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NATIONAL OVERVIEW ON VULNERABILITY AND IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARINE AND COASTAL BIODIVERSITY. SPAIN
By
Núria Marbà Bordalba
Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (CSIC-UIB) Carrer Miquel Marquès 21 07190 Esporles (Spain)
November 2008
3 3 Contents
Executive summary Introductory note List of Acronyms
List of contents 1. Reference documents and information consulted 2. National activities concerning vulnerability and impacts of climate change on biodiversity 3. Expert opinion on vulnerability and impacts of climate change of climate change on biodiversity in national marine and coastal areas 4. Expert opinion on related priority national needs 5. Funding problems and opportunities 6. Conclusions and recommendations
List of References
3 3 Executive summary
- Availability and problems of actual information and knowledge
Research on global change in Spain is rapidly growing during the current decade, and most results obtained are published and disseminated. Most available information and knowledge on global change impacts in Spain refer to climate change and impacts on land biodiversity. The information about climate change impacts on Spanish Mediterranean marine and coastal biodiversity is scarce, although there is information available on responses of some key species (e.g. gogonians, Posidonia oceanica) to Mediterranean warming, proliferation of exotic and invasive species along Spanish Mediterranean coast, and the dependence of some fish stocks (e.g. anchovy) to climate change.
There is a scarcity of long-term data series on marine coastal biodiversity preventing to quantify and analyse the patterns of biodiversity responses to climate change. This lack of information makes difficult to design and implement effective management tools to conserve marine biodiversity.
- Level and quality of national activities
Several activities, including legislation, elaboration of plans and programmes, participation in national and international committees, research, monitoring and training, addressing climate change and biodiversity are being conducted in Spain. Few of these activities, however, directly address vulnerability and impacts of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity, but they are contributing to increase knowledge on, and to improve, conservation of marine coastal biodiversity.
The fraction of coastal and marine area protected is insufficient to help marine biodiversity conservation along the Spanish Mediterranean. Similarly, several vulnerable marine species, ecosystems and habitats to climate (and global) change are not yet taken into account in conservation plans.
- List critical issues in national marine /coastal areas
The major threats to Spanish Mediterranean marine coastal areas and ecosystems are direct human pressure, and impacts derived from climate change, as sea level rise, and subsequent erosion, increase seawater temperature, frequency of extreme climate events (heat waves, medicanes, drought/floods), seawater hypoxia, seawater stratification and seawater acidification, as well as potential changes in marine currents.
Fingerprints of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity along the Spanish Mediterranean coastline are already evident, reflected by an increased mortality of some species, changes in species reproductive biology during warm years, and an increase of exotic species arrivals. The projected climate change under IPCC scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions, together with forecasted human population growth along the Spanish Mediterranean during XXI century seriously threat the future of Spanish coastal and marine biodiversity. Synergies between simultaneously occurring global change impacts increase vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity.
3 3 The most vulnerable Spanish coastal areas to climate change impacts identified are low land areas, wetlands and beaches, mainly due sea level rise. Ecosystems composed by long-living and slow-growing sessile organisms, as red coral, gorgonians, sponges or Posidonia oceanica, are the most vulnerable ones to climate and global change. Climate change may also impact fisheries and mariculture as they are vulnerable to changes in ocean productivity, hypoxia and some species to ocean acidification.
- List priority needs
Conservation of coastal marine biodiversity requires to reduce and to mitigate direct and diffusive anthropogenic impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity. Moreover, efforts towards gaining information about the distribution and conservation status of vulnerable key ecosystems and species is required in order to minimise climate and global change impacts.
The number of marine protected areas and ecosystems should increase. Protection measures should involve participation of all coastal and marine related actors, and they should be designed and coordinated at basin scale. The design of the network should consider the possible climate change effects to coastal waters, as well as ecosystem and species distribution. Management of coastal ecosystems and marine biodiversity should be adaptive.
Projected sea level rise and sea dynamics under scenarios of climate change for the current century will impact Spanish Mediterranean coastal areas and thus their inhabitants, users and ecosystems. A Planned Retreat from vulnerable coastal areas as the only sustainable response to mitigate the impacts of sea level rise is needed.
It urges to initiate and maintain long term monitoring programmes to assess climate impacts on coastal and marine biodiversity. Long-term monitoring should include biogeographical borders for species distributions (e.g. Gata Cape region). In addition, existing environmental and ecological monitoring networks should be improved and consolidated. All monitoring data sets should become available.
The Spanish participation in international programmes should increase. Collaboration and communication between Mediterranean countries (at research, policy and training levels) should increase.
Research towards gaining knowledge on climate change impacts on oceanography and marine ecology and biodiversity should be promoted. Spain has carried out a comprehensive analysis of impacts of climate change in coastal areas, including methodological development, which could be used for research of impacts on marine biodiversity in coastal areas. This is being used to carry out a detailed analysis of impacts and vulnerability of coastal stretches all along the coastline, including impacts on protected areas, beaches, cliffs. Identification of tipping points and conditions for ecosystem shifts driven by climate change should be emphasised. Synergies between climate change and other global change impacts to marine and coastal biodiversity should be considered.
3 3 - Comment funding problems
European, national, and autonomic community governments, as well as private foundations fund research programmes with climate change and biodiversity priorities. However, the fraction of funding allocated to research on marine biodiversity is small. Despite EC funds research across EU and non-EU countries, activities to promote collaborative research across north and southern Mediterranean countries should increase. Current programmes fund research projects of a maximum of 5 year duration, which is insufficient to support long-term monitoring programmes.
- Add key recommendations
The actions recommended are:
- Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. - Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. - Increase the number of marine and coastal protected areas, particularly along the peninsular Spanish Mediterranean territorial waters, and develop and implement effective management plans for them. - Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate dynamics, interactions between the climate system and oceanography and marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change. - Increase dissemination of information and training actions on climate change impacts and vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity. PNACC offers the framework to conduct these activities. - Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems - Design and implementation of a Retreat Plan from vulnerable coastal ecosystems - Promote adaptative management of coastal ecosystems and marine biodiversity, adjusting to their responses to the evolving impacts of climate change, as opposed to static regulation and management approaches that are not flexible enough to accommodate the dynamic situation of the Mediterranean marine ecosystem. - Integrate Climate Change in GIZC.
These actions could be implemented by national or autonomic community governments (depending on the competences of each institution), but they should be coordinated at national, and when possible, Mediterranean scale.
3 3 Introduction note
The overview has been prepared as one of SAP BIO selected activities for the MAP Biennium 2008-2009. It has been prepared by Mrs/Mr Núria Marbà Bordalba as National consultant, guided by Mr Javier PANTOJA TRIGUEROS National SAP BIO Correspondent, supervised by Dr José Luis HERRANZ SAEZ National Focal Point for SPAs, and guided and assisted by Mr Jose Antonio García Charton, RAC/SPA international consultant responsible for cluster B. In addition the following national experts were informed/consulted, and their comments have been included, on the present action:
Dr. Carlos M. Duarte; Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (CSIC-UIB), Spain
Alfonso Gutierrez Teira, Ricardo Gomez Calmaestra, Jose Ramon Picatoste Ruggeroni, Jorge Martinez Chamorro, Área de Estrategias de Adaptación, D.G. Oficina Española de Cambio Climático, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Medio Rural y Marino
3 3 List of Acronyms
CDB: Convention on Biological Diversity CEICAG: Comité Español de Investigación en Cambio Global CITES: Convención sobre el comercio internacional de especies amenazadas de fauna y flora silvestres CSIC: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas EC or CE: European Commission ESSP: Earth System Science Programme FAO: Food Organisation FP: Framework Programme IGBP: International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme IHDP: International Programme on Human Dimension IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change MAP: Mediterranean Action Plan NoE: Network of Excellence PNACC : Plan Nacional de Adaptación al cambio climático OECC: Spanish Office of Climate Chage RAC/SPA: Regional Activity Centre for Specialy Protected Areas SAP-BIO: Strategic Action Plan for Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Region SMOC: Sistema Mundial de Observación del Clima UIB: Universitat de les Illes Balears UNEP: United Nation Environmental Program UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WFD: Water Framework Directive WWF: World Wildlife Fund
3 3 1. REFERENCE DOCUMENT AND INFORMATION CONSULTED
1.1. Documents provided by RAC/SPA and its international consultants
- Pérez T. 2008. Impact of climate change on biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea. UNEP-MAP-RAC/SPA, Tunis The document describes temperature, sea level and precipitation changes occurred in the Mediterranean sea for the last decades, and it reviews the impacts of these climate changes on Mediterranean marine biodiversity. - IPCC Synthesis reports 2007. http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/climate- changes-2007-ar4-sp.htm - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. http://unfccc.int/2860.php - The ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 9). http://www.cbd.int/cop9/
- Integrating Biodiversity into Climate Change Adaptation Planning. http://adaptation.cbd.int/ - CBD – Climate Change Adaptation Database. http://adaptation.cbd.int/threats.shtml#sec1 - Bern. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/Conventions/Bern/Seville_2008_en.as p - Bonn Convention. http://www.cms.int/ - FAO & Climate Change. http://www.fao.org/clim/docs/CD-ROM/frameset.htm - WWF : WWF Report on Climate change impacts in the Mediterranean - Laubier L., T. Perez, C. Lejeusne, J. Garrabou, P. Chevaldonné, J. Vacelet, N. Boury-Esnault, JG Harmelin. 2003. La Méditerranée se réchauffe-t-elle? Mar. Life 13: 71-81 This work reviews the footprint of seawater warming on the distribution, abundance and mortality events of animal species growing in coastal deep Western Mediterranean waters during the last 2-3 decades. The temperature of deep Mediterranean water has increased 0.13 ºC during the last 30 years. At l’Estartit, North East Spain, between 1973 and 2001 the mean annual water temperature has increased 0.7 ºC and 1.24 ºC at 80 m and 20 m depth. Mobile thermophile species of fish and echinoderms are present, and in some cases abundant, in the North Western Mediterranean waters since the decade of 1980 or that of 1990, depending on the species, while prior to these years they were absent or rare. Similarly, they report the absence of the fish Spheoroides cutaneus at present in Algerian waters while previously it was abundant. Warming of Mediterranean waters has also contributed to alien species spreading. Sessile species are highly sensitive to increased seawater temperature. Mass mortalities of about 20 different animal species (encompassing sponges, cnidaria, briozoa, bivalves, polychetes) across the Northern Western Mediterranean was recorded after the extremely calm summer in
3 3 1999, when seawater temperature below the thermocline reached 22-24 ºC. It reports mass mortalities up to 92 % of colonies of Paramuricea clavata in the region. It also reports almost the extinction of the crustacean Hemimysis speluncola in the caves of the region and the increase of population size of H. margalefi, which have a lethal temperature for 50 % mortality of individuals at 29.6 ºC and 32.6 ªC, respectively. The ecological data available confirms the warming of coastal waters and that it impacts marine biodiversity. The poor knowledge on temperature tolerance of marine species makes difficult to predict mid- and long-term consequences of this warming up.
- UNEP/CBD/EMB D-CC. Report of the Roundtable on the interlinkages between biodiversity and climate change. Convention on Biological Diversity. Montreal. 19-20 March 2007 - UNFCC. 2007. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its thirteenth session, held in Bali, from 3 to 15 December 2007. Addendum. Part Two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its thirteenth session
1.2. National documents and publications identified and available
1.2.1. National documents and publications provided by RAC/SPA
- INFORME DE ESPAÑA: DEMOSTRACIÓN DE PROGRESO EN VIRTUD DEL ARTÍCULO 3.2 DEL PROTOCOLO DE KIOTO
- CUARTA COMUNICACIÓN NACIONAL DE ESPAÑA: CONVENCIÓN MARCO DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS SOBRE EL CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO
- INFORME SOBRE OBSERVACIÓN SISTEMÁTICA DEL CLIMA PARA EL SISTEMA MUNDIAL DE OBSERVACIÓN DEL CLIMA (SMOC)
This document provides information on the monitoring programmes of atmospheric, meteorological and oceanographic parameters, stations monitored and length of the time series available for Spain. It also provides information on the participation of the different Spanish agencies in climate international programmes. The National Meteorological Institute has a network of 65 stations monitoring the Spanish atmospheric climate, 20 of them recording air temperature for more than 100 years. The Agency of Spanish Harbours and the Spanish Oceanographic Institute monitor oceanographic parameters. In the Mediterranean Sea the Agency of Spanish Harbours has 6 deep (200 m -800 m depth) stations recording oceanographic and meteorological parameters, 13 shallow stations recording wave activity, 5 stations recording sea level, and 1 station (Gibraltar Straight) recording water currents, in addition of 11 stations recording meteorological information. Similar oceanographic parameters are monitored by the Spanish Oceanographic Institute. Oceanographic data sets available range for recent to more than 100 years (e.g. sea level).
1.2.2. Other national documents found
- Evaluación Preliminar de los impactos en España por Efecto del Cambio
3 3 Climático. Coordinador José Manuel Moreno Rodríguez. Varios autores. 2005. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.
This book evaluates the impacts of climate change on Spanish ecosystems and economic sectors. The information provided in this book has been extremely useful to prepare the present document.
- Impactos en la costa española por efecto del Cambio Climático. Universidad de Cantabria. 2004.
- Plan Nacional de Adaptación al Cambio Climático. From the reports mentinoed above, it identifies the important actions to be considered within each Spanish sector and system. It provided the nacional framework to conduct a coordinated nacional evaluation in terms of impacts, vulnerability and adpatation, with the particiation of relevant actors in Spain. It develops through working programmes, the first of one, initiated in 2006, addresses the impact, vulnerability and adaptation to Climate Change in coastal areas.
- Cambio Global. Impacto de la actividad humana sobre el sistema tierra. 2006. Coordinador Carlos M. Duarte. Colección Divulgación. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.
Book addressed to the general public that summarises the current knowledge on impacts of Global Change on Earth System and mechanisms to mitigate and adapt to Global Change. Extremely useful to prepare the present document.
- Convenio sobre Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y Flora Silvestres (CITES). http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/especies_amenazadas/con venio_cites/es_cites/index.htm
- DIRECTRICES PARA EL TRATAMIENTO DEL BORDE COSTERO. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Secretaría General para el territorio y la biodiversidad. Dirección General de Costas.
- DIRECTRICES SOBRE ACTUACIONES EN PLAYAS. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Secretaría General para el territorio y la biodiversidad. Dirección General de Costas.
- Estrategia Espanola para la conservacion y el uso sostenible de la diversidad biologica. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Secretaría General de Medio Ambiente. Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza.
- Catálogo Nacional de Especies Amenazadas. Listado de taxones por categorías de amenaza. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Secretaría General para el territorio y la biodiversidad.
- Plan de Acción Estratégico para la Conservación de la Diversidad Biológica en la Región Mediterránea. Informe Nacional Español. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.
3 3 1.3. Other documents identified, if any
- Benoit G, Comeau A. 2005. A sustainable future for the Mediterranean: The Blue Plan’s Environment and Development Outlook. Earthscan, London. - Medina R, Losada IJ, Menéndez FJ, Olabarrieta M, Liste M, Menéndez M, Tomás A, Abascal AJ, Agudelo P, Guanche R. 2004. Impactos en la costa española por efecto del cambio climático. Fase III: Estratégias frente al cambio climático en la costa. Ministerio Medio Ambiente. - The Europe Acacia Project
- Linares C, Coma R, Diaz D, Zabala M, Hereu B, Dantart Ll. 2005. Immediate and delayed effects of a mass mortality event on gorgonian population dynamics and benthic community structure in the NW Mediterranean Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 305: 127-137 - Linares C, Coma R, Zabala M. 2008. Efects of a mass mortality event on gorgonian reproduction. Coral Reefs 27 : 27-34 - Occhipinti-Ambrogi, D. Savini. 2003. Biological invasions as a component of global change in stressed marine ecosystems. 46 : 542–551 - Vaquer-Sunyer R, Duarte CM. 2008. Thresholds of hypoxia for marine biodiversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 105: 15452– 15457. - Diaz-Almela E, N. Marbà, and C. M. Duarte. 2007. Fingerpints of Mediterranean Sea warming in seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) flowering records. Global Change Biology 13: 224–235 - Marbà N and Duarte CM. 1997. Interannual changes in seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) growth and environmental change in the Spanish Mediterranean littoral zone. Limnology and Oceanography 42 : 800-810.
1.4. Quality and comprehensiveness of available information documents (a short critical analysis to be provided, major gaps identified, the resulting problems…)
The documents available provide an overview of (1) the current knowledge on climate change and marine biodiversity, as well as on vulnerability of marine and coastal biodiversity to climate change, and (2) actions undertaken towards climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation at global, Mediterranean and Spanish scales.
Despite the evidence of climate change impacts on biodiversity, the magnitude of Mediterranean marine biodiversity responses to climate change remain largely unknown. This is partially due to the lack of long-term monitoring of Mediterranean marine biota and ecosystem processes, and the scarce information available on climate change impacts on marine organism physiology, population demography, reproduction, species distribution and ecosystem function.
3 3 2. NATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONCERNING VULNERABILITY AND IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON BIODIVERSITY
2.1. Activities identified
- International, European and National Legal activities and Plans related with vulnerability and impacts of climate change and Biodiversity in Spain.
The following table summarises the different legal activities and plans concerning climate change and biodiversity in Spain.
Topic Level Legal activity Water Europe - Water Framework Directive (200/60/CE) National - Hydrological National Plan (Law 11/2005) A.G.U.A Programme (2004-2005) - Water White Book (2000) – it aims at providing the basis to, once described the present situation, estimate future water use, regarding needs, priorities and best practices, in Spain. It includes the need of wetland and marsh conservation, water treatment, desalination of marine waters. Conservation International - RAMSAR Convention: Wetlands of International Importance - CITES: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora - Bonn Convention: Convention on Migratory Species Europe - Bern Convention: Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats - EC Bird Directive (79/409/CEE) - EC Habitat Directive (92/43/CEE) National -Spanish Strategy for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Ecosystem Diversity - Strategy for Endangered Species Conservation -Strategic Plan for Wetland Conservation and Rational Use Environmental National -Law 16/2002: to prevent and control pollution Quality Climate International - Kyoto Protocol Change - UNFCCC and decisions within Europe Green Paper on adaptation to climate change National - National Plan of Assignation - National Plan of Adaptation to Climate Change - 1st Work Program by PNACC Coasts National - Coasts Law - - Plan Director de costas (Estrategia de sostenibilidad)
3 3 Biological International - Convention on Biological Diversity Diversity Energy Europe -Directive 2001/77/CEE: to promote the use of energy derived from renewable sources within energy market - Directive 2004/8/CE: to promote cogeneration - EC Directive of Building Energy Efficiency National - ORDEN PRE/472/2004 to create the Inter-Ministerial Commission to obtain biomass energy - Renewable Energy Plan (2005-2010) - Spanish Strategy for Energy Efficiency (2004-2012) - Action Plan for Energy Saving and Efficiency (2005- 2007) Marine International - Barcelona Convention/Mediterranean Action Plan Ecosystems - London Convention: for the prevention of marine pollution Europe - Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) Environmental National -White Book for Environmental Education Education General Europe - European Strategy for Sustainable Development National -Spanish Strategy for Sustainable Development Waste National - National Plan for Waste (2000-2006) (source: Table 9.2. Duarte 2006)
- International and National Research Programmes/Committees
Spain participates in the following international and national research programmes and committees:
International Programme Geosphere - Biosphere (IGBP) –Spain. International programme on research on climate change at global scale, aiming to provide scientific knowledge on live sustainability on Earth. The programme studies the interactions between biological, chemical and physical processes together with its effects on human population. In addition it promotes dissemination of knowledge needed to respond to global change. http://www.igbp-es.org/ International Programme Diversitas. Research on global biological diversity and conservation. http://diversitas-international.org/ International programme on human dimension of global change (IHDP). http://www.ucm.es/info/iuca/IHDP.htm Consortium for Earth System Science. International consortium of scientists for integration of research on Earth System. http://www.essp.org/ Spanish Committee of Global Change Research (CEICAG). http://uc3m.es/ceicag/. It belongs to ESSP. Internacional systems and netwoks for climate and global change monitoring: GCOS (climate), GTOS (land), GOOS (ocean) Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS). http://www.epa.gov/geoss/
- Research Plans/Programmes/Projects
3 3 Research plans, programmes and projects involving Mediterranean marine research with Spanish participation are listed below.
Level Programme Project title European FP6 and FP7 - Thresholds of Environmental Commission Environmental research Sustainability (FP6) (including Climate - Southern European Seas: change, pollution and Assessing and modelling risks, Sustainable ecosystem changes (FP6) Management of - Hotspot ecosystem research on Resources, Earth the margins of European seas observation and (FP6) assessment tools)- - EURopean network of excellence Integrated Projects and for OCean Ecosystems ANalysiS Networks of Excellence (FP6, NoE) - Implementation of high-throughput genomic approaches to investigate the functioning of marine ecosystems and the biology of marine organisms (FP6, NoE) - Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (FP6, NoE) - Models for Assessing and Forecasting the Impact of Environmental Key Pollutants on Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems and Biodiversity (FP6) - European COastal-shelf sea OPerational observing and forecasting system (FP6) - European Seas Observatory NETwork (FP6) - Science and policy integration for coastal System Assessment (FP6) - Water bodies in Europe: Integrative Systems to assess Ecological status and Recovery (FP7) FP6 Coordination - Biodiversa Era-Net Actions: ERA-NETs - Marinera Era-Net LIFE Multiple coastal and marine projects. INTERREG National Spanish Ministry of Thematic area: Climate and Climate Science and Innovation Change (National Plan 2008- Thematic area: Biodiversity 2011) Thematic area: Marine Science and Technology Strategic Actions: Energy and Climate Change Spanish Ministry of Thematic area: National Programme
3 3 Science and Innovation of Biodiversity, Earth Science, and (2004-2007) Global Change Spanish Ministry of the Marine biodiversity: Projects on Environment, and Rural marine mamals, Lithophaga and Marine Affairs lithophaga, invasive Caulerpa (Biodiversity) species, and sea turtles
Terrestrial biodiversity: Project on “Climate change and biodiversity in Spain: Impacts, vulnerability and adaptation”
Research projects in National Parks, Contamination prevention, Management and Sustainable use of natural resources Autonomic Government of Catalonia Several projects Governments Government of the Balearic Islands Government of Valencia Government of Murcia Government of Andalucía
- Monitoring
The following table compiles the topic monitored, the agency responsible to supervise the monitoring and the components or parameters monitored.
Topic Agency Components monitored climate State Meteorological Atmospheric and meteorological Agency parameters Spanish Oceanographic Oceanographic parameters Institute Ministry of the Monitoring network of global change in Environment, and Rural National Parks (atmospheric and and Marine Affairs marine parameters) (National Parks) Spanish Harbours Oceanographic (and atmospheric) Authority parameters European Organisation for Atmospheric, meteorological and the Exploitation of oceanographic parameters Meteorological Satellites Government of Catalonia Marine parameters (within the WFD and others) Government of the Marine parameters (within the WFD) Balearic Islands Government of Valencia Marine parameters (within the WFD) Ecosystems Government of Catalonia Posidonia oceanica monitoring network Government of Catalonia Quality of coastal waters using biological elements (P. oceanica, phytoplankton, meiofauna, macroalga)
3 3 Government of Catalonia Invasive species Government of the Posidonia oceanica monitoring network Balearic Islands Quality of coastal waters using biological elements (P. oceanica, phytoplankton, meiofauna, macroalga) Government of Valencia Quality of coastal waters using biological elements (P. oceanica, phytoplankton, meiofauna, macroalga) Government of Murcia Posidonia oceanica monitoring network Spanish Oceanographic Fisheries Institute
- Public awareness
Public awareness of climate and global change is increasing in Spanish society. Proof of that is the rapid increase of news on this subject in the Spanish media, including press, television and radio. For instance the number of news on climate and global change published in 2007 in the major Spanish newspapers was more than 24 fold that published in year 1995 (Fig. 1).
The Spanish Ministry of the Environment, and Rural and Marine Affairs has a program to fund campaigns to disseminate information on climate change (OECC- CENEAM, http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/ayudas_subvenciones/ongs_ayudas/index.htm)
3 3 Figure 1. Number of news on climate and global change published in a sample of the most read Spanish newspapers (i.e. El País, ABC, El Mundo, La Vanguardia). (From Duarte 2006 updated).
2.2. Comments and critical analysis
Numerous activities addressing climate change and biodiversity are being conducted in Spain, encompassing legislation, elaboration of plans and programmes, participation in national and international committees, research and monitoring. Most of these activities (except climatic monitoring) have been initiated during the current decade.
Several legal activities are designed at European level and coordinated and implemented in Spain by the Spanish and autonomic governments concerning climate change and biodiversity. However, with the exception of the Water Frame Directive, legal actions concerning vulnerability and impacts of climate change on marine biodiversity are limited.
Spain participates in international research programmes/committees concerning climate and global change and impacts on ecosystems. Research agencies at European, Spanish and autonomic levels promote research on climate and global change and their impacts on biodiversity through specific thematic areas. Spanish researchers actively contribute to increase knowledge on these aspects by participating in international and national research projects as well by publishing the scientific results obtained. For instance, the number of scientific publications on global change by Spanish institutions has grown from less than 50 publications in 1990 to about 400 in year 2005 (Duarte 2006). However, less than 5 % of global change publications in year 2005 with participation of Spanish institutions concerned climate change impacts on marine biodiversity.
Atmospheric, meteorological and oceanographic parameters are being monitored along the Spanish Mediterranean by different agencies, in most cases, for more than 50 years. Most climatic time series are available and centralised by national agencies. Conversely, few monitoring networks of Spanish Mediterranean marine ecosystems are implemented so far. The Governments of three Spanish autonomies coordinate the monitoring of Posidonia oceanica meadows and one of them monitors invasive species along the Catalan coast. The few marine ecosystem monitoring networks existing along the Spanish coast have been initiated during the current decade. Fisheries and chlorophyll a are being monitored by the Spanish Oceanographic Institute for several decades. Since the implementation of the Water Frame Directive, Posidonia oceanica meadows, phytoplankton, meiofauna and macroalga within coastal and transitional waters are being monitored at different frequency, and for different time periods, depending on the region. Because the WFD monitoring of biological elements aims to assess the quality of the water masses instead of ecosystem conservation status, these monitoring programs might not be fully useful to detect ecosystem vulnerability and impacts of climate change.
Training activities concerning biodiversity and climate change mostly apply to biodiversity on land and climate change.
3 3 Spanish society is aware of climate and global change and, to some extend, vulnerability and impacts of climate and global change on marine biodiversity. The amount of news on climate and global change and impacts on biodiversity in Spanish media is rapidly growing. Indeed, the rate of growth of media news on global change is much faster than that of scientific publications, reflecting, in part, that dissemination of scientific knowledge to public is growing, and the greater demand of society to be informed about it. As public awareness on climate and global change impacts is rapidly growing, mass media should pay particular attention to provide scientifically based information, otherwise society would be misinformed.
3 3 3. EXPERT OPINION ON VULNERABILITY AND IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON BIODIVERSITY IN NATIONAL MARINE AND COASTAL AREAS
3.1. Vulnerability and impacts of climate change relevant for national marine and coastal areas
The Mediterranean Spanish coastline is about 2580 Km long, extending along the Iberian Peninsula, from the Gibraltar Straight up to Creus Cape, and the Balearic Archipelago (plus Ceuta, Melilla and other islands and smaller archipelagos). The Mediterranean Spanish marine coastal areas are often characterised by slope currents and strong stratification of seawater during summer. The coastal areas located between the Gibraltar Straight and the Gata Cape are strongly influenced by Atlantic marine waters. The border of Atlantic and Mediterranean waters is located around Gata Cape, defining a clear geographical limit for Atlantic and Mediterranean species distribution ranges. The Atlantic and Mediterranean seawater exchange through the Gibraltar straight, and its influence on marine hydrodynamics, are responsible of up-welling processes along the southern Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Most rivers opening into the Spanish Mediterranean are intermittent rivers, discharging water and materials to coastal waters during intensive rainfall. Only few rivers with continuous flow have their mouths along the Mediterranean Iberian Peninsula, being Ebro River the one with the largest flow (c.a 300 m2 sec-1 at its mouth, Benoit and Comeau 2005).
The Spanish Mediterranean coast supports high human pressure. For instance, about 55 % of the coastal Spanish fringe (between 0 km and 10 km inland) surface was already occupied by coastal cities in year 1995 (Benoit and Comeau 2005). Human pressure along the Spanish Mediterranean, however, is far to have reached a ceiling, as cities are expected to occupy 73% of the coastal area by year 2025 (Benoit and Comeau 2005), and tourist visits are forecasted to increase for year 2025. Heavy traffic roads border most of the Mediterranean coastline of the Iberian Peninsula. Six trade harbours with entries/exits ranging between 3500 and 11 000 thousand tones per port and numerous marinas are located along the Mediterranean coastline of Spanish mainland (Benoit and Comeau 2005). In the open ocean human impacts are also evident. Fisheries production have been maintained around 100000 tones since 1950 (FishSTAT, http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/). Benthic (coastal and deep-sea) ecosystems are being highly impacted by trawiling fisheries. The opening of the Suez Canal, increased maritime traffic and aquaculture activity during the last decades are enhancing the arrival of exotic, often invasive, marine species in the Mediterranean sea, at the fastest rates in Europe (one new exotic once every 4 weeks, Steftaris 2005), posing a significant threat to the unique diversity and functioning of this sea. The high anthropogenic pressure along the Spanish Mediterranean coast is causing a widespread deterioration of marine ecosystems (Fig. 2), as reflected in, amongst other negative symptoms, deterioration of seawater quality (e.g. pollution, eutrophication), coastal erosion, biological invasions, fish stocks overexploitation and habitat losses.
Marine and coastal areas along the Spanish Mediterranean are highly diverse,
3 3 and some of their ecosystems, such as seagrass meadows and macroalgal dominated rocky shores, gorgonia’s forests, maërl beds, are considered important reservoirs of marine biodiversity. The diversity of birds is also rich along the coastal zone, and marine mammals and sea turtles are also present. Despite the importance of marine biodiversity and their vulnerability to growing human pressure, the number of marine protected areas along the Spanish Mediterranean is scarce. Currently, there are 14 marine reserves for fisheries along the Spanish Mediterranean managed by state and/or autonomic governments, involving protection of about 64 500 ha of the coastal ocean. However, 75 % of Spanish Mediterranean marine reserve surface concentrates along the Balearic Islands coast. WWF in 2007 estimated that only 1% of marine surface area of the Spanish Mediterranean was protected. Since implementation of Natura 2000 Network, the number of coastal areas protected has rapidly increased. At present, the coastal Areas of EU Interest defined along the Spanish Mediterranean comprise 440 000 ha of marine surface, representing about 19 % of total protected area in the Mediterranean Spanish regions. All marine protected areas are located in the coastal zone, and none exists in the open ocean. Marine Protected Areas have not been homogeneously designed across the Spanish Mediterranean, and they have been created before reaching a consensus across the different autonomic regions.
FF ZZ FF
FF PP Z
FF P= National Park F Z = High value protected areas F = Worst areas Z Acceptable conservation PP areas F Highly degradated ZZ areas PP
ZZ FF
F Z F Z ZZ
Figure 2. Conservation status of Spanish coastline.
3 3 The increasing antropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere during the XX century are changing the Earth climate, reflected by an increase of global atmospheric temperatures of 0.6 ºC (IPCC 2007). The magnitude of atmospheric temperature rise in Spain during the XX century has been larger than that recorded globally (de Castro et al. 2005). For instance, since 1976 the atmospheric temperature in the Balearic Islands has increased by 1.5 ºC (S. Alonso, personal communication), and the maximum and minimum annual temperatures have tended to increase overall Spain (de Castro et al. 2005). The increase in atmospheric temperature is also warming the Mediterranean sea. Seawater temperature time series available for the Spanish Mediterranean (e.g. Estartit) show a sustained increase of mean annual surface waters of 0.06 ºC yr-1 (Díaz-Almela et al 2007) and a warming rate of 0.025 ºC yr-1 of water at 80 m depth (Salat and Pascual 2002). Similarly, the number of years per decade when maximum seawater temperature exceeded the average maximum annual temperature over the last 40 years is increasing. Maximum annual seawater temperature at 5 m depth in L’Estartit revealed positive anomalies for 3 years during the 70s, 6 years during the 80s, 9 years during the 90s, and 3 years between 2000 and 2004. Sea level along the Spanish Mediterranean is stable or rising at an average rate of 2 ± 1 mm yr-1 during the last decades (Marbà and Duarte 1997), a trend similar to that reported for other North Mediterranean areas (Perez 2008). Sea level rise is mostly attributable to thermal expansion but in some areas also to local subsidence processes, as it occurs at the Ebro Delta (Cendero et al 2005). Rainfall in some areas of the Spanish Mediterranean, as the Balearic Islands, has tended to decrease by 16 % during the last 50 years (S. Alonso, personal communication). However, a no clear decreasing pattern in rainfall overall the Spanish Mediterranean has been demonstrated (de Castro et al. 2005).
Under the scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions A2 and B2 (CO2 global concentrations in 2100 850 ppm and 760 ppm, 120 % and about 50 % larger than that at present, respectively, IPCC 2007), global climate models forecast a relative uniform increase of temperature in Spain of, on average, 0.4 ºC decade-1 in winter and 0.7 ºC decade-1 in summer under the scenario A2, and of 0.4 ºC decade-1 in winter and 0.6 ºC decade-1 under scenario B2 (de Castro
3 3 et al. 2005). Global greenhouse gas emissions and temperature, however, are increasing faster than that forecasted by the most unfavourable scenario. Since 1999, when future climate trends were projected, the observed global temperature during 4 out of 5 years exceeded those modelled. Despite discrepancies among the different global rainfall models available, all of them forecast a decrease of total annual rainfall, slightly larger under scenario A2 than B2 for 2100 (de Castro et al. 2005). The decline in precipitation is expected to be the largest during spring, and somewhat lower during summer. The frequency of extreme climatic events (heat waves, medicanes, drought/floods) during XXI century is projected to increase. Sea level along the Spanish Mediterranean coast by the end of XXI century is expected to rise about 50 cm above present one, although a rise of 1m is less probable but still possible (Cendredo et al 2005).
Changes in freshwater availability in Spanish watersheds linked to climate change also might have a significant impact to the coastal areas and transitional waters. The impact of climate change to water resources is one of the working themes of the 1st PNACC Working Programme.
Fingerprints of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity along the Spanish Mediterranean are already evident, reflected by an increased mortality of some species, changes in species reproductive biology during warm years, and an increase of exotic species arrivals. Climate change, therefore, compromises the biodiversity of Spanish marine and coastal areas, which are already threatened by the direct impacts of human pressure in the coastal and marine areas.
3.2. Critical impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity
Impacts on low land coastal areas
The critical impacts of climate change on low land areas are related with increased frequency and/or intensity of storms, sea-level rise and, to some extend, changes in river (sediment and water) flow.
Deltas rank amongst the most vulnerable coastal areas to sea level rise. Under a scenario of 50 cm sea level rise and no increase in sedimentary river transport, 50 % of the Ebro Delta and Llobregat Delta may disappear. Similarly, other coastal low land areas along the Spanish Mediterranean might be impacted: about 20 km along the Manga del Mar Menor, coastal lagoons 5 km long at Cabo de Gata (Cendredo et al 2005). Some of these vulnerable low land areas are urbanised (e.g. Manga del Mar Menor, Llobregat Delta) and thus may be lost, but others that support agriculture or belong to protected areas may allow formation of new low land areas as sea front progressed inland that might compensate for losses.
It must be mentioned that most of these coastal units are already deteriorated as a consequence of urbanisation and pollution from agriculture (e.g. Albufera de Valencia), industry or human population (e.g. Manga del Mar Menor, Cendredo et al 2005). Similarly, during the last 50 years, river sedimentary inputs to deltas (e.g. Ebro Delta) have largely decreased (by 90 %, Benoit and
3 3 Comeau 2005) due to dam construction, regulation and watershed reforestation, enhancing the vulnerability of these coastal structures to climate change.
Impacts on important beaches
Sea level rise is the major climate change threat for beaches. Sea level rise would involve beach erosion, resulting into a decrease of beach surface or a progressive inland movement of the beach (Fig. 3; Cendredo et al 2005). The rate of beach retreat would depend on beach characteristics. Confined and cemented beaches would be the most vulnerable ones to sea level rise (Cendredo et al 2005). Beach surface loss would increase with decreasing beach slope. Beach losses due to sea level rise would be smaller if sedimentary inputs, from rivers and sand dune systems, to the beaches would increase. However, very few Mediterranean Spanish beaches preserve the associated dune systems intact, mostly because they have been destroyed and urbanised. In some areas (Almería), the sand from dune systems has been extracted. The loss of sand dunes, together with the construction of harbours and marinas along the coast, are the main cause of present instability, and erosion, of Mediterranean beaches, as the sedimentary dune- beach transport is broken or littoral drift modified (Cendredo 2005). An acceleration of beach erosion due to human pressure is evident along the entire Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula (Mazarrón,Murcia; Carboneras, Almería; Puçol and Massalfasar, Castellón; Albufera de Valencia, Valencia; Santa Pola, Alicante). The losses of Posidonia oceanica meadows along the Spanish Mediterranean mostly occurred during the last 3 decades as a consequence of antropogenic impacts, contributed to accelerate coastal erosion. P. oceanica meadows act as marine forests, stabilising the sediments where they grow and preventing erosion. Moreover, P. oceanica meadows contribute to produce carbonate sand for adjacent beaches, since the calcareous organisms living on leaves and rhizomes, together with carbonate particles deposited on P. oceanica leaves, arrive to the beaches together with P. oceanica litter after storms.
3 3 QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture.
Figure 3. Projected beach retreat (in m) for year 2050 along the Iberian Peninsula and Spanish archipelagos. (Source: Medina et al 2004).
Impacts on ecosystems, habitats, populations/biota
The impacts of climate change on marine and coastal ecosystems will be different for up-welling ecosystems or stratified areas, as well as coastal and open ocean, and it will depend on the mobility of the species.
The ecophysiological (photosynthetic capacity, growth rate) response of marine phytoplankton to increasing CO2 concentration and warming of seawater is not yet fully known. The interactions between changes in the marine environment derived from climate change and other factors, as nutrient availability, may constrain the phytoplankton responses. The expected increase of the stratification period, together with changes in macroscale processes (upwelling, fronts, currents) might decrease marine productivity. The increase in CO2 partial pressure could enhance productivity of benthic vegetation (seagrasses and macroalgae), as CO2 limits productivity of these populations (Anadón et al 2005). Changes in marine primary production would change consumer production and then the rest of the marine food web.
Simultaneous impacts derived from climate change threat marine and coastal species, populations and ecosystems. Coastal or shallow ecosystems are the most vulnerable ones to impacts of climate change. Sea level rise threats seagrass ecosystems, which are rooted into sediments between 0.5 m and 45 m depth, as it enhances submarine erosion and then habitat loss (Anadón et al 2005). Similarly, wetlands are also highly vulnerable to increased coastal
3 3 erosion and flooding derived from sea level rise. However, if impacted coastal ecosystems were able to colonise new habitat at similar rates as the sea progressed into land, sea level rise would also provide new habitat for coastal ecosystems to expand (Duarte 2002).
The increase of seawater temperature may compromise organism survival and change species life cycle. Mass mortality events of sessile (e.g. gorgonians, scleractinians, sponges) and benthic mobile (e.g. crustaceans) species have already been observed during anomalous warm and calm periods (Pérez 2008). Similarly, the mortality rate of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica along the Balearic Islands (Spain) significantly increased after summers 2003 and 2006, the warmest summers during the period 2000 and 2007 (Marbà and Duarte unpublished). High summer temperatures also enhance sexual reproduction of P. oceanica (Díaz-Almela et al 2007). A massive, never before recorded, flowering event of P. oceanica meadows across the entire Western Mediterranean Basin occurred in fall 2003 (Díaz- Almela et al 2007), the time of the year when P. oceanica flowers. The large production of sexual recruits by P. oceanica after summer 2003, however, did not compensate for the plant losses due to plant mortality (Díaz Almela et al submitted). The massive flowering of P. oceanica has been interpreted as a plant response to thermal stress (Díaz-Almela et al 2007). There is also evidence that marine diseases triggering host mortality increase during warm events (Bally and Garrabou 2007, Perez 2008).
Many benthic and pelagic marine species are expected to modify their geographic distribution as a consequence of sea thermohaline changes. The increase in seawater temperature will result in displacements of biogeographic borders of many species. The distribution of most groups of organisms will be affected, expanding the distribution ranges of southern species and retreating those of northern ones. Changes in distribution ranges of marine species in the Northern Western Mediterranean are already being observed (Laubier et al 2003). Moreover, interactions, not directly due to climate change, between new and old species are expected. The rate of changes in distribution ranges of marine populations driven by climate change may be faster or slower depending on the effect of atmosphere on marine currents and stratification.
Increasing seawater temperature may favour the settlement and spread of exotic and invasive species. The Mediterranean Sea is the European sea hosting the largest number of exotic species (Gullasch 2005, Streftaris et al 2005), as a consequence of the opening of the Canal de Suez, aquaculture activities and maritime traffic. Introductions encompass all groups of organisms, and it has been estimated that a new exotic species is introduced in the Mediterranean every 4 weeks (Streftaris et al 2005). Several exotic species are present along the Spanish Mediterranean coastal marine ecosystems. Some exotic species exhibit an invasive behabiour and compromise the stability of native ecosystems. Changes in species composition, derived from changes in biogeographical ranges and invasions, together with new species interactions may alter ecosystem functioning.
Seawater warming also would enhance respiration of marine organisms and ecosystems, increasing O2 consumption and CO2 production. The lower O2 solubility with increasing temperature would, in addition, decrease O2
3 3 availability in the water column. Hence, seawater warming increases the risk of hypoxic events in coastal marine systems, particularly during calm periods.
The increase of CO2 partial pressure in seawater resulting from increased atmospheric CO2 is acidifying seawater (Anadón et al 2005). The decrease in pH of seawater might lower carbonate deposition in organisms with carbonate structures such are, for instance, bivalves or corals. The forecasted CO2 concentrations for the end of XXI century (IPCC 2001) might be able to decrease enough seawater pH as to initiate carbonate dissolution in coastal waters triggering ocean CO2 absorption (Anadón et al 2005).
The most vulnerable ecosystems, therefore, are those where all mentioned impacts derived from climate (and global) change occur and those composed with long-living and slow-growing organisms. Hence, wetlands and ecosystems dominated by sessile organisms (e.g. red coral, gorgonians, sponges, Posidonia oceanica) rank amongst the most vulnerable ones to climate change impacts. In turn, the loss of marine and coastal vegetation may contribute to accelerate global warming, since coastal vegetation is an important ocean carbon sink (Duarte et al 2005).
Impacts on fisheries and mariculture
Climatic variability directly affects fish recruitment, a key process for fisheries. Changes in marine currents, derived from atmospheric climatic variability, may modify transport and survival of larvae and juveniles. If climate change modifies primary and secondary production, food supply for fish larvae may be limited, constraining fish recruitment and thus fish population size. Changes in seawater temperature and salinity may also impact the physiology of diadromous species. Changes in the distribution ranges due to climate changes of diadromous species have been suggested. Fish migration routes may change due to changes in prey abundance and distribution, which are related with seawater temperature. Changes in seasonal isotherm distribution might constrain fish migratory routes, and then fisheries. Marine circulation shifts may change both pelagic and benthic populations even in deep water (Anadón et al 2005).
The impacts of climate change on mariculture are not clear. Cultures that require external food supply might not be much affected by a change in productivity in the area. However, these cultures would be highly impacted by climate change if ambient temperature exceeds, or pH or O2 concentration are below, the physiological limits for the species. In addition, climate change may impact extensive mariculture activities, such are bivalve farms at the Ebro Delta, relaying on local productivity. Mariculture may be particularly vulnerable during extreme climatic events. The increase of seawater temperature could also favour the arrival and spread of mariculture parasites (Anadón et al 2005).
4. EXPERT OPINION ON RELATED PRIORITY NATIONAL NEEDS 2-3 pages
4.1. Needs
3 3 Mitigation of climate change impacts Global Change, including Climate Change and the rest of changes the Earth System experiences as a result of rapid human population growth, threats the future of marine and coastal biodiversity. Reduction and mitigation of direct and diffusive anthropogenic impacts are crucial for conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity.
Conservation of marine biodiversity helps climate change mitigation. At present, the low fraction of coastal and marine area and the few key and vulnerable marine ecosystems to climate change impacts protected are insufficient to help marine biodiversity conservation along the Spanish Mediterranean. The number of marine protected areas and ecosystems should increase. Protection measures should involve participation of all coastal and marine related actors, and they should be designed and coordinated at basin scale. Adaptive management of coastal ecosystems and marine biodiversity should be promoted, adjusting to their responses to the evolving impacts of climate change, as opposed to static regulation and management approaches that are not flexible enough to accommodate the dynamic situation of the Mediterranean marine ecosystem.
Information about distribution and conservation status of vulnerable ecosystems, habitats and species along the Spanish Mediterranean is scarce. Efforts to fill this gap of knowledge are being conducted within the Natura 2000 Network. However, Natura 2000 Network only involves some vulnerable marine habitats and species. Information on the distribution and conservation status should be extended to all vulnerable habitats and species.
Projected sea level rise, changes in wave energy and wave incident angle under scenarios of climate change for the current century will impact Spanish Mediterranean coastal areas and thus their inhabitants, users and ecosystems. A Planned Retreat from vulnerable coastal areas as the only sustainable response to mitigate the impacts of sea level rise is needed.
Long-term monitoring of vulnerable Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems and habitats to climate change is mostly lacking. Long term monitoring to assess climate impacts on biodiversity should be initiated and maintained. Recently a Network across Spanish Natural Parks aiming to long-term monitor climatic, oceanographic and ecosystem changes (http://reddeparquesnacionales.mma.es/parques/rcg/index.htm) has been initiated and it will contribute to fill this gap of information. Long-term monitoring programmes should be funded by other than standard research funding projects (3-5 yr duration), and managed by national institutions or autonomic ones always coordinated across the country. Long-term monitoring should include biogeographical borders for species distributions (e.g. Gata Cape region). In addition, existing environmental and ecological monitoring networks should be improved and consolidated. All monitoring data sets should become public.
The Spanish participation in international programmes should increase. Collaboration and communication between Mediterranean countries (at research, policy and training levels) should increase.
Research towards gaining knowledge on climate change impacts on oceanography and marine ecology and biodiversity should be promoted.
3 3 Identification of tipping points and conditions for ecosystem shifts driven by climate change should be emphasised. Synergies between climate change and other global change impacts to marine and coastal biodiversity should be considered.
Dissemination and training activities on impacts of climate change to marine and coastal biodiversity are very few, particularly when compared with those involving terrestrial biodiversity.
4.2. Urgent actions proposed
- Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. - Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. - Increase the number of marine protected areas, particularly along the peninsular Spanish Mediterranean. - Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate dynamics, interactions between atmospheric climate and oceanography and marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change. - Increase dissemination and training actions on climate change impacts and vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity. - Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems - Design and implementation of a Retreat Plan and an Adaptation Plan from vulnerable coastal ecosystems
3 3 5. FUNDING PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES
5.1. Regular national sources, potentially available
The regular national funding sources for research projects in Spain are:
- Ministry of Science and Innovation. Since 1988, it lunches a National Plan for Research of 4 years duration where priority research areas (http://www.plannacionalidi.es/plan-idi-public/), strategies and types of calls (fundamental research, applied research, transfer of knowledge to enterprises, etc) are defined. Regular research projects usually extend for 3 years. It also funds large projects (Consolider) of 5-6 years duration within the program Ingenio 2010 (http://www.ingenio2010.es/). Calls are open annually. The National Research, Development and Innovation Programme contains an Strategic Action entitled “Energy and Climate Change”, with a subprogram focussing on climate change mitigation – not energy-, climate observation and adaptation to climate change, which objectives may include climate change and marine biodiversity. - Ministry of Environment, Agriculture and Fisheries. It funds research projects aiming at Contamination prevention, Management and Sustainable use of natural resources and National Parks research (http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/ayudas_subvenciones/idi/index.htm). The duration of the projects is 3 years and calls are open annually. - Governments of Mediterranean Autonomies (Generalitat de Catalunya, Govern de les Illes Balears, Generalitat Valenciana, Autonomic Community of Murcia Region, Junta de Andalucía). All governments have research plans funding research projects of duration ranging between 1 and 3 years. In addition the Environment Department of these governments are responsible to implement the European Water Frame directive and, thus, they fund surveys to assess continental and marine water quality.
5.2. Other (private, public, partnership) sources, if any
- Biodiversity Foundation (http://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es). Since 2005. Calls open annually. - AXA Foundation (http://researchfund.axa.com/en/). International projects.
5.3. International funds, projects, programmes (here, in 5.1 and 5.2 in particular, potential national sources as co-financing for international projects should be looked for. In addition, in 5.3, national eligibility for international programmes / funds should be identified.
- European Commission. It funds several programs (FP7 programme, LIFE, INTERREG, INCO, ERA-net, COST) containing several calls to conduct collaborative research between institutions of different EU (and non EU) countries (http://cordis.europa.eu/). Funded projects extend for 3 to 4 years.
All listed institutions and foundations have research programmes funding research on climate change and biodiversity. However, the fraction of funding allocated to research on marine biodiversity is small. Despite EC funds research
3 3 across EU and non-EU countries, activities to promote collaborative research across north and southern Mediterranean countries should increase. Current programmes fund research projects of a maximum of 5 year duration, which is insufficient to support long-term monitoring programmes.
3 3 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Several activities, including legislation, elaboration of plans and programmes, participation in national and international committees, research, monitoring and training, addressing climate change and biodiversity are being conducted in Spain. Few of these activities, however, directly address vulnerability and impacts of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity.
Fingerprints of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity along the Spanish Mediterranean are already evident, reflected by an increased mortality of some species, changes in species reproductive biology during warm years, and an increase of exotic species arrivals. Climate change, therefore, compromises the biodiversity of Spanish marine and coastal areas. In addition, Spanish Mediterranean coastal and marine ecosystems exhibit a widespread deterioration as a consequence of the high antropogenic pressure they support. The projected temperature increase, sea level rise, increase of frequency of extreme events and precipitation decrease under IPCC scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions, together with forecasted human population growth along the Spanish Mediterranean during XXI century seriously threat the future of Spanish coastal and marine biodiversity. Synergies between simultaneously occurring global change impacts increase vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity.
The most vulnerable Spanish areas to climate change impacts identified are low land areas, wetlands and beaches, mainly due sea level rise. Ecosystems composed by long-living and slow-growing sessile organisms, as red coral, gorgonians, sponges or Posidonia oceanica, are the most vulnerable ones to climate and global change. Climate change may also impact fisheries and mariculture as they are vulnerable to changes in ocean productivity, hypoxia and some species to ocean acidification.
Impacts of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity are difficult to be detected and quantified with the absence of long-term records. Long-term monitoring of vulnerable Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems and habitats to climate change is mostly lacking.
Hence, the following actions towards decreasing impacts of climate and global change to vulnerable Spanish marine and coastal biodiversity are recommended:
- Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. - Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. - Increase the number of marine protected areas, particularly along the peninsular Spanish Mediterranean. - Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate dynamics, interactions between atmospheric climate and oceanography and marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change. - Increase dissemination and training actions on climate change impacts and vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity. - Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems
3 3 - Design and implementation of a Retreat Plan from vulnerable coastal ecosystems - Promote adaptative management of coastal ecosystems and marine biodiversity, adjusting to their responses to the evolving impacts of climate change, as opposed to static regulation and management approaches that are not flexible enough to accommodate the dynamic situation of the Mediterranean marine ecosystem.
These actions could be implemented by national or autonomic community governments, but they should be coordinated and homogenously designed at national, and when possible, Mediterranean scale.
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