A Christian Response to Female Circumcision in Kenya

A Study from the book entitled

Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture and Gender in Kenya by Mary Nyangweso Wangila

An Essay

in partial fulfillment for

Introduction to Sexuality Studies —required course for MCC clergy— MCC Manchester Learning, Manchester, England

Tutors: Rev. Andy Braunston and Rev. Jane Clarke

by Rev. Stephen R. Parelli, Bronx, NY

October 31, 2009 Table of Contents

Preface . . . . p 2

Introduction and Overview of Essay ...... p 3

1. Understanding the Role of Religion in Kenya...... p 4

1a. Why Female Circumcision Persists: The Role Religion Plays . . . p 5 1b. How Female Circumcision Can Be Eradicated: The Role Religion Must Play . . . p 6

2. Christian Authority and Female Circumcision in Kenya...... p 6

2a. The Relevant Bible Teachings and Biblical Principles . . . p 7 2b. The Relevancy of the Idea of Tradition in Kenya and in Christian Authority . . . p 9 2c. Conscience and Reason and Female Circumcision in Kenya . . . p 10

3. A Suggested Christian Approach to Curbing Female Circumcision in Kenya. . . . p 12

Mary Nyangweso Wangila's Five Strategies . . . p 12

3a. Christian Authority and Female Circumcision in Kenya . . . p 13 3b. Authentically Christian . . . p 14 3c. The Values of Metropolitan Community Churches . . . p 16

Sources Used in Compiling this Study ...... p 19

2 The word Westernization has sometimes been used as "a rhetorical device, predicated on double-standards and bad faith, used to smear selectively only those changes, those breaks with tradition, that those with authority to define 'tradition' deplore. Sometimes little attention is paid to how the word Westernization is used to resist even constructive changes." p 13, Female Circumcision, Mary Nyangweso Wangila

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"It is . . . important to distinguish misrepresentations and cultural imperialism from normatively justifiable criticisms of sociocultural institutions and values that promote this practice." p 14, Female Circumcision, Mary Nyangweso Wangila

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"Female circumcision encountered resistance in Kenya well before Western scholars attempted to condemn it." p 38, Female Circumcision, Mary Nyangweso Wangila

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"For many Christians and Muslims, the basis of moral values still derives from their Indigenous cosmology." p 38, Female Circumcision, Mary Nyangweso Wangila

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Go labor on: Spend and be spent, my joy to do the Father’s will; It is the way the Master went, should not the servant tread it still? —H. Bonar

3 Introduction and Overview of Essay

An estimated 100 million to 140 million girls and women worldwide have been circumcised. Each year another 3 million girls are circumcised.1 The practice occurs largely in Africa (28 countries) but also in Asia, the Middle East and parts of Europe and North America where immigrant communities can be found. 2

Mary Nyangweso Wangila, in her book Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya (2007), defines female circumcision as "a sociocultural practice that involves the pricking, piercing, stretching, burning, or excision, clitoridectomy, and/or the removal of part of or all tissues around a woman's reproductive organs and in some cases infibulations (the stitching together of the vulva in order to narrow the vaginal opening)."3

In Uganda the practice is legal, although President Yoweri Museveni recently called for its ban. "If a girl dies during circumcision that would be murder," said Press Secretary Tamale Mirundi. "The punishment for murder in Uganda is death. You will be hanged."4

In Kenya to the southeast, and further south still in Tanzania, where female circumcision is illegal, laws are not enforced and female circumcision still "runs rampant."

Based on a 1992 survey of four regions of Kenya, it is estimated that 50% of the female population participate in female circumcision.5

There are seven or eight forms of female circumcision. In Kenya, three types of female circumcision are performed on girls between the ages of four and sixteen: clitoridectomy

1 The World Health Organization 2 United Nations Children's Fund 3 Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York. p. 8. 4 CNN, July 2009 5 The survey was conducted by MYWO.

4 and excision,6 and some infibulations.7 In rural areas it is performed most often by women and generally without an anesthetic. In urban areas it may be performed in hospitals.

This essay discusses a possible Christian response to female circumcision in Kenya. This essay will show that Mary Nyangweso Wangila, in her book Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, argues that the role of religion in Kenya is central to understanding (1a) why female circumcision persists and (1b) how female circumcision can be eradicated.

Secondly, in keeping with the course assignment to discuss Christian authority, this essay will address, while discussing female circumcision in Kenya, (2a) which direct Bible teachings, or Biblical principles, are relevant, (2b) which Christian doctrines or aspects of "tradition" are relevant, and (2c) how conscience and reason impact the issue. Finally, this essay will suggest a Christian approach to female circumcision in Kenya that is in keeping with (3a) Christian authority, and is (3b) authentically Christian, and is (3c) in accordance with the values of Metropolitan Community Churches.

1. Understanding the Role of Religion in Kenya8

Mary Nyangweso Wangila is a Kenyan theologian and sociologist. In her book, Female Circumcision, she maintains that "religion can sanction social order and also challenge

6 "Removal of part or all of the clitoris and part or all of the labia minora. The vaginal opening is often occluded by the extensive scar tissue that results from the procedure. This makes sexual encounters painful." Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p. 3. 7 "Clitoridectomy and the excision of the labia minora and the inner layers of the labia majora. The raw edges are subsequently sewn together with catgut or made to adhere to each other by means of thorns. This causes the remaining skin of the labia majora to form a bridge of scar tissue over the vaginal opening. A small sliver of wood or straw inserted into the vagina prevents complete occlusion and thereby leaves a passage for urine and menstrual flow. The procedure is different when done in the hospital. Ibid., p. 3 8 This idea, the centrality of religion in Kenyan practices, is repeated multiple times throughout her book. It is a singular thought that the author is persistent in telling us, like a school teacher who might use repetition as her most significant teaching method. See, for example, p 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 35, 37, 68, 75, 99, 103, 125, 136, 162 and 163. The title of the book is an apt description of its contents: Female Circumcisions: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya.

5 it"9 and that in Kenyan this is especially true because "unlike modern Western world views that distinguish the sacred from the profane, Kenyans tend to seek religious explanations for everything that happens to them . . . It is important that any practice of the Kenyan people be perceived in this context."10 This centrality-of-religion-in- everything11 is a trait that generally characterizes Africa. Africans are "notoriously religious: wherever the African is, there is his religion: he carries it to the fields . . .; to the beer party or . . . funeral ceremony; to . . . school or . . . university; [and] if he is a politician, he takes it to the house of parliament."12

1a. Why Female Circumcision Persists: The Role Religion Plays13

In spite of Christian missionaries in the early part of the twentieth century to aggressively condemn the practice, female circumcision was, and remains, sanctioned by Kenya's religions, including, by some, the Christian religion.14 Early missionaries "who took on the task of condemning social and religious practices such as the dowry, polygamy, witchcraft, belief in the ancestral spirits, traditional dances, widow inheritance, sacrificial offerings, and, of course, female circumcision" were thought to be acting in cooperation with the oppressive imperialistic government.

This conclusion of missionary-imperialistic cooperation was argued from the standpoint that "polygamy" was obviously an acceptable Bible practice that missionaries could not explain away. Therefore, the rejection of female circumcision, like the ungrounded rejection of polygamy, was simply an imperialistic strategy to justify the eradication of female circumcision in order to "decrease their population" and "wipe out of existence the African species."15

9 Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 34. 10 Ibid., p 35 11 Ibid., p 15, "Religion is one of the main factors that define the social behavior of Kenyan people." 12 Ibid., p 35, The author is quoting John Mbiti. 13 Ibid., p 99, "Because religion so strongly influences social practices in general, it is important to understand the significant role religion plays in constructing the practice of female circumcision." 14 Ibid., p 105, "Female circumcision is one of the sociocultural practices sanctioned by religion." 15 Ibid., p 21

6 Indeed, early missionaries did seek the aid of, and did cooperate with colonial government in the attempt to eradicate female circumcision. Kenyatta, "the political figure who most symbolized nationalism and resistance to imperialism," upheld the practice of female circumcision comparing it to "the Jewish rite of circumcision" as "conditio sine qua non of the moral and religious teaching of the circumcising communities."16 Female circumcision, as a religious and moral rite, became identified with resisting the imperialistic government.

1b. How Female Circumcision Can Be Eradicated: The Role Religion Must Play

According to Mary N. Wangila, religion can and must play a role in eradicating female circumcision in Kenya. A reading of her book will yield the following reasons: (1) social behavior is informed and sanctioned by religion;17 (2) religion and every day living go hand-in-hand; (3) myths and religion have been comingled and must be set apart by the right use of religion;18 (4) sacred texts, with inherent authority, empower; (5) religious leaders and communities are very influential as religion is central to everything in life;19 (6) religion is, by definition, an institution for social justice20 as well as a sanctuary for the oppressed; and (7) the nature of the gospel is to set the captive free.

2. Christian Authority and Female Circumcision in Kenya

Secondly, in keeping with the course assignment to discuss Christian authority, this essay will address, while discussing female circumcision in Kenya:

2a. The Relevant Bible Teachings and Biblical Principles21

16 Ibid., p 121 17 Ibid., p 15, "Religion is one of the main factors that define the social behavior of Kenyan people." 18 Ibid., p 75, "Religious ideals promoting female circumcision can be countered only by the use of religious ideals that demystify any religious links associated with this practice." 19 Ibid., p 15, "In my interviews with Kenyan women, religion is one of the reasons consistently cited, not only for performing this practice, but also as a strategy for addressing the issue." 20 Ibid., p 68-69, "There is a need to be cautious of moral precepts in religions that can be used to justify inequality and deny fundamental human rights." 21 Ibid., p 99, "The role religion plays . . . citing religious statements . . . or interpreting religious texts."

7 Christianity, like Islam, does not, in its teachings, necessarily condone the practice of female circumcision. Nonetheless, religious justification has always been given, and is still given, among certain Christian and Muslim communities, for the practice of female circumcision.22

While it is difficult to categorize religious factors as distinct from social, psychological and aesthetic factors, there are persuasive arguments for female circumcision that might be considered particularly religious. These arguments are spiritual in nature and are tied to blessings or curses. Female circumcision is a cleansing ritual; it connects one to religious icons, like Abraham and Jesus who were also circumcised; it frees the soul from its bisexual state of being so that a clear distinction is made between male and female; it is decreed by the supernatural and therefore authoritative and to be received; the one who is circumcised will receive blessings associated with the gods, parents and ancestors, whereas the one who foregoes circumcision will suffer "infertility, still births, and the death of child or husband;"23

Sacred texts, with the assertion that they are divinely authoritative, play a significant role in legitimizing female circumcision in Kenya.24 Although "Christianity has been the most vocal in opposing the practice of female circumcision," Christian teachings, texts and narratives are used by Christian Kenyans to support the practice.25

As with Abraham (Genesis 17:1-27), so with female circumcision: circumcision, it is reasoned, is a sign of covenant between God and any individual. One Christian Kenyan woman who participated in an interview with Mary N. Wangila believes one's "righteous standing before God" is one's faith in God, but a faith testified to, by women, through female circumcision. "Since Abraham," she says, "was circumcised as a sign of his faith in God, we also should emulate him if we want to be righteous before God as he was."26

22 Ibid., p 19 23 Ibid., p 103 24 Ibid., p 105 "Religious narratives make custom normative and, most important, they contain the sacred authority to maintain them." 25 Ibid., p 119 26 Ibid., p 119

8 Christian tradition, as per The Ante-Nicene Fathers, would take issue with this Kenyan's reasoning if she is saying Abraham's circumcision was somehow tied in to his righteous standing before God: "Moreover, we learn from the Scripture itself, that God gave circumcision, not as the completer of righteousness, but as a sign, that the race of Abraham might continue recognizable."27 On the other hand, perhaps this Kenyan woman is expressing the idea Paul has in mind when he says, "He [Abraham] received the sign of circumcision as a seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised" (Romans 4:11, NRSV, 1989).

A second narrative is used to justify female circumcision. That Mary, the mother of Jesus, was a virgin indicates that she was circumcised. Only circumcised girls can be kept virgins. The very term itself – virgin – is a reference to unmarried women who have been initiated and therefore circumcised.28

In contradiction to those who appeal to the Abraham and Mary narratives, those who object to female circumcision cite the Apostle Paul to show that circumcision is not essential to the Christian faith (I Cor. 7:18-19).

Because some cultures practice female circumcision, and because language does not always distinguish between masculine and feminine pronouns, the TEV (Today's English Version) renders his in Leviticus 12:3 as the child so that the verse will not be misunderstood as a reference to female circumcision.29

2b. The Relevancy of the Idea of Tradition in Kenya and in Christian Authority

27 Roberts, Alexander ; Donaldson, James ; Coxe, A. Cleveland: The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol.I : Translations of the Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325. Oak Harbor : Logos Research Systems, 1997, S. 480. 28 Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 120. 29 Peter-Contesse, Rene ; Ellington: A Handbook on Leviticus. New York : United Bible Societies, 1992 (UBS Handbooks; Helps for Translating), S. 177.

9 "It is important to note that in Kenya, and in other African communities, tradition describes the various elements that legitimate the social structure."30 The same can be said about tradition and Christian belief. Tradition describes what the Church has believed in preceding ages. These traditions, to some degree, give legitimacy to what the Church does or does not teach today.

Male circumcision, the cutting off of the foreskin, most likely first occurred in prehistoric times. Besides Israel and Judaism, the practice was common among other peoples (for example, Egypt, see Jer. 9:25-26). In the New Testament book of Acts, the early Christians set male circumcision aside.

Islam does not practice female circumcision per se. However, some legal experts of Islam, like Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855) have sanctioned female circumcision.31 The Ethiopian Orthodox Church at times practices female circumcision.32

The Church Fathers, it would appear, did not find in the sacred text a reference, directly or by implication, in support of the practice of female circumcision. According to the The Ante-Nicene Fathers:

"And, furthermore, the inability of the female sex to receive fleshly circumcision (italics mine), proves that this circumcision has been given for a sign, and not for a work of righteousness. For God has given likewise to women the ability to observe all things which are righteous and virtuous; but we see that the bodily form of the male has been made different from the bodily form of the female; yet we know that neither of them is righteous or unrighteous merely for this cause, but [is considered righteous] by reason of piety and righteousness."33

30 Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 100. 31 Fahlbusch, Erwin ; Bromiley, Geoffrey William: The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leiden, Netherlands : Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999-<2003. 32 Ibid. 33 Roberts, Alexander ; Donaldson, James ; Coxe, A. Cleveland: The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol.I : Translations of the Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325. Oak Harbor : Logos Research Systems, 1997, S. 206.

10 The Church Fathers, following the first Christians, continued to set male circumcision aside:

"For if it [circumcision] were necessary, as you suppose, God would not have made Adam uncircumcised; would not have had respect to the gifts of Abel when, being uncircumcised, he offered sacrifice and would not have been pleased with the uncircumcision of Enoch, who was not found, because God had translated him. Lot, being uncircumcised, was saved from Sodom, the angels themselves and the Lord sending him out. Noah was the beginning of our race; yet, uncircumcised, along with his children he went into the ark. Melchizedek, the priest of the Most High, was uncircumcised; to whom also Abraham the first who received circumcision after the flesh, gave tithes, and he blessed him."34

"For Abraham was declared by God to be righteous, not on account of circumcision, but on account of faith. For before he was circumcised the following statement was made regarding him: ‘Abraham believed God, and it was accounted unto him for righteousness.’35

2c. Conscience and Reason and Female Circumcision in Kenya36

That rationality alone can inform one's ethics and indicate one's humanity, is a Western idea. In the West, relatedness is a biological and rational understanding. In Kenya, though biological and rational, too, relatedness goes beyond that and embraces a knowledge that is both supernatural and invisible. Behavior is rationalized on the basis of how everyone will be affected, "including the unborn and the spirits of the departed."37

Most Kenyan communities do not justify ethical norms by reason alone. Some form of mystery comes into play which cannot be rationally explained. Mystical forces, and not reason, are used to justify a misfortune, or someone's suffering, or an accident or 34 Ibid., S. 203. 35 Ibid., S. 245. 36 "In most Kenyan communities the establishment of norms for ethical conduct cannot be justified by reason alone." Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 37. 37 Ibid., p 36-37

11 diseases. Without any rational explanation, facts are established on the grounds of mystery. To object to female circumcision by making an appeal to reason, that it is, for example, "unnecessary" or "unnatural" is "doomed to fail."38

An individual can not exist in isolation. One only exists corporately, owing one's existence to the clan, the family, and departed spirits of past generations. "I am, because we are, and since we are, therefore I am"39 summarizes accurately what it means to be a human being. The West thinks in binary terms of either/or. Kenyans think in categories of both/and.

In interviews, fifty Kenyan women from Islam, Christianity and Indigenous religions, were asked why women choose to be circumcised. They were given four selections. Most responded by choosing more than one of the four selections. The number one reason, selected by all 50 interviewees, was "to curb sexual aggression." The next two choices were selected equally: 45 interviewees chose "social status" and "tradition, culture, religion (including Christianity, Islam, and Indigenous religions)."40 The last reason, selected by 30 interviewees, was "to attain a marriage partner."41

Factors that have tended to justify the practice of female circumcision include (1) sacred texts (Christian texts discussed above); (2) missionary attitudes toward Kenyan culture and (3) missionaries' cooperation with government officials to eradicate female circumcision (discussed above), and (4) the contextualization and enculturation of Kenyan values within the faith (the rise of AICs, Africa Initiated Churches42).

3. A Suggested Christian Approach to Curbing Female Circumcision in Kenya

Mary Nyangweso Wangila's Five Strategies

38 p 37 39 Ibid., p 36 quoting Mbiti 40 Ibid., p 105 "Violating purported religious decrees can be disastrous" 41 Ibid., p 101, Table 4 "Reasons for the practice of Female Circumcision, in Kenya (Sample of Fifty Women)" 42 Ibid., p 125

12 Effective strategies in curbing female circumcision43 will (1) seek solidarity among women as well as between women and men "who must resist [together]" cultural norms that are oppressive. Men44 must be in solidarity with women because "female circumcision is a socially instituted practice that serves the interest of both men and [as it is believed by society] women."

(2) Organizations must network for the purpose of (a) informing each other of social injustice, for (b) obtaining a workforce by learning who is available to help, and for (c) the purpose of educating the general public through "campaigns, brochures, stickers, and posters."

(3) Support for victims, regardless of their status, must be ensured by providing for "moral, psychological, medical and material support" through "providing shelter, counseling services, workshops, medical services, legal resources, and economic support."

(4) Women and even girls must speak out to raise the level of awareness so that "the power relations involved" will be voiced. Motivation and empowerment must be provided for victims to break the silence. Resources like the film The Day I Will Never Forget can illustrate how women speak out.

(5) "Finally, and most important, strategies . . . must be grounded in the religious systems of these communities."

To recap, a strategy for curbing female circumcision in Kenya should include: (1) Kenyan solidarity, (2) networking with organizations, (3) support for victims, (5) empowering women and girls to speak out, and (5) a grounding in the religions of circumcising communities.

43 Ibid., p 132 44 Ibid., p 79, "What is considered to be female sexuality is essentially the male-objectified expectations of what sexuality ought to be."

13 3a Christian Authority and Female Circumcision in Kenya

Christian authority, as outlined by John Wesley and rooted in his Anglican tradition, says "that when we do our theological reflection, we must draw on more than one source."45 The primary source is the Scriptures. Tradition, reason and experience are the other three sources for Christian authority. This is known as "the 'quadrilateral' interpretation of authority."46 Scripture, tradition and reason (coupled with conscience47), have all been addressed thus far in this essay. Here, we look at the fourth source of Christian authority, experience. "The Spirit, Wesley believed, inwardly validates God's truth through our experience. I believe that is true."48

Just like "social practices are often indistinguishable from religious beliefs,"49 experience can be wrongly felt, the sayings of the circumcising community preventing the participant from hearing inwardly what experience is really saying.

Morality, justice, and human worth are universal values that are basic to social justice.50 As universally accepted as these may be, religion, tradition, myth and accepted social norms, can prevent one's understanding of what is moral, just and of human worth. Scripture, tradition and reason may all fail when under the dominance of cultural norms. In the final analysis, it may fall to the inward voice of experience51 to tell us "to be cautious of moral precepts in religions that can be used to justify inequality and deny

45 Siker, Jeffrey S., editor, 1994, Westminster John Knox Press, Homosexuality in the Church: Both Sides of the Debate, Louisville, Kentucky. "Source for Body Theology: Homosexuality as a Test Case," James B. Nelson, p 78. 46 Ibid., p 78 47 In this essay I have followed the outline as provided from the course instructions and therefore have coupled reason and conscience together. My thinking, however, as developed in this segment of the essay and as briefly mentioned in class, is that scripture, tradition, reason and experience are the four "interpretations of authority." Conscience is informed by these four sources by which it makes its decisions. 48 Ibid., p 86 49 Ibid., p 37 50 Ibid., p 68 51 The inner voice of experience is perhaps an apt way to describe how Mark Twain in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn brings Hunk to the place where he can help a run away slave. Hunk helps the run away slave in spite of Scripture, tradition and reason, these there authorities addressing his conscience and arguing for the rightness of slavery in the South. Huck is willing to go to hell, as most certainly he will, by doing what he feels (experience) is right in helping the run away slave. His conscience, therefore, follows the impulses of experience.

14 fundamental human rights"52 and that "it is immoral to overlook the cries of those women and children who want nothing to do with the practice [of female circumcision] and especially those who are unable to make an informed choice, due to their ignorance of the potential risks associated with this practice."53

In Kenya, where scripture is tied to myth and cultural norms; where reason is centered in the sayings of the circumcising group; where tradition is the mere repetition of these same myths, cultural norms and sayings by the departed dead; then experience – that inward voice that says something is not right – is vitally important.

3b. Authentically Christian

The Christian gospel liberates the oppressed.54 Unjust indigenous practices incorporated into the Christian faith through the guise of contextualization and enculturation, belies the very heart of the gospel. To enculturate the sociocultural practice of female circumcision into the Christian faith without providing for an informed consent from those who are subjected to circumcision, is unjust. If enculturation means "analysis of the culture" is blindly dismissed, then organizations like AIC (Africa Initiated Churches) fail to "ensure the welfare of all members of the community" (italics mine).55

We dismantle moral evils "by analyzing and critiquing the social institutions that promote [them]."56 This is pure and undefiled religion.57 Because religion "grounds reality in the extraordinary – the sacred," it is a significant force for social good (or social evil).58

52 Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 68-69. 53 Ibid., p 17 54 Ibid., p 142-145, See the author's discussion on Liberation Theology. 55 Ibid., p 125 56 Ibid., p 135 57 James 1:27 NRSV, 1989, "Religion that is pure and undefiled before God, the Father, is this: to care for orphans and widows in their distress, and to keep oneself unstained by the world." 58 Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p136.

15 Five different strategies to curb female circumcisions were suggested to fifty Kenyan women. Each participating in the interview could select as many strategies as she deemed significant. "Educate and sensitize communities on risk," was chosen by 49 women. 43 women chose "Use religion to teach about attitudes toward female circumcision." "Select alternative rite of passage" was chosen by only 14 women. Only 13 women chose "Reward girls who say no to female circumcision," and only 10 chose "use law or prosecute those encouraging female circumcision."59

Education60 and religion far outflanked the other choices. The use of force was the least likely choice. Most people will reject the oppression of others (and themselves) when they are motivated to do so through education, through an understanding of justice versus injustice (often equated with religious values), and through an understanding of the needs of the community.61

Some churches in Kenya provide shelters for girls who have run away in order to resist coming under the knife of female circumcision (as shown in the film The Day I Will Never Forget). Some of these same churches, like the Norwegian Lutheran mission in the Pokot area, also provide educational programs to address the issues of female circumcision. The Norwegian Lutheran church has seen encouraging results from their "information services." Pokot women are "hungering for education and information and [are] receptive to information about health complications following female genital mutilation (FGM)."62

Just like social practices and norms must be scrutinized, so too must Christian teachings. For example, during the first centuries of the Christian era, dualism, a Greek idea that the spirit world is good and the physical world is evil, negatively influenced the Christian view of the body, human sexuality, and gender. Many of the Church Fathers adopted a

59 Ibid., p 134, "Table 8. Views on Possible Strategies to Curb Female Circumcision 60 Ibid., p 149, "Because there are Christians who believe that Christian teachings actually sanction practices such as female circumcision and because segments of a community may not be Christian, it is important to employ a variety of strategies in designing educational programs." 61 Ibid., p 135 62 Ibid., p 135

16 dualistic world and life view. "This dualism identified masculinity with transcendence, rationality, and logos, and femininity with immanence, emotionality, and eros. It was believed that the higher or male reality must dominate and control the lower female reality."63 In this instance, "values and structures . . . have outlived their meaning" and when they are socially critiqued, they give way to social change.64

Basic human rights apply to all – both to the individual him/herself and to groups of individuals like children and women – by the simple reality that all are human (Wynter).65 Impartial sympathy, which asks "how would I want to be treated in a similar situation," ensures that the rights of all will be protected.66 This impartial sympathy is commonly called the golden rule. "Jesus' message should be presented to Christians in Kenya as a message of liberation from all practices that harm and dehumanize people. Christ seeks to empower those who are unaware of their oppressive cultural practices."67

3c The Values of Metropolitan Community Churches

In keeping with the MCC value "to act on behalf of those who cannot effect change on their own," the MCC Global Justice Center and Team works worldwide "to build bridges that liberate and unite voices of sacred defiance." MCC's Statement of Vision calls its constituents to "Do justice, show kindness and live humbly with God (Micah 6:9)" as did Jesus.68

The MCC Human Rights Protocol affirms that "the demand of God for justice is so central that other responses to God are empty or diminished if they exist without it (Amos 5:1-24; Micah 6:6-8; Matthew 23:23)." In building bridges, The Global Justice Center has specified guidelines around the following headings: "Go where invited; Assume we have a lot to learn; Listen to our hosts; Forge partnerships; Respond when requested

63 Ibid., p 89 64 Ibid., p 13 65 Ibid., p 64 66 Ibid., p 65 67 Ibid., p 149 68 www.mccchurch.org.

17 (TV/press conferences); Be flexible to the realities and differences in establishing churches internationally."69

These MCC Global Justice guidelines (positive – what to do) dovetail with the reasons (negative – what not to do) Mary N. Wangila gives for failed strategies when "attempting to curb the practice of female circumcision." Causes for failed strategies are: "(1) disregard for the cultural context, values, and reality that inform the practice; (2) failure to distinguish among the forms of the practice; (3) imperialistic assumptions about the practice and the communities that perform it; (4) the tendency of these strategies to adopt an alien, coercive, or confrontational approach; and (5) failure to acknowledge the agency of women in circumcising communities and the need to empower them to critique and transform social behavior."70

MYWO and PATH 71in Kenya, RAINBO in New York and London, and AAWORD in Africa are organizations that should be consulted when considering strategies for curbing female circumcision.72

"Kenya," writes Mary N. Wangila, "has made some significant efforts by creating women's departments in key ministries such as education, agriculture, health, appropriate technology, technical training and culture, and social services."73 In creating these departments, Kenya did so "by building on . . . international principles of equality espoused by the UN Charter (1948), such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,74 the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the 1979 CEDAW, and the Declaration on the Participation of Women in the Promotion of International Peace and Cooperation."75 In addition, events and significant occasions such

69 Ibid., Written by Rev. Elder Diane Fisher; adopted by the MCC Board of Elders, August 11, 2008. 70 Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 130. 71 Ibid., p 73 72 Ibid., p 131 73 Ibid., p 29 74 Ibid., p 67-68, M. N. Wangila discusses the failed validity of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in some societies in Africa because Africa was not present at the UN in 1948 and because "most African societies do not consider a non-socialized individual [to be] a self-reflecting being . . . The human group takes precedence over the human person." 75 Ibid., p 29

18 as "the proclamation of 1975 as the International Women's Year by the 1972 UN General Assembly Resolution 3010, the UN General Assembly's 1976 proclamation of the UN's Decade for Women (1976-85) (Resolution 3520), and the 1985 Nairobi Forward Looking Strategy . . . have inspired efforts to advance the status of women in Kenya."76

76 Ibid., p 28-29

19 Sources used in Compiling this Study

Fahlbusch, Erwin ; Bromiley, Geoffrey William: The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leiden, Netherlands : Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999-<2003.

Holy Bible, New Revised Standard Version, 1989.

Peter-Contesse, Rene ; Ellington: A Handbook on Leviticus. New York : United Bible Societies, 1992 (UBS Handbooks; Helps for Translating).

Roberts, Alexander ; Donaldson, James ; Coxe, A. Cleveland: The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol.I : Translations of the Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325. Oak Harbor : Logos Research Systems, 1997.

Siker, Jeffrey S., editor, 1994, Westminster John Knox Press, Homosexuality in the Church: Both Sides of the Debate, Louisville, Kentucky. "Source for Body Theology: Homosexuality as a Test Case," James B. Nelson.

Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York.

Internet Sources

CNN News Report (The World Health Organization, UN Children's Fund). Metropolitan Community Churches.

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