The Road to Revolution Ch

Kennedy and the Civil Rights Movement – Ch. 28, “The Confident Years,” pgs. 748-759

Overall main idea: During the early 1960s Presidents Kennedy and Johnson supported civil rights and poverty reform at home while struggling with the Cold War abroad.

John F. Kennedy and the Cold War Main idea: Although President Kennedy pledged a New Frontier of scientific and social progress, he is most known for his efforts in the Cold War. New Frontier – Kennedy’s mostly domestic policies aimed at scientific and social progress, especially concerning a unified U.S.

The Kennedy Mystique Main idea: John F. Kennedy won the presidential election of 1960 and entered the White House with a strong personality and youthful charisma. Kennedy vs. Nixon race in 1960 was one of the closest in US history – Kennedy won by .2 percent of the popular vote and only 15 electoral votes Television played a large part in the race; during televised debates, though Nixon often gave better, more experienced responses, Kennedy looked and sounded better and smoother, winning over voters by style; Kennedy’s inauguration and most of his press conferences were televised live Pushed for unity and sacrifice for the US – “Ask not what your country can do for you…” Some were uncertain about Kennedy because of his Roman Catholic religion (fears of the Church controlling the country) and his personal life (he was accused of having extramarital affairs, such as with Marilyn Monroe The “Kennedy mystique” – the style, personality, charisma, and “cool” of the Kennedy family, sometimes known as “Camelot”; Kennedy was a World War II hero, his wife Jackie Kennedy was stylish and young, the Kennedys played touch football and installed a swimming pool at the White House

Kennedy’s Mistakes Main idea: Kennedy struggled with problems in Cold War policy early in his presidency. Cuban Revolution – Fidel Castro, Che’ Guevara and other revolutionaries led a Communist overthrow of the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista from 1953-1959 Bay of Pigs – Kennedy authorized the support of anti-Communist Cubans in an attack against Castro at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba; the CIA had trained the rebels but Kennedy refused to send actual US troops to aid their attack; it failed, the Bay of Pigs invaders were captured by the Communist Cubans, and Kennedy/US was embarrassed. Nikita Khruschev – leader of Soviet Union after Stalin Kennedy met with Khruschev soon after Bay of Pigs and was perceived as weak and ill-prepared; in response, the Soviets pushed the Berlin crisis by building the Berlin Wall around West Berlin, preventing East Germans and East Berliners from escaping to the US-supported West Berlin; Kennedy was pleased as it avoided expected conflict with the Soviets

Getting Into Vietnam Main idea: U.S. involvement in Vietnam escalated during Kennedy’s presidency as he authorized support and intervention in South Vietnam. Vietnam was formerly a French imperial possession Division in Vietnam after French – North Vietnam was Communist, controlled by Ho Chi Minh and supported by Soviets and Chinese; South Vietnam was mostly anti-Communist, controlled by Ngo Dinh Diem, supported by US (similar to Korean War) Communist rebel supporters in South Vietnam were known as Viet Cong Despite Diem’s unpopularity, dictator-like and sometimes brutal tactics, the US supported him over Communist Ho Chi Minh; finally they grew frustrated and supported a takeover that killed Diem and replaced him with military rule

Missile Crisis: A Line Drawn in the Waves Main idea: The Cuban Missile Crisis between the U.S. and the Soviet Union ended in a stalemate as both sides agreed to back down from possible nuclear war. 1962 – US discovered that Cuba was coordinating with the Soviets to arrange nuclear missile capabilities on the island with the capacity to attack the US if necessary Kennedy and his advisors scrambled to fix the situation, running through many options, including a blockade; this was the closest the Cold War came to actual nuclear war A few days later, the Soviets offered to remove the missiles if the US would pledge not to invade Cuba in the future; Kennedy agreed and the crisis was averted – the Cuban Missile Crisis Cuban Missile Crisis violated the Monroe Doctrine; both sides eventually backed down, not wanting to risk nuclear war, but it accelerated the nuclear arms race further

Science and Foreign Affairs Main idea: The Kennedy administration competed with the Soviet Union in regards to the space race and the nuclear arms race. Space race – Soviet and American race to technologically advance in regards to space exploration as part of the Cold War; Soviets put the first satellite, animal, and human into space by 1961; John Glenn was the first American in space in 1962; Kennedy pledged to send an American to the moon by 1970, beating the Russians Both countries competed to improve and create larger nuclear weapons Limited Test Ban Treaty – treaty signed in 1963 outlawing nuclear testing in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater, signed by US, USSR, Britain

Righteousness like a Mighty Stream: The Struggle for Civil Rights Main idea: The Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision reversed segregation rulings and set the modern Civil Rights Movement into motion. Brown v. Board of Education 1954 – Supreme Court decision declaring that “separate but equal” school facilities are inherently unequal, striking down Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 and reaffirming the 14th Amendment; considered a great victory for the NAACP and a catalyst in the Civil Rights Movement

Getting to the Supreme Court Main idea: The Brown v. Board decision was the result of twenty-five years of judicial work by NAACP lawyers. Howard University dean Charles Hamilton Houston began training civil rights lawyers as early as the 1930s; Thurgood Marshall took over for Houston in 1938 and led the NAACP’s charges against Plessy v. Ferguson segregation cases Brown vs. Board combined multiple cases from communities in multiple states Courts also declared segregation of Mexican-American students unequal before Brown

Deliberate Speed Main idea: Southern states resisted implementing the Brown ruling, causing conflict at schools such as Central High in Little Rock, Arkansas. Racial problems are typical thought to be a Southern issue Brown v. Board decision did not state that desegregation had to happen immediately, but only “with all deliberate speed” which was vague and easy to misinterpret; Southern states dragged their feet Southern Manifesto – a document signed by Southern congressmen stating that Brown v. Board was unconstitutional and that they would resist the ruling with all legal means; Eisenhower himself was not a fan of the decision Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas was the site of the most famous school desegregation event – 9 black students (“the Little Rock Nine”) were admitted to the school, causing a riot when the governor removed troops protecting the students; Eisenhower was forced to send national army troops to put down the riot and protect the students Desegregation did not really occur until around 1970, when the Federal government threatened to cut funding to those states that did not comply; 1968 – only 6 percent of blacks attended integrated schools, 1973 – 90 percent

Public Accommodations Main idea: African-American organizations used non-violent civil disobedience to protest and integrate public accommodations in the South. Jim Crow laws remained in the South that segregated bus terminals, movie theaters, restrooms, drinking fountains, hotels and restaurants Montgomery Bus Boycott - first major challenge to segregation laws; Rosa Parks refused to sit in the “colored” section of the bus, sparking a year-long boycott of Montgomery bus system in 1955-1956; NAACP and local community organized around young pastor Martin Luther King Jr.; by the end of the year, the Supreme Court had ruled segregated buses to be unconstitutional and the boycott was successful White Southerners often saw the civil rights issue as a local, constitutional “states rights” matter while the rest of the country saw it as a national moral matter, similar to the slavery issue before King and other pastors formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to organize for civil rights Lunch counter / restaurant sit-ins – Greensboro, NC and Nashville, TN in 1960 – young African-Americans sat at segregated lunch counters to protest, suffering violence and forcing some restaurants to close; received lots of press attention Young people form Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, pronounced “Snick”) Another group, Congress of Racial Equality (CORE, which had been around since 1942), organized “Freedom Rides” across the South; white and black CORE members rode on segregated buses across the South to protest, gathering press attention; the rides turned violent in Alabama when the first bus was burned in Anniston and the second was stopped in Birmingham and the riders were brutally beaten while the local police were conspicuously absent

March on Washington, 1963 Main idea: King’s efforts in Birmingham and the March on Washington led to widespread media attention and Kennedy’s involvement in the civil rights movement. Kennedy came into office with little civil rights plans; he was considered more of a supporter than Nixon and Eisenhower but worried about losing white southern votes from the New Deal coalition “Project C” (Confrontation) in Birmingham, 1963 – Birmingham was considered “the most segregated city in the South” and King brought the SCLC there to force a confrontation that would generate media exposure, widespread sympathy, and government action; marches and sit-ins were met with Birmingham police attacks with dogs and fire hoses and large scale jailings, including children; local commissioner Bull Connor was responsible for orchestrating many of the police responses (as well as the failure to respond to the Freedom Riders’ beatings) King was thrown in jail and penned his famous “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” Birmingham forced Kennedy to get involved with the movement, asking Congress to pass a law protecting civil rights for all The March on Washington in 1963 also moved Kennedy; 250,000 protestors marched on the Lincoln Memorial and King gave his famous “I Have a Dream” speech; this was the march that A. Phillip Randolph had threatened in the 1940s

“ Let Us Continue” Main idea: Despite Kennedy’s assassination, civil rights laws were pushed through by President Johnson.

Dallas, 1963 Main idea: Though Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested and officially blamed for the assassination of President Kennedy in 1963, conspiracy theories continue to abound. Kennedy was shot in Dallas, TX in Nov. 1963; he was riding in an automobile motorcade while visiting the city; Americans still remember where they were or what they were doing when they heard the news, much like Pearl Harbor or 9/11 Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested as the assassin, supposedly shooting Kennedy from high in a building near the street; yet two days later Oswald was murdered by Jack Ruby before he could be tried Oswald was formerly in the Marines, then defected to the Soviet Union, then came back to the US and was a Marxist/Communist who had few friends or successes; the Warren Commission was appointed to investigate the assassination and concluded Oswald was responsible; however, others have questioned the Warren Commission’s findings, which have lots of holes; a later commission (The House Select Committee on Assassinations - HSCA) disputed the Warren Commission and concluded that a conspiracy was probable; later studies have called this commission’s findings into question also Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as President on Air Force One

War on Poverty Main idea: Lyndon Johnson continued and extended Kennedy’s ideas of social programs to help poverty. Johnson was from Texas, a Southerner intended to balance the Democratic ticket; he started in politics as a supporter of the New Deal Kennedy had defined social programs to help poverty especially, but had not enacted any; Johnson made the package his own, known as the War on Poverty War on Poverty – Johnson’s programs to break the cycle of poverty through job programs for dropouts and unemployed kids, Head Start program as a preschool for poor kids, a domestic Peace Corps (which Kennedy had created), and Community Action agencies which provided health and educational services; overall, these programs improved life for millions of poor Americans

Civil Rights, 1964-1965 Main idea: After continued protest, in 1964-1965 the Johnson administration passed the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act to protect African-American civil rights. Johnson, despite his Southern heritage, supported the Civil Rights Movement; he was originally a teacher in a poor Mexican segregated school Johnson helped pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – prohibited discrimination and segregation in public accommodations and employment in federally-assisted projects Freedom Summer – SNCC-led voter registration project in rural Mississippi; almost all blacks were disfranchised there through Jim Crow laws; white and black SNCC volunteers faced violence, intimidation, and even murder to register black voters and catch the attention of the media and the Federal government Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) – a political party of whites and blacks that sent its own delegates (one of which was Fannie Lou Hamer, a poor black woman) to the Democratic national convention in 1964, around the all- white Democratic Party of Mississippi; the MFDP walked out of the convention when Johnson refused to expel the all- white delegates from MS Selma, Bloody Selma (a.k.a. Bloody Sunday) – King and SCLC went to Selma, AL to register voters and protest disfranchisement of blacks in rural Alabama; they planned a march from Selma to Montgomery that was met with violence by Alabama state troopers, again gaining media and government exposure; later the marchers would repeat their attempt and this time make it all the way to Montgomery In the face of Freedom Summer, MFDP, Bloody Selma, and personal appeals from King, Johnson helped pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965 – outlawed disfranchisement techniques used by Southern states like literacy tests and poll taxes; within the first year, black voter registration went up over 30% and later closed in on white levels; in 1975 the act was extended to Hispanics

War, Peace, and the Landslide of 1964 Main idea: Johnson and the Democrats’ landslide victory in 1964 allowed the passage of Great Society programs that lowered poverty rates. Gulf of Tonkin incident, 1964 – US destroyer in Gulf of Tonkin in North Vietnam was attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats; Johnson pushed for the passing of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which authorized “all necessary measures” to protect American forces and stop further aggression in Vietnam; note: this was not an official declaration of war by Congress Johnson’s opponent was Barry Goldwater, who pushed for all-out war with Vietnam while Johnson appeared moderate; Johnson won the election with 61% of the vote, the largest in American history; Democrats in Congress also took a two-to-one majority Johnson and the Democrats passed the Great Society, Johnson’s programs for helping poverty, education, and civil rights: National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) and National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) – agencies of the Federal government dedicated to support humanities and arts research, funding, education, preservation Wilderness Act – preserved wilderness acres from development Elementary and Secondary Education Act – provided federal funding to improve schools Higher Education Act – provided federal funding for student loans and university research Medicare – federal funded program to provide medical insurance for the elderly Medicaid – federal funded program to provide medical insurance for the poor Appalachian Regional Development Act – funded economic development in poor rural Appalachians Social security extended, food stamps, etc. Proportion of poverty in the U.S. in 1960: 22 percent; in 1970:13 percent; infant mortality decreased by one third; Great Society was quite a success compared to Johnson’s problems in Vietnam

Overall main idea: During the early 1960s Presidents Kennedy and Johnson supported civil rights and poverty reform at home while struggling with the Cold War abroad.