Chapter 7: Public Opinion

CHAPTER 7 Public Opinion OBJECTIVES The purpose of this chapter is to explore what we mean by public opinion and to ask what sort of effects public opinion has on America’s purportedly democratic form of government. After reading and reviewing the material in this chapter, the student should be able to do each of the following: 1. Explain the role of public opinion in the American democratic system 2. Discuss the basic elements of polling and explain how polling reflects the attitudes of people generally 3. Discuss the role of the family in the political socialization of today’s youth 4. Explain why there are crosscutting cleavages between liberals and conservatives in this country; assess the significance of social class, race and ethnicity, and geographic region in explaining political attitudes 5. Define political ideology, and describe the ideological differences between the average public and the political elites. OVERVIEW It is difficult to speak of “public opinion” in the United States. This is partly because there are many publics, with many different opinions. It is also partly because opinion on all but relatively simple matters tends to be uninformed, unstable, and sensitive to different ways of asking poll questions. The chief sources of political opinion are the family, religion, information media, and schooling. Once occupation (or income) was a central determinant of opinion, but with the spread of higher education, the connection between occupational status (or income) and opinion is no longer quite so close. Today, greater cleavages in opinion are related to social class (in which schooling is an important component) and region. Political ideology guides political opinion, but measuring ideology is often difficult. Typically, Americans do not use ideological terminology when reporting or discussing their political opinions, and most survey instruments are incapable of fully measuring the relationship between ideology and political opinion. Furthermore, survey participants are often reluctant to share their ideological opinions if they perceive those opinions to be socially or morally unacceptable. Political elites are much more likely to display a consistent ideology, whether liberal or conservative. Elites are important because they have a disproportionate influence on public policy. They also influence mass opinion through the dissemination of information and the evocation of political norms. CHAPTER OUTLINE WITH KEYED-IN RESOURCES I. Public opinion and democracy A. Should government leaders do what the people want? B. Reasons for discrepancies between public opinion and government policies 1. Constitutional structure limits influence of public opinion: a) Purpose of government is not to do what the people want; purpose is found in the six items mentioned in the Preamble to the Constitution b) Government structure contains several checks on public opinion: representative government, federalism, separation of powers, and independent judiciary. 2. Discerning public opinion is difficult. II. What is public opinion? (Definition: How people think or feel about particular things) A. People do not spend a great deal of time thinking about politics; results: 1. High levels of public ignorance: for example, Monetary Control Bill ruse 2. Despite being poorly informed, citizens are quite good at using cues (limited information) to figure out which candidates and positions reflect their values or interests. 3. Public opinion less fickle than previously thought B. How polling works (THEME A: PUBLIC OPINION POLLING) Chapter 7: Public Opinion

1. Need to pose reasonable questions that are worded fairly 2. Have to ask people about things for which they have some basis to form an opinion 3. Random sampling is necessary to ensure a reasonably accurate measure of how the entire population thinks or feels. 4. Sampling error reflects the difference between the results of two surveys or samples. 5. Exit polls—interviews with randomly selected voters conducted at polling places on Election Day—have proven quite accurate. 6. Polling techniques a) For populations over 500,000, pollsters need to make about 15,000 phone calls to reach 1,065 respondents, ensuring the poll has a sampling error of only +/– 3 percent. b) Polling firms can economize by using smaller than ideal samples but this reduces the reliability of the poll. c) Low response rates harm reliability. C. How opinions differ 1. Opinion saliency: some people care more about certain issues than other people do. 2. Opinion stability: the steadiness or volatility of opinion on an issue 3. Opinion-policy congruence: the level of correspondence between government action and majority sentiment on an issue 4. Political socialization: the process by which personal and other background traits influence one’s views about politics and government a) Children tend to share parents’ political orientations. b) Opinion seems to vary in ways associated with class, race, religion, gender, and other characteristics. c) But people with similar family histories, religious affiliations, formal educations, and job experiences do not think or vote exactly the same way. 5. Mass and elite opinions differ a) Elites know more about politics. b) Elites are more likely to hold a consistent set of opinions about the policies government ought to pursue. III. Political socialization; the family A. The role of family 1. Majority of high school students know and support the party affiliation of their parents. 2. Genetic background explains much of our political ideology. a. Studies of identical versus fraternal twins show that identical twins (who share same genetic makeup) are more likely to hold the same political views than fraternal twins (who share one-half of the same genetic makeup). b. One-third of differences about political beliefs come from genetic sources. Only one-tenth of these differences come from family influence. 3. although genetics can explain only one-half of our political beliefs, the remaining half is affected by our life experiences, friendships, and education. 4. However, genetics does not explain party preference, which is still heavily influenced by the political affiliation of our parents. 5. In recent years, fewer people identify with a political party, so partisan preference is more difficult to pass along to children. a) Age-related differences also appear in opinions on several issues, such as gay marriage, women’s rights, government vouchers for education, and investment of Social Security contributions in stock market accounts. Most of today’s eighteen- to twenty-four-year-olds believe that politics has become too partisan, but most believe that getting involved in politics is honorable. Chapter 7: Public Opinion

6. Younger voters typically exhibit less partisanship; they are more likely to be independent. 7. Clear political ideologies are passed on in only a few families. B. Religion 1. Most Americans remain somewhat or deeply religious but question religion’s role in politics. 2. Differences between religions are quite complicated, and vary with particular issues. a) Religious influences on public opinion are pronounced, with respect to social issues like abortion or gay rights. b) Opinions about politics vary not only across but also within religious traditions. C. The gender gap 1. Gender gap is the difference in political views between men and women. 2. Differences in voting behavior between men and women: a) From 1920 to 1980, fewer women voted than men; since 1980, women have voted at somewhat higher rates than men. b) Women are a larger proportion of the voting-age population. c) Women are more likely to support Democratic candidates. (1) Between 1980 and 2008, women were more likely to support Democratic presidential candidates. (2) The Democratic Party places greater emphasis on issues that women believe matter most. IV. Cleavages in public opinion (THEME B: GROUP CLEAVAGES, POLITICAL ATTITUDES, AND POLITICAL IDEOLOGY) A. Social class: ill defined in United States, though recognized in specific cases (for example, truck drivers and investment bankers) 1. Social class less important in United States than in Europe; extent of cleavage has declined in both places. 2. Class differences on political views and voting patterns narrowed considerably during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. 3. Class differences that remain: unskilled workers are more likely to be Democrats than affluent white-collar workers. 4. Noneconomic issues now define liberal and conservative. 5. Moral, symbolic, and foreign-policy issues do not divide the rich and poor in the same way. B. Race and ethnicity 1. African Americans a) Overwhelmingly Democratic b) Younger blacks are slightly more likely to identify with Republicans and to support government school voucher programs. c) Continuing differences between white and black attitudes on policy questions d) Areas of agreement between whites and blacks on policy issues 2. Latinos and Asians a) Scant public opinion information for Latinos and Asian Americans b) Latinos tend to identify as Democrats, though not as strongly as African Americans. c) Asians are even more identified with the Republican party than are whites. d) Asian opinion on issues of order more like Anglo opinion than like black or Hispanic opinion. e) Latinos are somewhat more liberal than Anglos or Asians, but less liberal than African Americans. f) Important differences within Asian and Hispanic groups. Chapter 7: Public Opinion

g) Broad areas of agreement between Latinos and non-Hispanic whites C. Region 1. White southerners were once more conservative than other regions regarding aid to minorities, legalizing marijuana, school busing, and rights of the accused. 2. White southerners were similar to other regions regarding economic issues. 3. Historically, the South is more accommodating to business interests (and less accommodating to organized labor) than the North. 4. Southerners now significantly less Democratic than they were for most of the twentieth century. 5. No Democratic presidential candidate has won a majority of white Southern votes since Lyndon Johnson did so in 1964. In 2008, Barack Obama won with one-half the white vote nationally while only receiving 30 percent of the white vote in the South. V. Political ideology A. Definition: A more or less consistent set of beliefs about what policies government ought to pursue B. Measuring ideology 1. Measured in two different ways: a) Seeing how frequently people use broad political categories to describe or justify their own views and preferences b) Seeing to what extent a citizen’s policy preferences are consistent over time or are based on consistent principles 2. Self-identification survey averages do not yield much information about ideology. a) Most Americans do not think about politics in an ideological manner. b) Limitations of polling make it difficult to uncover ideological preferences. c) Some people are reluctant to reveal socially or morally unacceptable positions. C. Mass ideologies 1. Pollsters use survey data to characterize ideology through the identification of key values. 2. “Liberals” and “disadvantaged Democrats” represent one-third of registered voters and one-fourth of the general public. 3. Various combinations of conservatives and “Republican enterprisers” represent almost one-half of registered voters and over 40 percent of the general public. 4. Nearly one in five Americans are cynical about or are indifferent to politics. D. Liberal and Conservative elites 1. Definition: those who have a disproportionate amount of some valued resource 2. Elites (usually known as activists) display greater ideological consistency a) They have more information and more interest in politics than most people, so they may see more relationships among the issues. b) Their peers reinforce this consistency. VI. Political elites, public opinion, and public policy A. Elites influence public opinion in two ways: 1. Raise and frame political issues 2. State norms by which to settle issues and define policy options B. Limits to elite influence on the public 1. Elites do not define economic, crime, and other problems that are rooted in personal experience. 2. Elites contradict and disagree with each other, limiting their influence.

WEB RESOURCES American National Election Studies: www.electionstudies.org The Gallup Organization: www.gallup.com Chapter 7: Public Opinion

Public Agenda Online: www.publicagenda.org Roper Center for Public Opinion Research: www.ropercenter.uconn.edu RealClearPolitics—Polls: www.realclearpolitics.com/polls IMPORTANT TERMS elite People with a disproportionate amount of some valued resource exit polls Polls based on interviews conducted on Election Day with randomly selected voters gender gap Difference in political views between men and women norm A standard of right or proper conduct political elite Persons with a disproportionate share of political power political ideology A more or less consistent set of beliefs about what policies government ought to pursue political socialization Process by which background traits influence one’s political views poll A survey of public opinion public opinion How people think or feel about particular things random sample Method of selecting from a population in which each person has an equal chance of being selected sampling error The difference between the results of random samples taken at the same time Chapter 7: Public Opinion

THEME A: PUBLIC OPINION POLLING INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES HERBERT ASHER. POLLING AND THE PUBLIC: WHAT EVERY CITIZEN SHOULD KNOW. 7TH ED. WASHINGTON, DC: CQ PRESS, 2007. ADAM J. BERINSKY. SILENT VOICES: PUBLIC OPINION AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN AMERICA. PRINCETON, NJ: PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2005. CLEM BROOKS AND JEFF MANZA. WHY WELFARE STATES PERSIST: THE IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC OPINION IN DEMOCRACIES. CHICAGO: UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, 2007. DON A. DILLMAN. MAIL AND INTERNET SURVEYS: THE TAILORED DESIGN METHOD. 2ND ED. HOBOKEN, NJ: WILEY, 2007. ROBERT S. ERIKSON. AMERICAN PUBLIC OPINION: ITS ORIGIN, CONTENTS, AND IMPACT. BOSTON: ALLYN AND BACON, 2000. ALEC M. GALLUP AND FRANK NEWPORT, EDS. THE GALLUP POLL: PUBLIC OPINION 2005. LANHAM, MD: ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD, 2007. PETER M. NARDI. DOING SURVEY RESEARCH: A GUIDE TO QUANTITATIVE METHODS. 2ND ED. BOSTON: PEARSON/ALLYN & BACON, 2006. ———. INTERPRETING DATA: A GUIDE TO UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH. BOSTON: PEARSON/ALLYN & BACON, 2006. DEAN ROBBINS AND ROB GRABOW, EDS. WHAT WE THINK: YOUNG VOTERS SPEAK OUT. BOTHELL, WA: BOOK PUBLISHERS NETWORK, 2004. SUMMARY TO SURVEY PUBLIC OPINION PROPERLY, A POLL MUST MEET SEVERAL CONDITIONS. FIRST, A RANDOM SAMPLE MUST BE DRAWN. SECOND, QUESTIONS MUST BE COMPREHENSIBLE, BECAUSE PEOPLE WILL MAKE UP ANSWERS WHEN THEY DO NOT UNDERSTAND OR ACTUALLY HAVE NO OPINION. THIRD, THE QUESTIONS MUST BE ASKED FAIRLY, WITHOUT THE USE OF LOADED LANGUAGE. FOURTH, ANSWER CATEGORIES MATTER, AS A COMPARISON OF GALLUP AND HARRIS QUESTIONS ON PRESIDENTIAL POPULARITY DEMONSTRATES. IN COMPARING POLLING RESULTS, IT MUST ALSO BE REMEMBERED THAT DIFFERENCES IN OUTCOMES COULD BE THE RESULT OF SAMPLING ERROR. IN A CLOSE CALL, SAMPLING ERROR COULD BE QUITE SIGNIFICANT (A THREE-POINT SAMPLING-ERROR RANGE WOULD MEAN A SPREAD OF 6 PERCENT). ETHICAL CONCERNS ARE ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH POLITICAL POLLING. IN PARTICULAR, RESEARCHERS HAVE NOTED THAT POLLS CAN INTERFERE WITH THE POLITICAL PROCESS BY CREATING A BANDWAGON EFFECT. WHEN THE PUBLIC HEARS THAT A PARTICULAR CANDIDATE IS AHEAD, SOME UNCOMMITTED VOTERS MAY DECIDE TO SUPPORT THE WINNING CANDIDATE, THUS SOLIDIFYING HIS OR HER LEAD. FAVORABLE POLL RATINGS CAN ALSO HELP A CANDIDATE ATTRACT POTENTIAL DONORS, OR THEY CAN BE USED TO CONVINCE COMPETITORS TO DROP OUT OF THE RACE PREMATURELY. POLLS THAT IDENTIFY A WINNER BEFORE THE ELECTION IS OVER COULD DISCOURAGE PEOPLE FROM VOTING, THUS AFFECTING NOT ONLY THE RACE IN QUESTION BUT OTHER RACES REFLECTED ON THE BALLOT. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. WHY WOULD A “QUICK POLL,” OR “SNAP POLL,” FOUND ON A POLITICAL NEWS WEB SITE NOT YIELD ACCURATE RESULTS ABOUT PUBLIC OPINION? 2. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO TAKE THE SAMPLING ERROR INTO CONSIDERATION WHEN POLLS REVEAL A VERY CLOSE RACE BETWEEN TWO CANDIDATES? Chapter 7: Public Opinion

3. IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL DANGERS OF ALLOWING THE MEDIA TO USE EXIT POLLING DATA TO PROJECT A WINNER BEFORE AN ELECTION IS OVER. CAN THE GOVERNMENT PLACE RESTRICTIONS ON THE MEDIA TO PREVENT THIS FROM HAPPENING? OR MUST MEDIA JOURNALISTS POLICE THEMSELVES? (NOTE: THIS QUESTION CAN BE USED TO REVIEW THE CONCEPT OF “PRIOR RESTRAINT” COVERED IN CHAPTER 5.) 4. DISCUSS THE ADVANTAGES OF DISADVANTAGES OF HAVING ELECTED POLICY MAKERS WHO FREQUENTLY CONSULT PUBLIC OPINION DATA. SHOULD LAWMAKERS BASE THEIR DECISIONS ON WHAT THE PUBLIC THINKS? WHY OR WHY NOT? THEME B: GROUP CLEAVAGES, POLITICAL ATTITUDES, AND POLITICAL IDEOLOGY INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES TERENCE BALL AND RICHARD DAGGER, EDS. IDEALS AND IDEOLOGIES: A READER. 6TH ED. NEW YORK: PEARSON EDUCATION, 2006. MICHAEL BÉRUBÉ. WHAT’S LIBERAL ABOUT THE LIBERAL ARTS? CLASSROOM POLITICS AND “BIAS” IN HIGHER EDUCATION. NEW YORK: NORTON, 2006. TIMOTHY BRENNAN. WARS OF POSITION: THE CULTURAL POLITICS OF LEFT AND RIGHT. NEW YORK: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2006. BERNARD L. BROCK ET AL. MAKING SENSE OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY: THE POWER OF LANGUAGE IN DEMOCRACY. LANHAM, MD: ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, 2005. CAROL A HORTON. RACE AND THE MAKING OF AMERICAN LIBERALISM. NEW YORK: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2005. GEORGE LAKOFF. WHOSE FREEDOM? THE BATTLE OVER AMERICA’S MOST IMPORTANT IDEA. NEW YORK: FARRAR, STRAUS AND GIROUX, 2006. GEORGE H. NASH. THE CONSERVATIVE INTELLECTUAL MOVEMENT IN AMERICA, SINCE 1945. WILMINGTON, DE: INTERCOLLEGIATE STUDIES INSTITUTE, 2006. BEN SHAPIRO. BRAINWASHED: HOW UNIVERSITIES INDOCTRINATE AMERICA’S YOUTH. NASHVILLE: WND BOOKS, 2004. ANTHONY SIGNORELLI. CALL TO LIBERTY: BRIDGING THE DIVIDE BETWEEN LIBERALS AND CONSERVATIVES. MINNEAPOLIS: SCARLETTA PRESS, 2006. LUCAS SWAINE. THE LIBERAL CONSCIENCE: POLITICS AND PRINCIPLE IN A WORLD OF RELIGIOUS PLURALISM. NEW YORK: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2006. SUMMARY CLEAVAGES IN OPINION IN THE UNITED STATES ARE NUMEROUS AND CROSSCUTTING. NO SINGLE FEATURE OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S LIFE (SUCH AS SOCIAL CLASS) EXPLAINS ALL (OR EVEN MOST) OF THAT INDIVIDUAL’S ATTITUDES. AMONG THE IMPORTANT CLEAVAGES ARE: Chapter 7: Public Opinion

1. SOCIAL CLASS. ALTHOUGH AMERICANS DO NOT TYPICALLY IDENTIFY EACH OTHER ACCORDING TO “SOCIAL CLASS” DESIGNATIONS, THE CONCEPT IS OFTEN USED TO DISTINGUISH GROUPS OF PEOPLE ON THE BASIS OF OCCUPATION OR INCOME. POLITICAL OPINION AND VOTING PATTERNS ARE LESS AFFILIATED WITH SOCIAL CLASS THAN IN EUROPE, BUT SOME DISTINCTIONS CAN BE MADE BETWEEN THOSE IN THE “UPPER” OR “PROFESSIONAL” CLASS AND THOSE IN THE “WORKING CLASS.” DURING THE 1950S, THOSE IN THE WORKING CLASS WERE MORE LIKELY THAN PROFESSIONALS TO BE DEMOCRATS AND HOLD MORE LIBERAL VIEWS ON THE ECONOMY AND SOCIAL WELFARE LEGISLATION. TODAY, HOWEVER, THE POLITICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS HAVE CONSIDERABLY NARROWED. ALTHOUGH DIFFERENCES OF OPINION STILL EXIST OVER ECONOMIC POLICIES, THE CURRENT DISTINCTION BETWEEN LIBERALS AND CONSERVATIVES HAS LESS TO DO WITH ECONOMIC POLICY AND MORE TO DO WITH MORAL AND CULTURAL ISSUES. 2. RACE AND ETHNICITY. ALTHOUGH RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN POLITICAL ATTITUDES PERSIST, THERE IS SOME EVIDENCE THAT THOSE DIFFERENCES MAY BE NARROWING BETWEEN AFRICAN AMERICANS AND WHITES. AN INCREASING PERCENTAGE OF YOUNG AFRICAN AMERICANS ARE IDENTIFYING THEMSELVES AS REPUBLICANS, FOR EXAMPLE. HOWEVER, ONLY TIME WILL TELL WHETHER THIS GENERATIONAL CHANGE WILL PERSIST AND STRENGTHEN, OR WHETHER IT WILL FADE AWAY. 3. REGION. THE SOUTH IS THE LEAST LIBERAL OF THE FOUR REGIONS, WITH THE MIDWEST SOMEWHAT MORE LIBERAL AND THE EAST AND WEST MOST LIBERAL. THE SOUTH BECAME, AND LONG REMAINED, PART OF THE DEMOCRATIC COALITION, BECAUSE SOUTHERNERS WERE FAIRLY LIBERAL ON ECONOMIC ISSUES. HOWEVER, THE RISE OF RACIAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES (ON WHICH WHITE SOUTHERNERS ARE QUITE CONSERVATIVE) ENDED THE REGION’S STRONG ATTACHMENT TO THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY. THIS HAS ALREADY CHANGED THE REGION’S PARTISAN REPRESENTATION IN CONGRESS, AND IT IS LIKELY TO HAVE SIGNIFICANT IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. A POLITICAL IDEOLOGY IS A COHERENT AND CONSISTENT SET OF BELIEFS ABOUT WHO OUGHT TO RULE, WHAT PRINCIPLES RULERS OUGHT TO OBEY, AND WHAT POLICIES RULERS OUGHT TO PURSUE. WHETHER PEOPLE HAVE A POLITICAL IDEOLOGY CAN BE MEASURED IN TWO WAYS: BY SEEING HOW FREQUENTLY PEOPLE SPEAK IN TERMS OF BROAD POLITICAL CATEGORIES—LIBERAL OR CONSERVATIVE—WHEN THEY DISCUSS POLITICS; AND BY MEASURING THE EXTENT TO WHICH WE CAN PREDICT A PERSON’S VIEW ON ONE ISSUE BY KNOWING HIS OR HER VIEW ON ANOTHER ISSUE. MOST STUDIES SHOW RELATIVELY LITTLE IDEOLOGICAL THINKING AMONG AMERICANS. HOWEVER, SEVERAL QUALIFICATIONS SHOULD BE KEPT IN MIND. IDEOLOGICAL CONSISTENCY IS DEFINED SOMEWHAT ARBITRARILY. IT IS ASSUMED, FOR EXAMPLE, THAT CONSISTENT LIBERALISM INVOLVES FAVORING SOCIAL WELFARE POLICIES AT HOME. IT IS CLEAR, HOWEVER, THAT POLITICAL ACTIVISTS ARE MUCH MORE LIKELY THAN THE AVERAGE CITIZEN TO THINK IN IDEOLOGICAL TERMS AND TO TAKE CONSISTENT POSITIONS ON ISSUES. ALSO, VOTERS MAY THINK MORE IDEOLOGICALLY WHEN ONE OR BOTH PRESIDENTIAL CANDIDATES TAKE SHARPLY IDEOLOGICAL POSITIONS (AS IN 1964, 1972, 1980, AND 1984). DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Chapter 7: Public Opinion

1. HOW IS RELIGION RELATED TO POLITICAL ATTITUDES? THE TEXT SUGGESTS THAT THE THEOLOGIES OF VARIOUS RELIGIONS HAVE AN IMPORTANT EFFECT. CAN YOU THINK OF OTHER EXPLANATIONS FOR THE CORRELATION BETWEEN RELIGION AND POLITICAL ATTITUDES? FOR EXAMPLE, DOES IT MATTER THAT CATHOLICS HISTORICALLY TENDED TO BE BLUE-COLLAR WORKERS IN NORTHERN CITIES? THAT JEWS WERE DISPROPORTIONATELY INTELLECTUALS? TO WHAT EXTENT WOULD ECONOMIC SELF-INTEREST EXPLAIN WHY RELIGIOUS GROUPS DIFFER IN THE WAYS THEY DO? 2. IN THE PAST, FAMILIES WERE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR TRANSMITTING VALUES—POLITICAL, RELIGIOUS, OR CULTURAL—FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT. HOWEVER, BECAUSE FAMILY STRUCTURE HAS BEEN WEAKENED BY DIVORCE AND OUT-OF-WEDLOCK PARENTING, MANY OF THE TRADITIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES ASSOCIATED WITH CHILD REARING, INCLUDING POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION, HAVE FALLEN TO SURROGATE PARENTS, SUCH AS EDUCATORS AND MEDIA BROADCASTERS. HOW IMPORTANT IS IT THAT CHILDREN ARE TAUGHT POLITICAL VALUES BY PARENTS OR OTHER FAMILY MEMBERS? CAN CHILDREN BE PROPERLY SOCIALIZED OUTSIDE THE FAMILY STRUCTURE? DO YOU THINK THE LOWER THAN NORMAL RATE OF PARTICIPATION SEEN AMONG YOUTH TODAY IS LINKED TO THE WEAKENED STATE OF THE FAMILY? 3. EXPLAIN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RACE AND POLITICAL ATTITUDE. TO WHAT EXTENT ARE MEMBERS OF A MINORITY GROUP FREE TO HAVE ALTERNATE OPINIONS? DO YOU THINK THAT INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS ARE PRESSURED TO CONFORM TO A PARTICULAR POLITICAL OPINION SO THAT THE GROUP CAN BETTER AFFECT CHANGE ON THE POLITICAL SYSTEM? WHAT HAPPENS TO THE POWER OF A MINORITY GROUP IF ITS OPINIONS ARE DIVIDED FROM WITHIN? 4. NEW ISSUES ALWAYS HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO CREATE NEW CLEAVAGES, THOUGH IT MAY TAKE SOME TIME BEFORE POLLSTERS AND POLITICAL SCIENTISTS NOTE THE EXISTENCE OF THESE CLEAVAGES. FOR EXAMPLE, THERE MAY BE A SUBSTANTIAL DIFFERENCE IN OPINION ABOUT GAY MARRIAGE BETWEEN HOMOSEXUALS AND HETEROSEXUALS. WOULD WE AS A NATION BE BETTER OFF TO KNOW ABOUT THESE EMERGING CLEAVAGES? OR SHOULD WE CONTINUE TO FOCUS ONLY ON THE OPINIONS OF BROAD DEMOGRAPHIC CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE, IGNORING THESE DIFFERENCES AMONG THEM?