Helen Alexander [email protected] Word Choice for Grad Students:
Strategies to Address the Last Sign of Lack of Control in Writing
The Write Word in the Right Place: Exploring Lexical Proficiency
The English language is one of the richest and most confusing when it comes to word choice. There are so many to choose from—with many synonyms reflecting very similar ideas. What can you do to build your vocabulary daily without memorizing SAT words or lugging around a thesaurus?
Strategic awareness of the different levels of vocabulary interaction, of course!
Vocabulary exists in different planes simultaneously: denotation (dictionary definition), connotation (the “color” or tone conveyed), collocation (what other words it can or often appears with), context (its acceptability or meaning in certain situations—an ice pick versus a toothpick versus a pickaxe). Certain clues enable you the reader to decipher the word’s role:
1. Does any part of the word look familiar? Roots, prefixes, and suffixes point to underlying meaning.
2. What other ideas surround the word? Context clues that help define a word for a given text include class/sub- class, compare/contrast, description/explanation, example, antonym/negation, synonym.
3. How does the word “feel”? The basics include positive, negative, or neutral. More sophisticated palates might also taste “military”, “medical”, “sadistic”, “formal”, or “colloquial”.
4. How does the word SOUND? Words often need to fit into their sentence or context just right. Otherwise, the ear will protest. This will often happen with poor connotative choices, incorrect uses of transitive/intransitive verbs, but all those can also include words that must complete that word: prepositions, phrases, idioms.
I. Common Lexical Problems
Choosing the right word:
▸ Grad students don’t want to use simple words.
▸ They don’t want to sound pompous or overblown.
▸ They want to be concise.
▸ They want the right tone.
Choosing words when writing requires attention on many levels:
▸ Context
▸ Connotation
▸ Style
1 Helen Alexander [email protected]
Consequently, there are different strategies needed:
▸ Identifying words as contextual
▸ Modifying and editing your work based on word choice
▸ Raising your own awareness through attention to ‘feeling’ and ‘sounding funny’ paradigms
II. Contextual Activities
1. Look at the contexts and the choices. Which word would be better, and/or for which context would each word be better? (Hint: Completing the thought might help!)
a. Regarding Information:
▸ Collecting or gathering?
b. Regarding Status:
▸ Follow up or check or get an update or ascertain?
c. Regarding Reporting:
▸ Review or examine or verify?
d. Regarding Filing:
▸ Archive or back up or save a copy?
2. There are two basic systems in English communication: written and spoken.
Within each, there are many different situations that call for different kinds of word usage. In general:
▸ Informal speaking and writing use phrasal verbs more.
▸ Formal and/or academic writing prefer one word Latinate or Greek-based words.
▸ These tend to be less ambiguous and more concise, but can also cause more confusion because of their similar roots and various forms.
Where would you write the following two? To whom?
a. The lab was a mess. I told him to put the binders away.
b. Once the materials were replaced on the shelf, the experiment was conducted.
2 Helen Alexander [email protected] What is the difference between the three words below?
a. The experiment’s generalizability is crucial to creating a new pollution reducing policy.
b. The generalization that policy is determined by obscure experiments must come to an end.
c. The generality of the wording caused me disquiet as to how the policy would be implemented.
3. Can you rewrite these sentences as either MORE academic, or MORE spoken, informal English?
(From Everyday writer exercises, supplement to A. A. Lunsford. (2008). The everday writer (4th ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's)
I am astounded by the number of emails I receive each day trying to flog meds at me.
The Chinese invented noodles, even though lots of people think that the Italians must have come up with that bright idea.
Most commuters keep to a predictable schedule, hopping a bus or train to the ‘burbs at the same time each night.
The Guggenheim exhibit of African works of art, often misunderstood and undervalued by Western art historians, is a heck of a show.
III. Connotation Activities
1.The strength or emotion a word carries also influences its use, and overly strong language indicates bias in academic writing (except in certain cases).
What word has negative connotation?
a. Aggressive
b. Dominant
c. Forceful
2. Look at the lists of words below.
First, identify the listed words as positive, negative, or neutral and why. Then change the mood of the paragraph by changing the words. Some moods you could try include spooky, cheerful, funereal, sporty, timid, persuasive, or violent. Be sure all your changes reflect the same tone.
(List and paragraph below from Ohio Department of Education (n.d.) Connotation and denotation: How word choice affects a paragraph. Retrieved from
3 Helen Alexander [email protected] http://teach.clarkschools.net/jbernhard/Literacy_Web/WritingResources/ConnotationDenotationLesson Grade8DOEOhio.pdf)
- mansion, shack, abode, dwelling, domicile, residence, house, home, dump - spinster, old maid, unmarried woman, maiden lady, career woman - snooty, arrogant, conceited, cocky, vain, self-satisfied, egotistical, proud, high-and mighty, overbearing, high-hat, supercilious - titter, giggle, chuckle, laugh, guffaw, roar, snicker, snigger, cackle - corpulent, plump, obese, heavyset, fleshy, fat, paunchy, burly, overweight, roly-poly, bulky, portly, weighty, pudgy - saving, tight, miserly, frugal, economical, careful, thrifty, penny-pinching, budget-minded, penurious - shrewd, calculating, clever, sly, adroit, knowing, astute, cunning, skillful, smooth, - glum, sullen, withdrawn, reticent, silent, taciturn - laconic, terse, economical, concise, pointed, compressed, brief, boiled down - steal, purloin, embezzle, filch, pilfer, burglarize, rob, holdup, snatch, grab, help oneself to, appropriate.
Emily entered the empty room. As she glanced at the curtains, their red color held her eye for a moment. At first, she failed to notice the chair between the two windows, but as she looked down, she was surprised to find a coin in the center of the plush cushion. The silver shined from the dark blue velvet. Before she picked it up, she looked around in hesitation. Was somebody watching? She wasn’t sure. So, it should not have been a surprise to her when, as she reached for the coin, she heard a loud thud behind her.
3. Decide which of the following is better. Defend your response.
Diction:
strong-willed vs. pig-headed
used vs. previously-owned
modern vs. contemporary
oppress vs. restrict
claim vs. suggest
4. Simple and clear is better whenever.
What is the difference between these words, and when should you use them?
▸ Use versus utilize
▸ Help versus facilitate
▸ Cooperate versus synergize
4 Helen Alexander [email protected] Make the sentences clearer:
▸ We must synergize our paradigms to dominate the industry.
(Inspired by Dilbert)
▸ The right for President Jimmy Carter to unilaterally annul a treaty, in this case the Sino- American Mutual Defense Treaty, was the topic of the Supreme Court case Goldwater v. Carter in which the Supreme Court declined to rule on the legality of this action, given the political nature rather than judicial nature of the case, thereby allowing it to proceed.
(From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-American_Mutual_Defense_Treaty)
IV. Collocation Activities
1. One common set of collocations in English is the use of prepositions. Complete the following words with the prepositions they need. If they can use more than one, explain the difference in meaning: according come up tired dream talk depend in regards apply happy delighted In the end, any group of words that go together “sound right.” The best way to build this muscle is reading aloud, editing aloud, and looking at what words most commonly appear together in your field. Here is a website that focuses on business English. Which words complete the blanks best? Why have these expressions become collocations? What happens if you change the word? http://www.better-english.com/strongcoll.htm What about these? weak tea, strong tea, powerful tea? strong car, powerful car, weak car? high window, tall window, small window, short window? totally awesome, completely awesome, wholly awesome?
2. There is always more to learn about writing, no matter how good the writer, and a good place to start for most graduate students is word choice. It is often the subtleties of connotation and collocation that make or break an otherwise perfect paper’s readability. Here’s an example: His liberality was a joy to behold. His liberty was a pleasure to behold. Which sentence “feels” better? Which one makes more sense? Does one feel sarcastic? How do you know? Depending on your major, educational background, and proclivity for reading, your vocabulary might not reflect the depth and control of words you’d like to have or need. This lacking can become particularly irksome if you hope to continue on past your Master’s degree into PhD territory. Right now, with the person next to you, create sentences for the following words: 5 Helen Alexander [email protected] Divulge Commandeer
Diverge Compound
Deviate Circumvent
Denigrate Circumscribe
Digress Concede
Elude Cede
Allude Differentiate
Enervate
Obliterate
Obfuscate
Differentiate
V. Applied Academic Language Activities 1.When reading and writing, focus on the expectations that the author should have for a member of the field. The purpose is to make it as comprehensible as possible.
What can these words mean, and how often would you see them in your field’s writing?
▸ Said asked argued commented claimed denied questioned
▸ strategic problematic caveat
▸ theory application practice
2. Analytical, Evaluative, Speculative Language: Recognition and Revision
I. Below are several passages from a text on a qualitative study done with juveniles. By its very nature, a qualitative study must draw weaker conclusions, in general, as it is not recognized as valid to make de facto statements about inductively determined, case-study based evidence. Mark the language that shows this weakness. Is the author’s purpose to analyze or to evaluate in each passage? How will that change your understanding of the text, and how you should interpret the information? a. Many different formats exist in practicing the restorative justice philosophy (Boyack et al. 2004; UNODC 2006). Some of the most common practices include Victim Offender Mediation (VOM), FamilyGroup Conferencing (FGC), and healing/peacemaking circles (Circles) (Bazemore and Schiff 2005; Lightfoot and Umbreit 2004; MacRae and Zehr 2004; Pranis 2005; OJJDP 1998; Umbreit et al. 1998; Zehr 2002). Of these, VOM, the focus of the study, has earned the greatest popularity in the United States, whereas FGC and Circles are more recent introductions (Bazemore and Schiff 2005; Bazemore and Umbreit 2003; Lemley 2001).
6 Helen Alexander [email protected] According to Bazemore and Umbreit (2003), VOM brings a victim(s) and an offender(s) together voluntarily in dialog using a mediator(s) to obtain answers, repair harms and make amends to the victim in a safe and controlled setting. According to Lightfoot and Umbreit (2004) while 29 states in the United States have VOM or VOM-type statutory authority, the levels of VOM provisions are various in each state from extremely comprehensive with details on how to run the program to a simple reference to VOM within a list of sentencing alternatives. In 2005, Bazemore and Schiff reported almost 800 restorative justice programs (with predominant numbers of VOM) running in the United States, they also observed a range of variation among VOMs. Many studies report these variations. For example, Presser and Hamilton (2006) identified that the VOM program they observed did not allow family members at the VOM, the VOM program we report in this study encouraged the referred youths’ family members’ participation and input. Although many VOMs employ a four-phase process that includes intake, preparation for mediation, mediation, and follow-up (Umbreit and Bradshaw 1999), the current program lacked the follow-up phase. The current VOM also followed a roughly structured format included introductions, explanation of the process, discussion of the offense as well as plan for repairing the harm. b. Zehr (1995) argued that punishment is not necessarily an answer for young offenders because in many cases a crime is a gesture for help. Punishment-focused approaches may not allow young people to understand the consequences of their actions from victims’ perspectives, which takes away the opportunity for young people to act on their responsibility by addressing victims’ needs and harms done (UNODC 2006; Zehr 1995, 2002). Zehr (2002, p. 16) noted, ‘‘Real accountability involves facing up to what one has done. It means encouraging offenders to understand the impact of their behavior…and urging them to take steps.’’ This means that policies and practices for youths should do more than just catch and punish them (Gilbert and Settles 2007). This gives a rationale for restorative justice, especially for youths, to rise. Restorative justice is not only a philosophy with underlying values but also a justice approach that expands victims’ rights and provides community-based alternatives to punishment-oriented justice policy and practice (Amstutz 2009; Braithwaite 2002; Van Ness and Strong 2010). Restorative justice begins with recognizing the importance of the interpersonal dimension of crime and the role of relationships between and among people (Llewellyn 2007; Van Ness and Strong 2010; Zehr 1995). In this view, crime is not only a violation of law but also a violation of people and relationship (Llewellyn 2007; Zehr 1995). This view leads to restorative processes that place both victims and offenders in roles that encourage active, interpersonal, and collaborative problem solving to repair the damaged relationships (Llewellyn 2007; UNODC 2006; Zehr 1995, 2002).
Choi, J. J., Green, D. L., & Gilbert, M. J. (2011) Putting a human face on crimes: A qualitative study. Child Adolescent Social Work Journal, 28, 335-355. doi 10.1007/s10560-011-0238-9
II. Read the sentences below, and change them as directed. a. The results show that all grad students need five more hours of sleep a night. (Change this to reflect strong evidence, and then again for no direct evidence) b. The outcome might have been skewed by the falling rats. (Change this to evaluative language that assigns blame to the rats) c. There are three causes of glaucoma.
7 Helen Alexander [email protected] (Change this to reflect your skepticism of this statement, then change it to make it the main idea of your paper)
VI. Final Thoughts
Words are your friends!
▸ Word games exist in each piece of text: play Hide and Seek, Which One of These is Not Like the Others, and Family Feud each and every day! ▸ Edit by reading out loud for logical inconsistency and vocabulary disconnect. ▸ Be true to the contextual requirements, and be consistent.
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