Introduction to Philosophy (PHI 101) 3 credits Fall 2010
Aquinas Institute Diocese of Lafayette, Louisiana
Course Syllabus
Instructor: Richard C. Chiasson BS, MBA, MA (Philosophy), MA (Theology)
Telephone: [337] 235-0071 e-mail: [email protected] If you wish to speak with me privately call the above telephone number or send an e-mail.
All of the following policies apply to students taking the course for credit. Auditors are only subject to the excused/unexcused absence policy, dress policies and class protocol requirements.
Time and Location of Classes
Classes will be held on Tuesdays on the dates stated in the below class schedule at the Immaculata Center (John XXIII Room), 1408 Carmel Drive, Lafayette, Louisiana. Each class will meet from 6:00 p.m. to 8:45 p.m. with a break from 7:15 p.m. to 7:30 p.m. Classes start September 7, 2010 and end December 14, 2010.
Course Description
This course is an introduction to the discipline of philosophy with special emphasis on basic issues, questions, problems, terminology and methodology. The course introduces the student to the philosophical process, critical thinking and the ability to articulate meaningful responses to recurring and contemporary issues. Emphasis will be given to the perennial principles of the classical realist tradition.
Course Goals
After successfully completing the course, the student will: have a broad comprehension of the nature of philosophy; understand the fundamental principles of the basic disciplines of systematic philosophy including logic, natural philosophy, philosophy of human nature, metaphysics, epistemology, natural theology, moral philosophy, and political philosophy; comprehend the elements of Christian philosophy;
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have an awareness of representative philosophies from the four main chronological divisions of philosophy: ancient, medieval, modern and recent; come to general conclusions about philosophy, and; appreciate why one must have knowledge of sound Christian philosophy before the study of theology.
Course Rationale
“Faith and reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth; and God has placed in the human heart a desire to know the truth—in a word to know Himself—so that, by knowing and loving God, men and women may also come to the fullness of truth about themselves. The more human beings know reality and the world, the more they know themselves in their uniqueness, with the question of the meaning of things and of their very existence becoming ever more pressing. Who am I? Where have I come from and where am I going? Why is there evil? Why is there death? What is there after this life? Does life have a meaning? Men and women have at their disposal an array of resources for generating greater knowledge of truth so that their lives may be ever more human. Among these is philosophy, which is directly concerned with asking the question of life’s meaning and sketching an answer to it. Philosophy emerges, then, as one of noblest of human tasks. Philosophy begins with the wonder awakened in us by the contemplation of creation. Without wonder, men and women would lapse into deadening routine and little by little would become incapable of a life which is genuinely personal. Philosophy additionally aids one in drawing conclusions which are coherent both logically and ethically from the universal principles of being. Christian Philosophy allows us to think correctly to develop what is called ‘right reason.’” Pope John Paul II, Encyclical Letter Fides et Ratio
Method of Instruction
The primary method of instruction will be lectures with active participation of the student, assigned readings and the writing of research papers the purpose of which is to permit the student to individually delve deeper into certain topics discussed in the lectures. Taking good notes is essential to doing well in this course. Lectures will not simply be a repetition of assigned readings but will usually include topics that are not in assigned readings. Thus, it is imperative that credit students have accurate notes for every class in order to prepare for the final examination. Students are permitted to audio tape lectures if they so wish for personal use only.
Required Texts
1. A Student’s Guide to Philosophy, by Ralph McInerny published by Intercollegiate Studies Institute, Wilmington, Delaware. 2. An Introduction to Philosophy by Daniel J. Sullivan published by TAN Books and Publishers, Inc., Rockford, Illinois. 3. Encyclical Letter Fides et Ratio—On Faith and Reason, Pope John Paul II. This can be downloaded from the Vatican website free of charge. [http://www.vatican.va—click on the papal archives button on the home page]
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4. Either The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy, edited by Thomas Mautner, published by Penguin Books or the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, by Simon Blackburn, published by Oxford University Press. [http://www.amazon.com] [N.B.: if any required texts are no longer in print, obtain them from a used book dealer. Utilize bookfinder.com to locate a dealer who has the book.]
Some Suggested Readings for Your Own Edification1 [The following texts are not required to be purchased]
Christian Philosophy by Etienne Gilson published by the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto, Canada. Divine Madness: Plato’s Case against Secular Humanism by Josef Pieper published by Ignatius Press, San Francisco. In Defense of Philosophy by Josef Pieper published by Ignatius Press, San Francisco. A Guide to Thomas Aquinas by Josef Pieper published by Ignatius Press, San Francisco. The Silence of St. Thomas by Josef Pieper, published by St. Augustine’s Press, South Bend, Indiana. Introduction to Philosophy by Jacques Maritain published by Sheed and Ward, Inc, New York. The Consolation of Philosophy, Boethius, Penguin Books. The Science Before Science—A Guide to Thinking in the 21st Century, by Anthony Rizzi published by the Press of the Institute for Advanced Physics, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Love of Wisdom—An Introduction to Christian Philosophy, by Rhonda Chervin and Eugene Kevane published by Ignatius Press. Encyclical Letter Aeterni Patris—On The Restoration of Christian Philosophy, Pope Leo XIII. This can be downloaded from the Vatican website free of charge. [http://www.vatican.va—click on the papal archives button on the home page] Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Volume I and II—Diogenes Laertius, Loeb Classical Library.
Class Attendance Policy
(a.) Excused/unexcused absences.
The credit students should incur no more than one (1) excused absence and one (1) unexcused absence. An excused absence is one in which the reason for the absence has been approved by the Instructor at least 48 hours prior to the time of the class to be missed. An unexcused absence is one where the Instructor has not approved the reason for the absence at least 48 hours prior to the time of the class missed or any reason for an absence which has not been approved by the Instructor. Violations of the absence policy may result in dismissal from the course. The Instructor has the authority to extend the excused and/or unexcused absence limits for individual students if unusual situations should arise.
1 Some of the below texts may be out of print but can be obtained from used book dealers such as Preserving Christian Publications at http://www.pepbooks.com or Book Finder at http://www.bookfinder.com.
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Auditors are not required to attend every class. However, if an auditor misses too many classes they may well find themselves unable to comprehend future lectures. Accordingly, if an auditor is absent more than six (6) times, as determined solely by the Instructor, they will be dismissed from the course since with that many absences it will not be possible to truly benefit from the series of instructions. All auditors when attending a class are expected to come on time and to remain until the class is completed, unless prior permission has been obtained from the Instructor to come late or leave early.
(b.) What you must do if you will not be able to attend a class.
If you cannot attend a class, please call the Instructor at [337] 235-0071. You must speak directly with the Instructor—leaving a voice message or sending an e-mail is not acceptable and will be considered to be an unexcused absence.
(c.) Acceptable reasons for missing a class include but are not limited to the following:
Your illness. Illness of a spouse or child. Death of a near relative or close personal friend. Business travel or other required travel (vacation or holiday travel is not considered to be “required” travel). University work or examination (if you are enrolled as a full time student). Job related event. Pregnancy and childbirth.
(d.) What do you have to do if you miss a class?
Obtain the lecture notes from a student who attended the class you missed.
There will be no make-up lectures.
If you miss a class, it is also your responsibility to obtain any handout(s) which were distributed during that class. Handouts from a prior lecture will be displayed in the lecture room.
(e.) Arriving late for class.
If you arrive late for class simply enter quietly and take an available seat. Do not inform the Instructor as to why you were late until the break or after class.
Anyone who arrives more that 30 minutes late for class, as determined by the Instructor, will be documented as an unexcused absence. Be on time.
(f.) Leaving class early.
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If you must leave class early, inform the Instructor prior to the beginning of the class as to the reason.
Anyone who leaves without having spent at least 1½ hours in class, as determined by the Instructor, will be documented as an unexcused absence.
Class Protocol
All students, both auditors and those taking the course for credit, are expected to observe the following minimum code of conduct at all times during class. Any behavior deemed inappropriate by the Instructor, whether or not stated below, may result in dismissal from the course.
Recitation of prayers before and after each class. Active participation and attentiveness in class is expected. Prompt attendance is required. Please come to class before it begins. You are expected to remain until the class is completed. No food or beverages, except water, is permitted in the classroom. All communication devices that make noise must be turned off, unless it is absolutely necessary that they remain on, for example, if you are a physician. Sleeping is not permitted in class. Disruptive behavior is not permitted. Weapons of any sort are not permitted. Obscene, vulgar, profane, or blasphemous language is not permitted. Sexual harassment is not permitted. Laying one’s head on the desk is not permitted. Chewing gum or any other substance is not permitted. If you have a question during class or wish to make a comment, raise your hand and wait to be acknowledged before speaking. Common courtesy will be practiced by all individuals attending the class. You are to dress in a Christian manner, i.e., modestly and civilized—e.g., women—no halter tops, plunging necklines, sleeveless blouses, miniskirts, cutoffs, etc.;—e.g., men—no cutoffs, shirts with inane pictures or words, rock group pictures, etc. Nose rings, tongue rings, pierced eyebrows, multiple pierced ears, etc. are not permitted. The wearing of a cap during class is prohibited. Smoking is not permitted in the classroom. Attending class while under the influence of alcohol, un-prescribed drugs or prescription medications are not permitted, if, in the sole determination of the Instructor, this results in the physical and/or mental impairment of the student. If rest room facilities are required, quietly leave the room. It is not necessary to inform the class. Guests are not permitted to accompany you to class.
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Course Grade
The final grade of those students who take the course for credit is the total points out of a possible 100 and will be determined as follows:
Writing Assignments 45% Final Examination 45% Class Participation 10%
Writing Assignments Two required papers are to be in the following format:
3 pages of text single spaced, in 12 point regular font, preferably Times New Roman. All margins 1 inch justified; headers and footers 0.5 inches. Paragraphs are to have the first line indented 0.5 inches. Each page of the text section is to be numbered at the bottom of the page as follows: Page (1, 2 or 3) of 3. The cover page, the endnote page and the bibliography page are not to be numbered. Headers are to be only on pages 2 and 3 of the text section and are to be in the following format: “Writing Assignment 1 or 2 Date paper is due Introduction to Philosophy” The cover page must include only the following: whether the paper is Writing Assignment 1 or 2, title of course [Introduction to Philosophy PHI 101], the topic being addressed, the student’s name, the student’s e-mail address, and date paper is due. A Bibliography and Endnotes (not Footnotes) are to comprise the last two pages. Direct quotations in the papers should be no longer than three (3) lines. Excessively long quotations will result in a deduction of points. Quotations are needed to show that you have researched the topic, but you must demonstrate critical thinking skills, creativity and understanding of the subject matter and not just quote other authors. The text section is to have an introduction, statement of the purpose of the paper and how the purpose will be accomplished. The major part of the text will accomplish the purpose and is to be followed by a combined summary and conclusion paragraph. Endnotes are to be limited to between ten (10) to fifteen (15) and the bibliography to between four (4) to six (6) sources. Violations of these rules will result in the deduction of points. Credit students are given a sample paper in the above format and must use it as a guideline in writing their papers.
It is recommended that you select a topic as soon as possible and begin your research. If you wait until the topic is discussed in class it will be too late.
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1st Writing Assignment Due Class 8 October 26, 2010 [choose one of the following] 1. What is the dependence of metaphysics on the analysis of physical coming-to-be? 2. Explain how Aristotle demonstrated the existence of the Prime Unmoved Mover. 3. State and discuss arguments for the existence of the human soul that have been presented in the lectures to this point.
2nd Writing Assignment Due Class 14 December 7, 2010 [choose one of the following] 1. Why and how human law and its judicial interpretation must relate to the Natural Law? 2. Describe Aristotle’s function argument for an identical ultimate end for all men and explain why, in light of Christian Revelation, it is inadequate. 3. Compare and contrast the philosophical differences between Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas in terms of: the material world, ideas and knowledge, the Nature of God, the theory of Being, and moral and political philosophy.
Papers turned in after the due date will receive a grade of “0”/“F”, unless a later date has been approved in advance by the Instructor.
With regard to the writing assignments, you may use any source you feel is applicable. For example, you may consult Aristotle’s Metaphysics or Nicomachian Ethics, Plato’s Dialogue Parmenides, St. Thomas Aquinas’ Summa Theologica or Summa Contra Gentiles, any assigned reading, any book on philosophy or any writing by a philosopher that will help in achieving the objective of the writing assignment.
Final Examination On the final examination, the credit student will be allowed to choose to answer any six (6) questions out of thirteen (13). Questions are to be answered in essay form, and the credit student must have enough knowledge to write for thirty (30) minutes on each question (the final examination is three hours long). Final examination grades will not only be based on the correctness of the answer but also on spelling, grammar, logic and penmanship. The topics for the final examination will be taken from lecture notes only. No one will be allowed to leave the final examination early. Blue books will be provided to credit students to document answers. Only black or blue ink pens and correction fluid or wheels will be allowed in the examination room. Credit students will be given the final examination questions during Class 11. They should choose which questions they desire to answer and begin to accumulate data pertinent to each question immediately. A review will be conducted during the class directly prior to the date of the final examination.
A make-up final examination may be permitted only for a serious reason approved by the Instructor at least twenty-four (24) hours before the scheduled examination time. Any make up final examination must be taken within seven days of the original test date. The make-up test will consist of an oral examination with the Instructor. Failure to meet these requirements will result in a grade of “0”/“F” on the final examination.
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Class Participation All credit students are expected to participate in the class. Participation includes, among other things, coming to class on time, attention to the material presented during class, staying current on reading assignments, the response to questions posed by the Instructor directly to a student and the asking of questions by credit students that show critical thinking skills.
Determination of Final Course Grade Grades for papers, classroom participation and the final examination are distributed according to their respective percentage values and converted into letter grades as follows:
90 to 100 points = A 80 to 89 points = B 70 to 79 points = C 60 to 69 points = D 0 to 59 points = F
The last date to drop the course with a grade of “W” will be Class 9 on November 2, 2010. After that date a grade will be assigned. (N.B.: The Aquinas Institute will not grant tuition refunds for those who withdraw from the course after registration).
Academic Dishonesty
“Academic dishonesty includes, but is not limited to, cheating, plagiarism, collusion, academic misconduct, falsification, fabrication, and the attempt to commit such a violation” (Student Handbook, p. 31). Refer to the Student Handbook for definitions and examples. A student involved in academic dishonesty will receive a “0”/“F” for that assignment/examination. Based on the severity of the violation, academic dishonesty may be reported by the Instructor to the Director of the Aquinas Institute and/or the appropriate Dean in the manner outlined in the student handbook. Ultimately, a student found guilty of academic dishonesty may be dismissed from the Aquinas Institute and Our Lady of Holy Cross College. A copy of the Student Handbook may be downloaded at olhcc.edu.
Class Schedule and Reading Assignments
The particular topics stated below are the subject matter of the lectures in outline format and may or may not correspond to the reading assignment. Reading Assignments are to be completed for the particular class and not for the next class. Thus, you are to read the first two assignments for Class 2.
Class 1: September 7, 2010
OVERVIEW OF COURSE
Course Introduction Nature and direction of Aquinas Institute Purpose of philosophy in the Aquinas Institute
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Tentative schedule of future philosophy courses to be offered by the Institute Review of syllabus and course requirements Introduction To Philosophy in General Beginning of philosophy in wonder “All men by nature desire to know” Classical definition of philosophy Philosophy contrasted with theology Pope John Paul II: Encyclical Letter Fides et Ratio, Chapter VI “The Interaction between Philosophy and Theology” Historical rise of philosophy Philosophy as a science The perennial principles of the classical realist tradition Divisions of philosophy: speculative and practical Characteristics of speculative and practical philosophy Pedagogical division or the order of learning: logic, mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, metaphysics Historical divisions of philosophy: ancient, medieval, modern, recent Christian philosophy as defined by Jacques Maritain and Etienne Gilson Scholastic philosophy Philosophical pluralism Different stances of philosophy Philosophy and the secular sciences Pre-theology requirements The teaching of philosophy Why study philosophy?
Reading Assignment: Encyclical Letter Fides et Ratio of Pope John Paul II.
Class 2: September 14, 2010
LOGIC
Liberal Arts Definition of the Liberal Arts Trivium (Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic) Quadrivium (Arithmetic, Geometry, Music—harmonic theory, Astronomy—optics) Types Of Logic Aristotelian logic: the syllogism and other forms of reasoning, the three acts of the intellect Symbolic logic: reduction of reasoning to mathematical symbols Aristotle’s Organon The Proemium of St. Thomas Aquinas Commentary to Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics Categories—concerned with the first act of the intellect—understanding
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On Interpretation—concerned with the second act of the intellect—judgment—where truth is to be found Prior Analytics—considers the syllogism simply as a syllogism Posterior Analytics—examines the demonstrative syllogism that results in science Topics—considers the dialectical syllogism that produces belief or opinion Rhetoric—addresses, not complete belief or opinion, but a kind of suspicion or tending to one side of an argument Poetics—examines a type of argument where an estimation inclines to one side of a contradiction Sophistical Refutations—aids the third act of the intellect in training it to recognize false reasoning which superficially appears to be true Human Cogitative And Appetitive Powers Sense knowledge vs. intellectual knowledge External senses, internal senses, intellect Will, sense appetites, motor powers Illumination and abstraction Three levels of abstraction—philosophy of nature, mathematics, metaphysics How Human Beings Obtain Knowledge External senses (sensation) Sense image (percept) Active intellect (illumination and abstraction) Passive intellect (reception of the intelligible species) Concept—knowledge as a union of knower and known Reasoning Validity—depends on form of syllogism Truth—depends on both the syllogism’s matter and form Formal Logic Three acts of the human intellect: simple apprehension (understanding), judgment (composing and dividing), reasoning (argumentation) Material Logic Universals—a unity that refers to a plurality Predicables—universal relationships the intellect perceives among extra mental things Porphyry’s Isagoge—three questions about universals Categories (predicaments)—the ultimate division of being First principles—truths to which the intellect gives direct assent Demonstration and types—the syllogism that produces science Science and the divisions of the speculative sciences and the practical sciences Square Of Opposition Contradictory opposition—one proposition is true while the other is false Contrary opposition—when two propositions differ in quality but agree in universal quantity Subalternation—propositions that differ in quality but agree in particular quantity Letters of the square—stand for different kinds of propositions
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Lines of the square—represent different relations among the different kinds of propositions Sophistical Reasoning Defined—reasoning that appears genuine but is really fallacious Formal fallacies—errors in the third act of the intellect Material fallacies—mistakes in the first act of the intellect Examples of different types of fallacies Nature Of Logic Logic as an art is a habit of man’s intellect As a science, logic is concerned with beings of second intention As an instrument logic is a tool of the intellect as it looks to other sciences
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 1-44.
Class 3: September 21, 2010
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy Of Nature Notion, subject, procedure—first level of abstraction, mobile being, uses, causes Matter and form—the subject of change, that which gives matter existence Diagram of Aristotle’s theory of change Nature Notion—the cause of motion and of rest Matter as nature—the foundation of change Form as nature—determines essence and is source of activity Nature and end—nature determines the ends toward which things tend Chance—intersection of different lines of causality Violence—outside force Motion Or Change Aristotle’s two definitions of motion or change Kinds—alteration, local motion, augmentation/diminution, generation/corruption Local motion—from point of departure to one of arrival Alteration—changes in sensible quantities Augmentation—increase or decrease in quantity of matter Action—comes from agent Passion—motion considered as in the agent Continuum—magnitude traversed during motion Infinity—mathematical continuum can be infinite, but not a physical continuum Place And Time Measures—of containment Place—the innermost boundary of what contains Space—a mathematical concept related to place Time—the number of motion according to before and after The First Unmoved Mover
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The problem—is there a first cause of motion that exists Motor causality principle—whatever is moved is moved by another Conditions for motion—three requirements Existence of the first cause—Aristotle’s proof Its nature—non-material and unmoved but moves Prelude to metaphysics—knowledge of the first cause is end point of natural philosophy
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 183-198.
Class 4: September 28, 2010
PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN NATURE
Philosophical Psychology Notion—the study of the soul and the manifestation of its powers Philosophy of human nature—concerned with all things about man The Powers Of Man Rational: intellect, will Animal: sense and appetitive powers, movement from place to place Vegetative: nutrition, growth, reproduction Life And Soul Life—self-movement Soul—principle of life in living things; Aristotle’s two definitions First actuality—a form that makes something alive which was only potentially alive Organized body—organs make a body to be an organism Kinds of souls and the chain of being Powers—potencies of the soul to perform different sorts of life activity Cognition Knowledge—the act whereby the knower becomes the known in an intentional way Cognition—becoming something, not doing something Immateriality—root principle of knowledge and intelligibility Intentionality—a form that is received in the knower Intentional species—immaterial mode of existence of an object when united to a knowing power Types of knowledge—natural (sense and rational), supernatural (faith) Sensation And Perception Sensation—elementary knowing reaction of organism to its environment Knowledge of objects—direct knowledge of the object not its impression Senses—immediate principles of sensation External—sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch Sensibles—the specific object of an external sense Internal—contact reality only through the intermediation of the external senses Central—unifies raw sense data from external senses Imagination—stores sense images formed by unifying internal sense
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Estimation—can apprehend things not apprehended by the external senses Memory—stores forms apprehended by the power of estimation Perception—immediate experience of objects through the senses Unified knowledge—brain is the tool of intellection, there cannot be an organ of intellection, the intellect is not in the brain Intellection Intellect—the power to know everything that is rational Abstractive process—active as illumination and abstraction Concept formation—passive when receiving the intelligible species Object—formal object is being, proper object is the essence of material things Immateriality—matter can only know matter Reflection—man not only knows, but also knows that he knows Appetition Appetite—inclination that is the internal source of activity in man Kinds—natural, elicited Sense and will—sensitive appetites and intellectual appetite Sensitive Appetites Notion—capacity that can be aroused by a concrete object perceived by and through the external senses Kinds—concupiscible, irascible Emotions—appetites involving matter Passions—distorted emotions Volition Will—rational or intellectual appetite in man Free will—voluntary activity of choosing or not choosing a limited good Its object—the good As related to other powers—primarily influenced by intellect Its acts—intend purpose, elect means to accomplish it, command action to execute it, rest content when purpose is accomplished Other influences on will—that of the sense appetites Man Philosophical anthropology—the study of man Man—man is a rational animal and a person Body—for the soul and is a human body because it is infused by a rational soul Human soul—the substantial form of the body Its immortality—death is separation of body and soul, but soul has no principle of corruptibility it endures forever regardless of biological death Diagram of matter and from in living things Origin of rational soul—because it is a subsistent form it cannot be educed out of matter but must be created directly out of nothing Person—individual substance that possesses a rational nature Nature—allows a person to exist and to act Four causes in man: matter, form, God as First Efficient Cause, God as Final Cause Individual differences—partly natural and partly acquired
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Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 57-62, 111-126.
Class 5: October 5, 2010
METAPHYSICS
Metaphysics Notion—beyond physics; the study of being as such Subject—ens inquantum ens—most intelligible Presuppositions—prime unmoved mover and incorruptibility of the human soul Being in general—ens ut primum cognitum—first thing known The misery and grandeur of metaphysics—another theology is needed Being Common—what is Real—only being that enjoys positive extra mental existence has an essence Categories—founded on the different modes beings exist Without a genus—nothing can differentiate being other than being, nothing beyond being can be used to place being in a genus (beyond being there is nothing) Analogy—predication midway between univocal and equivocal Kinds of analogy—analogy of attribution, analogy of proportionality Transcendentals Notion—properties that necessarily accompany being and thus are found in all beings One—non-division of being Truth—conformity of a being to the intellect Good—beings are that toward which all things tend Beauty—proper harmony, order and proportion Something—being as essence existing Tabulation of the modes of being First principles and the transcendentals Principles Of Being Notion—intrinsic principles of a being and external relationships between beings Potency and act—the capacity of a being to exist in a different way, completion of potency Seven axioms of act and potency Real distinction between essence and existence—not merely a distinction of reason Priority and limitation—order of knowledge and ontological order Essence and existence—diversum est esse et id quod est Composition of material and separated substances in terms of essence and existence Substance And Subsistence Substance—that which exist on its own and not in another Diagram of finite substances Accident—an essence that exists in a substance Subsistence—independent existence
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Nature—essence in terms of its activity Supposit—a self-contained being independent of any subject; rational supposit is a person Mode—a limitation in a being produced by a cause extrinsic to itself Causality Notion—that which produces an effect as long as it produces an effect Four major causes—material, formal, efficient, final. Condition—allows an efficient cause to act Occasion—affords an opportunity for a rational agent to exercise its causality Form—intrinsic principle of existence in any determinate essence Formal causality—intrinsic cause that requires the receptive action of some appropriate matter Material—receives actuation and determination from form Efficient—action of an agent that results in existence Instrumental—something from which an effect flows because of its subordination to an efficient cause Final—that for the sake of which something exists or is done Exemplary—causal influence of a model or an exemplar Participation—to receive only part of what belongs to another fully Wisdom Wisdom—habit of the intellect that enables for one to judge all things in terms of their ultimate cause Understanding—ability to grasp first principles immediately, synderesis
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 199-230.
Class 6: October 12, 2010
EPISTEMOLOGY
First Principles Of Being And Knowing Speculative Order—principle of contradiction Practical Order—do good and avoid evil Other first principles—sufficient reason, substance, causality, finality, primacy of being Epistemology Notion—theory of knowledge Reflection—the key to the “problem of knowledge” Four questions of Aristotle—Does the thing exist? What is it? What are its properties? Why does it have these properties? Knowledge Notion—not a mechanical process but a perfection found only in living things Subject and object—one possessing the knowledge, the form possessed Interiority and exteriority—an operation from a living thing, a relation to something other than the self Consciousness—a state of greater or lesser awareness in a cognitive being
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Kinds of knowledge—sense (external and internal senses), intellectual (illumination and abstraction), actual, habitual, immediate (intuition) Theories of knowledge according to Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Ockham, Descartes, Berkeley, Kant and Hegel Truth And Falsity Truth—conformity of intellect with extra mental reality Material truth—intuitive contact of the senses with their proper objects Formal truth—truth in its full significance found only in the second act of the intellect, judgment Validity of judgment—whereby the intellect assents to first indemonstrable principles First act of intellection—acknowledgment of object as present, search for first principles, illumination and abstraction, separation, concept Falsity—lying in speech, non-conformity of intellect to extra mental reality Diagram of ontological truth and logical truth Theories of truth—correspondence, intellectualist, coherence, pragmatist Forms Of Knowledge Evidence—the immediate guarantee of the truth of a judgment Kinds—facts, events, principles Certitude—absolute firmness of assent to a given judgment Doubt—inability either to affirm or deny Opinion—acceptance of a judgment as probable Belief—assenting to truths not seen on the reliability of another Wonder—emotional shock resulting when confronting an effect the cause of which is not known Aporia—imperfect knowledge of things Why doubt cannot be the starting point of knowledge—doubt is a possible end result of the reasoning process Epistemological Approaches To The Human Experience Materialist—all truth is what can be observed by our senses or inferred from such observations to be material Spiritualist—defends the existence of non-material realities and puts no trust in knowledge based on the senses Middle Position—all knowledge begins with the senses and through a spiritual power of the soul immaterial concepts are formed
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 63-87.
Class 7: October 19, 2010
NATURAL THEOLOGY
Natural Theology Notion—when metaphysics turns itself to the task of knowing God through his effects Relation to metaphysics—natural philosophy, first philosophy, epistemology, metaphysical components of material substance, natural theology
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Non-philosophical assumptions—religious assumptions are not needed Other positions—four ways of conceiving natural theology and its relation to metaphysics Participation And The Act of Being Common being—composition, imperfection, limitation Being and participation—being as ultimate act rests on four basic concepts Proper proportionality—based on participated esse Intrinsic attribution—based on causality and dependency Proofs Of God’s Existence Argument from esse—being comes from within a being or from without Naming God—religious assumption implicit or made explicit The five ways of St. Thomas Aquinas—motion, efficient causality, contingency, degrees of perfection, providence 24 arguments for God’s existence Confirmatory arguments God’s Essence And Attributes Ways of knowing God—only imperfectly from philosophy Negation—denying to God anything that belongs to a contingent being as such Eminence—attributing to God in an eminent degree everything that can be considered a perfection pure and simple without trace of imperfection Divine attributes—absolutely simple perfections that exists in God necessarily and formally Rationally distinct—attributes are not really distinct in God but are only a distinction of reason Divine essence—attribute that constitutes the divine substance formally Aseity—“by-itself-ness” Entitative Attributes Simplicity—there is no composition in God, everything is one Immutability—God cannot change Unicity—there is only one God by definition Infinity—without limits, there are no boundaries in God’s being restricting perfections Eternity—God has no beginning or end Omnipresence—God is present immanently in all things everywhere as an agent in his effects Immensity—God is free from all spatial limitations Operative Attributes Intelligence—God is Pure Spirit, therefore, possesses supreme and absolute knowledge Thought thinking itself—God understands himself perfectly Possibles/future contingents—God as source of all existents knows possibles, God knows future contingents as actually present and realized yet they remain contingent Will of God—if God has an intellect he must have volition Object of divine will—the divine essence Divine freedom—God must only know and love himself Providence—way God causes, cares for, and directs all creatures to their particular ends
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Omnipotence—the power in God whereby he operates in things, there are some things God cannot do because they violate the principle of contradiction Divine Causality Divine causality—God is in some way the cause of the world Creation—production of the total being of the universe from nothingness Creation and revelation—full import of Ipsum Esse Subsistens Conservation—all things are dependent on God for coming into being and for their continual existence Creatures as causes—some creatures can act as efficient causes Primary and secondary causes—God, created agents Premotion/concurrence—communication of motion by God to secondary efficient causes through their dependence on God’s causality The Problem Of Evil Problem of evil—If God exists, where does evil come from? If God is good, why is there so much evil and suffering in the world? Notion of evil—a negation of the perfection due to a nature or to a being Kinds—evils effecting a nature, disorder of the will Subject—evil exists in a being that as such is good Physical evil—suffering resulting from creatures with sense powers Moral evil—found only in a rational and free nature, the lack of a good in moral will acts Cause of moral evil—man Providence and evil—suffering serves a purpose in that God offers the sinner the possibility of good Mystery—the more man penetrates into the infinite, the more he understands that it is beyond him
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 231-246.
Class 8: October 26, 2010
MORAL PHILOSOPHY
First Writing Assignment Due
Moral Philosophy vs. Moral Theology Definitions Difference between moral philosophy and moral theology in terms of end, how each end is possessed, the effort required to reach the end and certitude regarding how man must act that each science provides Moral Philosophy Ethics—moral philosophy goes beyond ethics because it is concerned with man’s ultimate end and not just how man should act in a particular situation Subject—moral acts, that is, those performed with knowledge and free will Order as normative—order is related to reason in four ways
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Christian ethics—moral philosophy subalternated to theology? Division—ethics, economics, politics Assumptions—what ought we to do as individuals, as a member of a family, as a citizen Moral Methodologies Definition—methods used to make moral choices Situation ethics—circumstances determine species of act Consequentialism—the intention is the sole determinate of the species Utilitarianism—the usefulness the act provides is the overriding concern Proportionalism/Teleogism—if more good than evil is brought about then the act is good Legalism—do the will of the lawmaker Ethic of the good—our moral life is driven by a love for the good, the pursuit of it and the happiness that accompanies it Fundamental option—a person gradually develops a basic orientation in their life for or against God, subverts Christian moral order The Human Act Human act—performed only by a human being and so is proper to man Moral act—a human act performed with knowledge and free will Its principles—intrinsic (virtues and vices), extrinsic (law) Habit—a permanent quality according to which a subject is well or badly disposed in regard to either its being or its operation Virtue and vice—a good quality of the intellect by which we live rightly, of which no one can make bad use; a strong tendency to something gravely immoral because of previous repetition of that act Cardinal/moral virtues—prudence, justice, temperance, fortitude Natural vs. Supernatural—can perfect certain powers through repetition regarding an end in this world, God can infuse grace to perfect certain powers that direct man to his ultimate end Freedom of choice—proceeds from a self-determining agent Exercise—choice between contradictory alternatives Specification—choice of the means to the desired end Moral Concerns Conscience and its forms—the here and now judgment of the morality of a particular will act, pure knowledge free of emotions Moral absolutes—those acts which a man can never perform because they always place an obstacle to him in reaching his true ultimate end Speculative And Practical Intellectual Virtues Speculative virtues: habits of first principles (understanding), natural wisdom (philosophy), science Practical virtues: prudence, art (useful and fine) The Ends Of Human Action End—the object by virtue of which an event or a series of events happens or is said to take place, intention End in moral philosophy—the end is what is first intended, remote end Kinds of ends—proximate, intermediate, ultimate, objective, personal, formal, end of work, end of the agent
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End of man—do all men have the same ultimate end philosophically speaking Ultimate end (Aristotle’s function argument)—practical order (acquired virtue), speculative order (contemplation of the prime unmoved mover) Morality And Responsibility First principle of the moral order—do good and avoid evil Morality—the quality attributable to human acts by reason of their conformity or lack of conformity to the standard or rule according to which they should be regulated Kinds—morally good, morally bad, morally indifferent Determinants of morality—object, circumstances, intention Rule—object must be good, circumstances must be appropriate, intention must be upright Consequences—few moral acts are absolutely good, they are usually tinged with evil to some degree Directing and permitting will—what is intended, allows an evil to be attendant with or consequent to the good intended Double effect—a principle used to determine if it is permissible to perform a moral act that produces two effects, one good and one bad Indifferent act—exists in the abstract but not in the concrete Responsibility—a person’s moral accountability for his actions Imputability—a quality of actions by which they are attributable to the agent Formal and material co-operation (immediate and mediate) Scandal—doing something that leads or may lead others into sin Law And Right Reason Common good—a universal good that may be communicated to many without becoming anyone’s private good Law—a certain ordinance of reason, made and promulgated for the common good by the authority who has care of the community Kinds of law: eternal (divine law, Church law), natural, human positive or factual law (civil law) Synderesis—the habit in man to recognize the first principles of the moral order and so of natural law without recourse to discursive reasoning Rights Defined—a person’s moral claim to the means of reaching an end that is his and that he is objectively responsible for reaching Natural rights—the right men have to do what is right for them to do Kinds of natural rights—to life, to follow one’s vocation, to marry, bear and educate children, to sufficient material wealth, to employment, to association, to one’s good name, to an education, to spiritual and cultural development, to good government, to equality before the law, to freedom of expression and of action within the bounds of the law Hierarchy of rights—some natural law rights are less connected with man’s nature than others so that some may appear to clash with others
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 88-97, 146-182.
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Class 9: November 2, 2010
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Last date to drop course with grade of “W”
Political Philosophy And Political Science Political philosophy—concerned with the first general principles of all practical activity Political science—the discipline that is concerned with implementing general principles as to how the community is to be organized to achieve earthly happiness Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas on political theory Origin of human society and government Various conceptions of the state: classical, medieval, baroque, modern Man is a political animal—nature of the state flows from the natural sexual attraction between man and woman Arguments for the political nature of man from Aristotle’s Politics The Pre-Political And The Problem Of Rule Pre-political forms of rule: despotic, political, kingly Money making as a problem—unlimited, unnatural, leads to a bad way of life (excess bodily pleasure, greed) The Citizen And The Regime Basic terms—polis, polites, politeuma, politeia, politicos Citizen and constitution—participates in political life, structures the specifics of political life Good man vs. good citizen—absolutely good, good relative to the regime The State The state—the independent and sovereign political community Three basic elements—distinct territory, multitude of people, positive constitutional and legal order State and nation—not co-terminous International law—governs the community of nations based upon their common nature, their common Creator, and their common law, i.e., the natural law of the community of nations, states, and cultures The doctrine of the just war—grave injury or a grave violation of rights, only states can conduct war, must be a limited end and fought by legitimate means Typology Of Regimes Kinds of regimes: monarchy, aristocracy, polity, tyranny/despotism, oligarchy, democracy Dynamic arrangements of political regimes Two extremes of politics—totalitarianism, anarchism Contention between the claims to rule—virtue, wealth, numbers Democracy And The Mixed Regime Instability in political life—occurs when the partial idea of justice is pushed too far and the limited claim to rule is unbalanced Aquinas on the best regime—he combines Aristotle and the Bible
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Tocqueville: Federalist as a mixing of elements Tyranny Three ruling devices of tyranny: breed mutual distrust, makes one incapable of action, break spirit Natural Law Transcendent standard—nature and nature’s God are the foundation for the rights which government ought to secure Defect of democracy principle—will of the people is the sole foundation for political authority Yves Simon on three theories of authority—coach driver, divine right, transmission Justice And Rights Traditional understanding of rights: obligation Modern understanding: subjective claim Education and politics: Aquinas and Aristotle Politics, Realism And Power Machiavellian lies—the just man must be weak, the successful man must practice evil and deceit Maritain’s critique—an uneducated populace is ripe for tyranny War, Peace And The Problem Of World Government On political philosophy and the just war theory—classical Greek and Roman philosophy transformed by the Christian philosophy of Augustine and Aquinas Augustine and the just war—pagan order dominated by pride, eagerness for praise, desire for glory Aquinas on criteria for just war—proper authority, just cause, right intention Government Notion—the concrete system through which the objectives of the state are attained Power—the capacity to make and enforce decisions, rules and regulations affecting the behavior of individuals and groups Forms of government—parliamentary, presidential, unitary, federated, one party system, two party system, anarchism, totalitarianism
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 98-110.
Class 10: November 9, 2010
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
Overview Of The History Of Philosophy Philosophy and history: philosophy, history, history of philosophy, philosophy and philosophies Philosophical systems: systems, being, truth, knowledge, God, ethics Historiography of philosophy: divisions and various basis, metahistory of philosophy Overview Of Ancient Philosophy Early Eastern Philosophy: Confucius, Hinduism, Buddhism
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Early Western Philosophy: the Pre-Socratics, Pythagoreans, forerunners of metaphysics, Eclectics Socratic Period: Sophists, Socrates, post-Socratic approaches to the explanation of the Good Plato: sources of his doctrine, theory of learning, myth of the cave, theory of ideas, relation of soul to body Aristotle: logic, natural philosophy, metaphysics, prime unmoved mover, the soul, moral philosophy, politics Post-Aristotelian developments: Hellenism (Stoicism, Skeptics, neo-Platonism) Overview Of Medieval Philosophy Patristic Philosophy: rise of Christian philosophy, patristic, early scholasticism, golden age of scholasticism, late scholasticism
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 45-56.
Class 11: November 16, 2010
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
Distribution Of Final Examination Questions To Credit Students Overview Of Modern Philosophy (Including Renaissance Philosophy) Renaissance Philosophy: philosophy of man, philosophy of nature, philosophy of the state The Modern Project: defined, new science, new politics, its problems Descartes and his circle: the method, hyperbolic doubt, three substances, Pascal British Empiricism: Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Cambridge Platonists, Scottish School of Common Sense Continental Rationalism: Spinoza, Leibniz The Enlightenment: British, French, German Kant: levels of scientific knowledge, synthetic a priori judgments, categories, categorical imperative, evaluation of Kant Overview Of Recent Philosophy Germany: typical idealism, romantic In Other Countries: Great Britain (absolute idealism, personal idealism), USA (academic idealism) Italy: Croce, Gentile Positivism: Comte, Spencer, James, Dewey Irrationalism: Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche Contemporary Renewal Of Christian Philosophy Leo XIII and Aeterni Patris Neo-Scholasticism: Gilson, Maritain
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 127-145.
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Class 12: November 23, 2010
ELEMENTS OF CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY
The Existence Of God The existence of God is not self-evident—Aquinas: ST, I-I, q. 2., a. 1 whether the existence of God is self-evident Whether God exists—Aquinas: ST, I-I, q. 2, a. 3 The existence of God is demonstrable—Aquinas: ST, I-I, q. 2., a. 2 whether it can be demonstrated that God exists Demonstrations of the existence of God—Aquinas: ST, I-I, q. 2, a. 3, Aquinas: Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 1, Chapter 13 Metaphysical Approaches To The Knowledge Of God Materialistic scientism The cause of substantial mutations The cause of being The Essence Of God Whether the human mind can arrive at the knowledge of God? The simplicity of God HE WHO IS Reflections on the notion of being Aquinas: ST, I-I, q. 3, a. 3 whether God is the same as his essence or nature Being: God and the transcendentals, being and creation, being and causality Man: the human soul, man and knowledge, man and will, man and society
Reading Assignment: McInerny, A Student’s Guide to Philosophy.
Class 13: November 30, 2010
Comparison Of The Philosophy Of Aristotle And St. Thomas Aquinas With Other Philosophers The formal object of philosophy The role of philosophy The foundation of philosophy Moderate realism Hylomorphism Human knowledge Animism Philosophy and common sense Reason and truth Substance and accident Moderate intellectualism Knowledge of God Ethics of happiness or the sovereign good Conclusions About Philosophy
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What is philosophy; the role of philosophy; what is theology; first principles; divisions of philosophy; ideas, images and words; individual vs. universal; abstraction; truth; formal object of the intellect; degree of intelligibility; essence; human intellect; universals; substance; accident; act and potency Philosophy The Handmaid Of Theology What happens to reason when separated from faith What happens to faith when separated from reason Aquinas: Summa Theologica I-I, q. 1, a. 1-8 on the nature and extent of sacred doctrine Revelation: Catechism of the Catholic Church Dei Filius: Chapter 2 on Revelation; Chapter 4 on Faith and Reason—different sources and objects Humani Generis: God known through creation; obedience the response to revelation. Dei Verbum: Revelation Itself Aquinas: Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 1, Chapters 3-8 What is “Reason”? What is “Reasoning”? John Paul II: Fides et Ratio. Influence of Greek Philosophy on Theology Aquinas: ST, I-I, q. 2, a. 2 Preambles of Faith Can there ever be a conflict between faith and reason?
Reading Assignment: Sullivan, An Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 247-266.
Class 14: December 7, 2010
Second Writing Assignment Due
Review For Final Examination
Reading Assignment: None.
Class 15: December 14, 2010
Final Examination 6:00 pm to 9:00 pm—Credit Students Only
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I couldn’t make any judgment on the Summa, except to say this: I read it every night before I go to bed. If my mother were to come in during the process and say, ‘Turn off that light. It’s late,’ I with lifted finger and broad bland beatific expression, would reply, ‘On the contrary, I answer that the light, being eternal and limitless, cannot be turned off. Shut your eyes,’ or some such thing. In any case I feel I can personally guarantee that St. Thomas loved God because for the life of me I cannot help loving St. Thomas.”—Flannery O’Connor, The Habit of Being
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