used by an organism 1. organisms effect on environment II. Population Ecology: growth abundance, distribution o population A. N = size; total # individuals in a population B. Density: # o individual/area or volume C. Dispersion: how individuals in a population are distributed (ex: clumped, etc.) D. Age structure: abundance o individuals o each age E. Survivorship curves 1. Type I: most species survive to middle age, after that mortality is high (1st quad: y=-x2+10) 2. Type II: length o survivorship is random (1st quad: y=-x+10) 3. Type III: most individual die young (ex: free swimming larvae) (1st quad: y=.5x) III. Population Growth A. biotic potential: maximum growth rate of population under ideal conditions w/ unlimited resource & no growth restrictions 1. effected by: age o reproductive maturity, clutch size, frequency o reproduction, reproductive lifetime, survivorship o offspring to reproductive maturity B. Carrying capacity: maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by a particular habitat C. Limiting factors: prevent population from reaching biotic potential 1. density dependent: great effect as population increase 2. density independent; factors independent o population D. Reproductive rate: r = (birth-death)/N (net increase/population in the beginning) 1. intrinsic rate: when reproductive rate = biotic potential E. Patterns R>0 1. Exponential growth (J): y=x2 2. Logistic Growth: limiting factors restrict population size to carrying capacity or K a. N/t = rN(K-N)/K b. pop. Increase, reproductive rate decrease to 0; population stabilizes c. Sigmoid curve: (S shaped thing) 3. Population Cycle: fluctuations in population due to limiting factor a. may oscillate around carrying capacity or crash into extinction b. c. Often population o predator is limited by food supply & prey are limited population- wise by predation 4. Life History Strategies a. R-selected species or opportunistic species - quickly enter habitat, quickly reproduce, die 5. K-Selected Species: size w/ population constant a. small # o big offspring require care, reproduction occurs in the 1st offpsring lifetime (unlike opportunistic species) IV. Human pop. Growth A. Human pop increase exponentially => increase carrying capacity by immigrating to uninhabited area (US) B. Increase food supply: domestic animal/plant, hunt/gather/  agriculture  agricultural technology advances C. Reduction in disease: medicine, vaccine, hygiene advances 1. decreased death rate, increased birth rate (actually, according to the Demographic curves we learned in Hollier’s class…) D. Reduction in human wastes: H2O purify, sewage system, less health risk E. Expansion o Habitat 1. better house, warm clothes, easy energy acces +. New land bc habitable (go Alaska!!) V. Community Ecology: interaction o population A. Interspecific competition: resolved by: 1. competitive exclusion principle (Gause’s principle) a. 2 species compete for 1 niche b. 1 is eliminated because 2 can’t coexist @ same time 2. Resource partitioning a. coexist in slight different niches b. pursue different sources in different ways (less competition, greater success) 3. Character displacement (niche shift) a. Resource partition => development o new characteristics b. divergence o characters between 2 species which are partitioning resources 4. Realized Niche: niche o organism occupies when competitors exist a. fundamental niche: organism’s niche if no competition, no niche overlap B. Predation: community interaction, animal totally or partially consume other plants/animal 1. true predator: kill/eat another animal 2. parasite: lives on/feeds on host, weaken/kill host 3. parasitoid: eggs are layed on host & eat (kill) it when development is complete 4. herbivore: gnanivores: eat seeds; grazers: eat grass; browsers: eat part o plant C. Symbiosis a. Mutalism, commensalism, parasitism (you know what these are) VI. Coevolution A. Natural selection: traits to make prey more ellusive, predator more successful often develop in response to each other 1. Secondary Compounds: toxin produced by plants to discourage predators 2. Cyptic coloration: camouflage a. color, patterns, shape, behavior that allows animal to blend w/ environment b. predator & prey use 3. Aposematic Coloration: warning colortion: warns predator o sting, bite, bad taste 4. Mimicry: a. Mullerian mimicry: several animals w/ same defense mechanism have same colors b. Batesian mimcry: animal w/o defense mimck the color o animal w/ defense VII. Ecological Succession: change in species composition overtime (in an area) A. Species Diversity (# o species) & total biomass (mass o all living organism) increase 1. climax community: produced by final stage o ecological sucession a. changed only by catastrophe event b. rarely attained 2. Succession occurs because animals alter their habitat; make favorable to new species or less favorable to current ones B. Changes 1. Substrate texture: change rock, sand, fertile soil, erosion, decomposition 2. Soil pH; decrease through decomposition 3. Soil H2O potential: soild ability to retain water 4. Light availibility: change as trees grow 5. crowding C. Animals move into an area in response to the plants that are there, animals change the nevironment D. Pioneer species: 1st to colonize new habitat 1. generally: r-selected, disperse quickly, grow fast, reproduce fast 2. tolerate harsh conditions 3. eventually replace by k-selected species (climax community attained) E. Types o Succession 1. Primary succession: occur on substnaces that never before supported life a. rock or lava: lichen hold moisture; erode rock into soil  bacteria, prist, moss, fungi  give soil nutrient  grassier ®  (k): tree/shrub b. sand dunes: grasses stabilize sand  shrub  2. Secondary Succession: event destroeyed previous communities: substrates already have soil a. succession in abandoned croplands (germination r species from seeds in soil, trees (pine  oak, hickory, dogwood) b. Succession in lakers/ponds (lake  marsh  meadow); sand/silt decompose i. submerge vegetation, vegetation @ lake edge, laker fill w/ sediment/vegetation VIII. Ecosystems: produce/utilize energy by trophic levels Trophic Levels 1. primary producer: autotrophs, sun  chemical energy 2. Primary Consumer: herbivores, eat primary producers 3. Secondary Consumer: herbivores eat primary producers 4. tertiary consumers: eat priamary consumers (primary carnivores) 5. detritivores: consumers, gain energy by eating dead (decompose) Ecological Pyramids: show relationship between trophic layers 1. pyramid o energy: (like Step Pyramid o Doser): producer  1 consumer  2 consumer, etc. 2. pyrmaid o biomass: savannah grass  herbivore  primary/secondary consumer) 3. pyramid o numbers: (hawk (1), bird (10), insect (1000), tree) XX. Ecological efficiency 1. 10% o energy is transferred from 1 trophic level to next (90%) used 2. food chain: linear flow chart: who eats who : grass  zebra  lion  vulture 3. food web: complete food chain 4. a. detritivores: eat all animal b. all plants/animals in an secosystem IX. Biogeochemical cycles Flow o Hydrologic Carbon cycle Nitrogen Cycle: Phosphorous elements: Cycle: H2O make amino/ cycle (make environment to cycle nucleaic acid ATP/ nucleaic animals acid) Resevoir: ocean, air, atmosphere, Atmosphere, Rocks Storage glacier, etc fossil fuel, peat, soil location for organic stuff essential elements Assimilation: animal drink, photosynthesis, Plants absorb, Plants absorb elements plant absorb animal (eating) animals get from soil, incorporated from food animals from into (*see below) food plant/animals Release: Transpire respiration; Denitrification Decomposition - process o (plant); decomp; (bacteria) NO3 & waste essential decompose (all) organic  N2; element materials burn ammorification returning to detrivorous environment bacteria return + to NH4 ; urine + 1. Nitrogen fixation: N2  NH4 by prokaryote & NO3 by UV & lightenting + - - + - 2. Nitrification: NH4  NO3  NO3 (bacteria); NH4  NO3 (by plants) X. Biomes: common environmental characteristics A. Tropical Rain forest (epiphytes); savannah; temperate grasslands (less water, lower temp); temperate deciduous forest (warm summer, cold winter); desserts; taigas (cold winter, snow, coniferous forest); tundras (permafrost, grassland, cold); fresh water biome; marine biome XI. Human impact on biosphere… bad A. pop. Increase => destroy habitat for agri/mine, pollute industry/transportation B. Greenhouse Effect: fossil fuel & less forest => increase CO2 => increase temperature => melt polar ice caps C. Ozone Depletion: chlorofluorocarbons destroy ozone which protects from UV rays D. Acid Rain: fossil fuels => SO2 & NO2 in air => acid rain => kill plants/animals E. Desertification: overgraze grassland => desert F. Deforestation: slash & burn, erode, flood, weather (is this human geo. Or bio?) G. Pollution: DDT (pesticide); organisms eat each other & toxins increase in concentration => biological magnification (algue bloom: oxygen deplete; eutrophication: nutrient enrichment in lakes) H. Reduction in species diversity => extinct

Diagram/pictures needed: cell division, pedigree, gastrula picture, plant (nodes, zone o elong), plants mono/dicot & root/stem; plant: leaf crosssection; muscle contract, heck… all body systems; eco. graphs, cell parts, important molecules,