N Identify the Qualities of a Critical Thinker
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Chapter 4 Critical Thinking Skills Objectives Identify the qualities of a critical thinker Identify assumptions, ethics, and values in written works Discern fallacies in arguments Control psychologic impediments to sound reasoning Recognize the effects of authors’ background belief on reasoning Present valid facts, evidence, and statistics, and rhetoric
What is Critical Thinking? Many definitions have been give for it One such is emancipation, which means freedom from restraint or influence Things that restrain or influence people can be personal, institutional, or environmental Emancipatory learning means that the learners become aware of the forces that have created the circumstances of their lives and take action to change them Another definition focuses on the use of morality and virtues, making wise judgments about aspects of one’s life, and recognizing the impacts of these judgments will have on others Some stress the importance of recognizing reality in the context of cultural elements and the process of trying to create order in a changing world. Learning how to live and work in this changing world makes critical thinking more important than ever When we speak of making wise decisions, we are judging decisions made within the framework of a value system that is universally understood. It is equated with logical reasoning abilities and reflective judgment
The Qualities of a Critical Thinker Critical thinkers are valued for their ability to look at a situation from a variety of perspectives Critical thinkers need to possess certain characteristics Humane – presence of heart and mind; able to balance compassion with realism Analytical – means finding evidence in unclear and confusing situations; rushing into a plan without examining the ramifications of that action can be very dangerous Rational – rational thinkers recognize reality; they can discern what is factual and true from what is opinion or misinformation; recognize the difference between what is true and what we wish were true The Qualities of a Critical Thinker Open-minded – disagreements are not uncommon, but a heated confrontation can be diffused by the willingness of the critical thinker to listen and understand Systematic – patience and organization allow a person time to gather evidence, test ideas, and systemically work through tough problems and complex questions; resist the desire to reach a solution before all the facts are in Inquisitive – this nature will lead a person to seek knowledge from many sources; this is a quality found in effective learners
Factors That Hinder Critical Thinking Background beliefs Religious training, attitudes of society, cultural traditions, and teaching from parents and school teachers form our background beliefs These beliefs are the stabilizing forces that guide us and the glue that holds society together They are the most deeply ingrained beliefs and thus the most intensely defended
Faulty reasoning Occurs when biased or false information is stated as fact This is the aim of advertising Endorsements by a public figure will lend credibility to the advertiser's claims that the product is the best Ultimate goal is persuading you to by the product We reason that statistics are accurate and unquestionable
Group loyalty There is a natural cohesiveness in a social group called the herd instinct All members follow a predetermined set of behaviors; there is a desire to gain status within the group Success in everyday life depends to a great extent on being accepted by your social group Instinct makes us aware that our survival depends on the survival of the group
Frozen mind set Centered at maintaining status quo Early in childhood we learn to go along with the group and base our actions on group approval This is so deeply ingrained in some people that no amount of evidence will change their minds Factors That Hinder Critical Thinking Emotional baggage Almost everyone has issues they feel strongly about and will defend vigorously Some issues that many have emotional ties to are abortion, gun control, the death penalty, censorship, etc When you have identified the issue that causes you anger or discomfort, it helps to seek out information on both sides of the argument Learn why those whose position runs counter to yours feel the way they do and on what basis their opinions rest
Becoming a Critical Thinker Humility The first step in becoming a critical thinker is to make a humble approach and be open to learning It is acceptable, even admirable, to admit that you are not sure or that you need more information
Respect for others To live peacefully in a diverse society, we must be tolerant of many different cultures and traditions
Self-awareness Recognize the things that make you glad, the things that make you sad, and the things that make you mad As you grow and develop in your critical thinking ability, the issues that bring forth an emotional response will become more evident, and you will be able to deal with them more effectively
Honing your Skills Practice helps you to develop your skills in critical thinking As issues arise, consciously and deliberately look at them for several points of view, and weigh the evidence on the most reliable and convincing basis Will enable you to resist making instant judgments and taking rash actions
Conclusion Critical thinking is a term used to describe thinking based on a universal value system Characteristics are compassion, patience, respect for others’ opinions, open mindedness, and the ability to be analytical As a health care provider, you will be confronted with many issues requiring logical judgment and rational action Critical thinkers will be aware of their values and know the reason and consequences of the action taken Chapter 5 The History of Medicine Prehistoric and Ancient Medicine Disease was present on earth long before human life We can only speculate about the human practice of prehistoric medicine Egyptian mummies and radiographic images of the ‘ice man” show characteristics of arteriosclerosis, pneumonia, stones, parasites, cavities, abscesses, tubercular disease, etc. Until well into the 19th century, medical treatment was intertwined with religion and magic Some cultures treated their sick, elderly, and disabled with kindness Other cultures, during times of famine, sent the elders out into unsheltered environment Some even killed and ate disabled tribe members Disease was thought to be caused by gods and spirits, and magic was used to drive away evil forces The Mesopotamians studied hepatoscopy, which is the detailed examination of the liver They believed the liver was the seat of life and the collecting point of blood Even though gods and magic still played an important role in medicine, rational thought about nature’s relationship to health began to increase The ancient Hebrews still considered disease to be divine punishment and a mark of sin Hebrew medicine was influenced by the Greeks around the fourth century BC with an emphasis placed on anatomy and physiology, diet, massage, and drugs Disease was considered an imbalance of the four humors of the body: phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile
Ancient Egypt The deities of ancient Egypt were associated with health, illness, and death Isis was the healing goddess Hathor was the mistress of heaven and the proctor of women during childbirth Keket ensured fertility The ancient Egyptians linked anatomy and physiology with theology; each body part had a special deity as its proctor Ancient India They believed (as do many contemporary Indians) that life was an eternal cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction Their religion allowed secular medicine and sound, rational health care practices They detected diabetes by the sweetness of the patient’s urine and treated snakebites with tourniquets. They also performed cesarean sections
Ancient China Harmony was considered to be a delicate balance between yin and yang, and Tao was considered “the way” Illness was seen as a disregard for Tao or acting contrary to natural laws Chinese medicine focused on the prevention of disease Had developed an inoculation against smallpox by the eleventh century Believed in five methods of treatment Cure the spirit Nourish the body Give medications Treat the whole body Use acupuncture and moxibustion* Powdered plant is burned on the skin
Ancient Greece In the sixth century BC, Greeks built the healing temples of Asclepios in Thessaly Temples contained a statue of a god to whom gifts were often given as a sign of worship Abaton – building considered an incubation site where the cure took place; patient went to sleep there and was cured by the god Healing rituals began after sundown and often involved fasting or abstinence from certain food or wine
Pre-Hippocratic Medicine Heraclitus (540-480 BC) – believed fire was the principal element of life Anaximenes (circa 546 BC) – believed air was the element necessary for life Anaximander (610-547 BC) – believed that all living creatures originated in water Thales (625-547 BC)- professed that the basic element in animal and plant life was water By the sixth century BC, earth, air, fire, and water were accepted as the basic components of life on earth Hippocrates Hippocraties established himself as the “father of medicine” He taught that one should observe all, study the patient rather than the disease, evaluate honestly, and assist nature He employed few drugs and relied upon the healing powers of nature His writings addressed mental illness, anxiety, and depression
Christianity The dawn of Christianity changed many attitudes about medicine Christians sought to bring the “healing message of Christ” to those in need The Church dominated medicine during the Dark Ages, and practices involved prayer, exorcism, holy oil, relics of saints, supernaturalism, and superstition At the same time, medical schools separate from Church were established and soon became part of major universities
The Renaissance Paracelsus, the “father of pharmacology”, combined alchemy with the treatment of disease to produce a new science Jean Fernel professed that physiology, pathology, and therapeutics were the standard disciplines of medicine Andreas Versallus, his dissections and drawings prompted his designation as the “father of anatomy” Ambroise Pare was a forerunner in clinical surgery Jan Baptisa van Helomnt made the first measurement of the relative weight of urine Galileo presented the laws of motion in a mathematical manner Isaac Newton discovered gravity William Harvey found that there is a continuous circulation of blood in a contained body system Christian Huygens developed the centigrade system for measuring temperature Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit developed a self-named system for temperature measurement Marcello Malpighi and Anton van Leeuwenhoek were forerunners in the invention of the microscope Quinine was discovered as a treatment for malaria
The Eighteenth Century Albrecht von Haller studied the nervous system, discovered the relationship of the brain cortex, peripheral nerves, and became the founder of modern physiologic theory Giovanni Battista Morgagni, “the father of pathology”, correlated anatomy with pathology Edward Jenner formulated the smallpox vaccination The Nineteenth Century Autopsies were the major focus of medicine Rudolf Virchow professed that “all cells come from other cells” Claude Bernard discovered the principle of homeostasis J. Marion Sims laid the foundation for gynecology and founded the Women’s Hospital of the State of New York; also invented the Sims’ position and later the speculum and catheter Anesthesia entered surgery, procedures multiplied in number and complexity Joseph Lister discovered that bacteria were often the origin of disease and infection The foundation for modern genetics was laid by Gregor Mendel in 1886 November 8, 1895, Conrad Wilhelm Roentgen discovered and described x-rays
The Twentieth Century Electron microscope invented in 1930 The Salk vaccine virtually eliminated polio Major organ transplants Artificial hips and knees Plastic surgery CT, MRI, digital radiography, nuclear medicine, sonography, benefit from the merging of computers with imaging technology
The Twenty-First Century The second millennium AD continues with a rapid expansion of technology and information The accumulation of knowledge accelerates at an unprecedented pace, doubling every 15 to 18 months Research into genetics has greatly expanded our knowledge about heredity with the deciphering of the DNA code The International Space Station is doing research in the fields of human physiology and pharmacology Biotechnology is opening new frontiers in treatment on a daily basis
Health and Disease The World Health Organization defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” Sheldon defines disease as “the pattern of response of a living organism to some form of injury”; “should be viewed as disordered function rather than only as altered structure” Health and Disease Measuring health status is a time-consuming, complicated, and often subjective process We rely on data that indicate rates of mortality (death rate) and morbidity (occurrence of disease or conditions) Its apparent that Americans are live longer and have fewer acute episodes of illness than ever before, but we have more chronic conditions than ever: arthritis, respiratory diseases, heart and circulatory problems, cancer, allergies, alcohol and drug abuse, etc
Mortality The Center for Disease Control (CDC), through its National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), gathers and publishes data on life and death statistics in the United States The mission of the CDC is to promote health and quality of life by preventing and controlling disease, injury, and disability
15 Leading Causes of Death in the U.S. Cancer Heart disease Cerebrovascular accident (stroke) Chronic lower respiratory diseases Accidents (unintentional injuries, including motor vehicle fatalities Diabetes mellitus Influenza and pneumonia Alzheimer’s disease Nephritis (kidney disease) Septicemia (blood infection) Suicide Chronic liver disease and cirrhosis Hypertension (high blood pressure) Parkinson’s disease Pneumonitis (inflammation of the lungs)
General Population Mortality Ages 1 to 44 – leading cause of death is accidents Ages 45 to 64 – leading cause of death is cancer Ages over 65 years – leading cause of death is heart disease HIV mortality has declined by more than 70% since 1995 HIV no longer ranks among the top 15 causes of disease in the U.S. Over 40,000 – number of annual deaths in women from breast cancer Over 39,000 – number of annual deaths in men from prostrate cancer Special Causes of Death Drugs Death rate is approximately 4.3 per 100,000 persons Death rate among males is more than twice the rate of females Death rate for the black population is nearly twice that of the white population
Alcohol Death rate is approximately 6.8 per 100,000 persons Death rate among males is 3.5 times higher than the death rate for females Death rate for blacks is nearly 2.5 times higher than the death rate for whites
Morbidity Previously defined as the rate of occurrence of disease or conditions Primary causes of disablement, medical intervention, health care expenditures, and overall lack of wellness in the United States: Obesity Mental and emotional disorders, including alcohol and drug abuse Diseases of the cardiovascular system Arthritis Epilepsy Cerebral palsy Multiple sclerosis Parkinson’s disease Muscular dystrophy Hearing and visual impairments Mental retardation Diabetes mellitus Cancer
Life Expectancy Overall U.S. life expectancy is 77.6 years Female to male gap has closed to 5.3 years Averages in the 21st century White females: 80.5 years Black females: 76.1 years White males: 75.4 years Black males: 69.2 years At age 65, life expectancy is as follows: All Americans: an additional 18 years All males: an additional 16 years All females: an additional 20 years Emerging Infectious Diseases Emerging infectious diseases – refers to diseases of infectious origin whose incidence in humans has either increased within the past two decades or threatens to increase in the near future Modern medicine has eradicated smallpox and is nearing the elimination of polio Other targeted diseases include: Guinea worm Onchocerciasis (river blindness) Syphilis Rabies Measles TB Leprosy
Epidemic – a widespread infectious disease within a given geographical area Pandemic – an infectious disease of global proportions Infectious diseases account for 25% of all visits to physicians each year Antimicrobial agents are the second most frequently prescribed class of drugs in the U.S.