Biology 231_Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory_Quiz#__Fall 1994_

PCC-Sylvania Bi 233 Laboratory Supplement

1. Upon entering the laboratory, please locate the exits, fire extinguisher, eyewash station, and clean up materials for chemical spills. The location of fire blanket, safety kit, and showers will be demonstrated by your instructor. 2. Read the general laboratory directions and any objectives before coming to lab. 3. Food and drink, including water, is prohibited in laboratory. This is per Federal laboratory guidelines and per College Safety Policy. Do not chew gum, use tobacco products of any kind, store food or apply cosmetics in the laboratory. No drink containers of any kind may be on the benches. 4. Please keep all personal materials off the working area. Store backpacks and purses at the rear of the laboratory, not beside or under benches. Some laboratory spaces have shelving in rear for this purpose. 5. For your safety, please restrain long hair, loose fitting clothing and dangling jewelry. Hair ties are available, ask your instructor. Hats and bare midriffs are not acceptable in the laboratory. Shoes, not sandals, must be worn at all times in laboratory. You may wear a laboratory apron or lab coat if you desire, but it is not required. 6. We do not wish to invade your privacy, but for your safety if you are pregnant, taking immunosuppressive drugs or who have any other medical conditions (e.g. diabetes, immunological defect) that might necessitate special precautions in the laboratory must inform the instructor immediately. If you know you have an allergy to latex or chemicals, please inform instructor. 7. Decontaminate work surfaces at the beginning of every lab period using Amphyl solution. Decontaminate bench following any practical quiz, when given, and after labs involving the dissection of preserved material. 8. Use safety goggles in all experiments in which solutions or chemicals are heated or when instructed to do so. Never leave heat sources unattended: hot plates or Bunsen burners. 9. Wear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids or when touching items or surfaces soiled with blood or other body fluids such as saliva and urine. (NOTE: cover open cuts or scrapes with a sterile bandage before donning gloves.) Wash hands immediately after removing gloves. 10. Keep all liquids away from the edge of the lab bench to avoid spills. Immediately notify your instructor of any spills. Keep test tubes in racks provided, except when necessary to transfer to water baths or hot plate. You will be advised of the proper clean-up procedures for any spill. 11. Report all chemical or liquid spills and all accidents, such as cuts or burns, no matter how minor, to the instructor immediately. 12. Use mechanical pipetting devices only. Mouth pipetting is prohibited.

Students who do not comply with these safety guidelines will be excluded from the Laboratory

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 1 Safe Disposal of Contaminated Materials

 Place disposable materials such as gloves, mouth pieces, swabs, toothpicks and paper toweling that have come into contact with blood or other body fluids into a disposable Autoclave bag for decontamination by autoclaving. This bucket is not for general trash.  Place glassware contaminated with blood and other body fluids directly into a labeled bucket of 10% Bleach solution. ONLY glass or plastic-ware is to be placed in this bucket, no trash.  Sharp’s container is for used lancets only. It is bright red. When using disposable lancets do not replace their covers. 1. Properly label glassware and slides, using china markers provided. 2. Wear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids or when touching items or surfaces soiled with blood or other body fluids such as saliva and urine. (NOTE: cover open cuts or scrapes with a sterile bandage before donning gloves.) Wash hands immediately after removing gloves. 3. Wear disposable gloves when handling or dissecting specimens fixed with formaldehyde or stored in Carosafe/Wardsafe. 4. Wear disposable gloves when handling chemicals denoted as hazardous or carcinogenic by your instructor. Read labels on dropper bottles provided for an experiment, they will indicate the need for gloves or goggles, etc. Upon request, detailed written information is available on every chemical used (MSDS). Ask your instructor. 5. No pen or pencil is to be used at any time on any model or bone. The bones are fragile, hard to replace and used by hundreds of students every year. To protect them and keep them in the best condition, please use pipe cleaners and probes provided instead of a writing instrument. Probes may be used on models as well. The bones are very difficult and costly to replace, as are the models and may take a long time to replace. 6. At the end of an experiment:  clean glassware and place where designated. Remove china marker labels at this time.  return solutions & chemicals to designated area. Do not put solutions or chemicals in cupboards! 7. You cannot work alone or unsupervised in the laboratory. 8. Microscopes should be cleaned before returning to numbered cabinet. Be sure objectives are clean, use lens paper. Place objectives into storage position, and return to the storage cabinet. Be sure cord has been coiled and restrained. Your instructor may require microscope be checked before you put it away. Be sure it is in assigned cupboard. 9. Please replace your prepared slides into the box from which they came (slides and boxes are numbered), so students using them after you will be able to find the same slide. Clean slide with Kimwipes if dirty or covered with oil, before placing back in box. If you break a slide, please, inform you instructor so the slide can be replaced. Please be aware that there are hundreds of dollars worth of slides in each box and handle the boxes with care when carrying to and from your work bench. 10. Be sure all paper towels used in cleaning lab benches and washing hands are disposed of in trash container provided.

Students who do not comply with these safety guidelines and directions will be excluded from the Laboratory.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 2 Respiratory System Exercises 36, 37A

Gross Anatomy 1. Nose: a. external nares b. superior, middle, and inferior turbinates (nasal conchae) 2. Auditory tube 3. Tonsils a. palatine, pharyngeal, and lingual 4. Pharynx a. Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx 5. Larynx: (click here for some cool cases) a. Thyroid cartilage (“Adam's apple”) and cricoid cartilage b. cricothyroid ligament (site of emergent cricothyrotomy) c. tracheal cartilage, hyoid bone d. epiglottis (elastic cartilage) and glottis e. vestibular folds (=false cords) and true vocal cords 6. Airways: a. trachea b. carina c. right and left primary (=mainstem) bronchi (right is more vertical and larger diameter) d. secondary bronchi (one per lobe) e. tertiary bronchi f. bronchioles 7. Lungs: a. parietal pleura and visceral pleura b. pleural cavity filled with pleural fluid c. apex, base, and hilus d. pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein 8. Right lung: a. upper (superior), middle, and lower lobes, horizontal fissure, oblique fissure 9. Left lung: a. left upper and lower lobes, cardiac notch, oblique fissure 10. Mediastinum 11. Diaphragm

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 3 Histology: 1. Trachea: identify trachea, C-shaped hyaline cartilage, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, cilia, goblet cells 2. Lung with bronchioles: a. Bronchioles: no cartilage in wall, large ones lined with either ciliated simple columnar epithelium, small ones lined with simple cuboidal epithelium. Outside epithelium, note smooth muscle. b. Alveoli: simple squamous epithelium. On 40x, note may see areas where red cells are arranged single file within capillaries. What is the name for the membrane created by the simple squamous cells of alveoli & capillaries, plus the basement membranes in between?

Respiratory Histology: Review adapted from JayDoc Histoweb Trachea

 ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelial lining

 Goblet cells

 Sero-mucous glands

 Cartilage rings

 smooth muscle Bronchi

 Pseudostratified columnar, ciliated epithelium (shorter)

 Goblet cells (fewer)

 Sero-mucous glands

 Cartilage

 Smooth muscle – in spirals, not rings

 Bronchi are lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells

 Between the smooth muscle layer and the (discontinuous) cartilage is the submucosa, which may contain seromucous glands

 Arterial branches accompany the branching respiratory tree all along the way. Bronchioles

 simple columnar epithelium

 low columnar epithelial lining

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 4  Simple columnar or cuboidal & ciliated epithelium

 ciliated epithelium … ok

 No (diminishing, at least) goblet cells

 no glands

 NO cartilage plates

 prominence of smooth muscle fibers in the lamina propri

 Smooth muscle (relatively abundant)

 Clara cells Respiratory Bronchiole

 low columnar to low cuboidal. Cilia present in the larger tubes only

 Simple cuboidal, ciliated epithelium (shorter)

 Clara cells

 Alveolar openings (lined with squamous epithelium)

 smooth muscle Alveolar Duct

 thin squamous (Pneumocyte type I) and cuboidal epithelium (Pneumocyte type II).

 smooth muscle Alveolar Sacs and Alveoli

 Type I Pneumocyte

o flattened for gas exchange

o covers 95% of alveolar surface (but only accounts for about 40% of pneumocyte population)

 Type II Pneumocyte

o cuboidal

o produces surfactant

o constitutes about 60% of the pneumocytes (but only 5% of the surface area)

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 5 Spirometry: Define and be able to calculate from any spirogram (not just the one in manual): . Tidal Volume . Inspiratory Reserve Volume . Expiratory Reserve Volume . Residual Volume . Vital Capacity . Total Lung Capacity . FEV1 . FEV1/FVC ( FEV1%); ratios is over 76% in normal individuals, ratio is decreased in obstructive airway disease

Sketch a spirogram. Label the X- and Y-axis. Estimate the volumes and capacities listed above.

Buffers: What is a buffer: What is the importance of the carbonic acid buffer? Write the reaction that is facilitated by carbonic anhydrase. List several factors that shift the equilibrium of the reaction.

What happens to pH of water when one exhales into it? How was this made evident in lab?

What happens to pH of a buffered solution when one does the same maneuver? How was this made evident in lab?

How does carbonic acid buffer deal with excess acid or base?

Click here to learn about pulmonary embolus!

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 6 Digestive System Exercises 38

Histology Notes: You will not identifying the submucosal and myenteric plexuses; review your text and learn their locations. Learn the secretory products of the various mucosal and glandular cells.

Esophagus

1. Mucosa a. Non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium b. Lamina propria: loose areolar CT c. Muscularis mucosa 2. Submucosa a. Esophageal glands b. Blood Vessels c. Submucosal plexus 3. Muscularis Externa a. Upper 2/3: voluntary, striated skeletal smooth muscle b. Lower 2/3: smooth muscle c. Myenteric plexus 4. Adventitia (no serosa)

Click Here to learn about esophageal carcinoma!

Stomach 1. Mucosa a. Simple columnar epithelium b. Gastric pits leading into gastric glands c. Mucous neck cells d. Parietal cells e. Chief cells f. not visible: G cells in antrum, a type of enteroendocrine cell 2. Lamina propria: loose areolar CT 3. Muscularis mucosa 4. Submucosa a. Blood Vessels b. Submucosal plexus (just know exists…not identify) 5. Muscularis Externa: don't need to be able to identify each different layer of smooth muscle a. Inner oblique layer b. Middle circular layer c. Myenteric plexus d. Outer longitudinal layer 6. Serosa

Small Intestine: 1. Mucosa

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 7 a. Simple columnar epithelium folded into villi b. luminal surface of cells’ membranes: microvilli c. deeper parts: crypts of Lieberkuhn 2. Lamina propria: loose areolar CT 3. Muscularis mucosa 4. Submucosa a. Blood Vessels b. Submucosal plexus c. Submucosa & mucosa folded as plicae circulares d. Duodenal glands e. Distal small intestine: lymphoid nodules called Peyer’s patches 5. Muscularis Externa a. Inner circular layer b. Myenteric plexus c. Outer longitudinal layer 6. Serosa

Large Intestine 1. Mucosa a. Simple columnar epithelium b. No villi or microvilli c. Deeper parts: crypts of Lieberkuhn d. Lots of goblet cells 2. Lamina propria: loose areolar CT 3. Muscularis mucosa 4. Submucosa a. Blood Vessels b. Submucosal plexus 5. Muscularis Externa a. Inner circular layer b. Myenteric plexus c. Outer longitudinal layer: on model, note this exists as the 3 strips called Teniae coli 6. Serosa

Liver: 1. hepatocytes in cords 2. central vein 3. portal triad: a. bile duct b. branch of hepatic artery c. branch of portal vein

Pancreas: 1. acinar cells 2. pancreatic duct 3. Islets of Langerhans

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 8 Gross Anatomy: 1. Tongue 2. Teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, molars 3. Salivary glands: parotid, submandibular, sublingual 4. Esophagus: (click here for endoscopic photos) upper esophageal sphincter, body, lower esophageal sphincter 5. Stomach: (click here for photos) cardia, fundus, body, antrum (text calls this the pyloric region, but physicians usually call it the antrum), greater curvature, lesser curvature, angulus, rugae 6. Pyloric Sphincter, also called pylorus 7. Small Intestine: 8. Duodenum: (click here for photos) bulb, C-loop, major papilla (papilla of Vater), minor papilla 9. Jejunum 10. Ileum: (click here for photos) region just before ileocecal valve called terminal ileum 11. Ileocecal valve 12. Large Intestine: a. Cecum b. appendix (click here to learn about laparoscopic appendectomy) c. colon (click here for photos)(ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid) d. rectum (click here for photos) e. anal canal f. Important bends in colon: hepatic flexure, splenic flexure g. Haustra and teniae coli 13. Biliary tree: Sketch: a. right and left hepatic ducts b. common hepatic duct c. gall bladder d. cystic duct e. common bile duct f. sphincter of Oddi 14. Pancreas: a. head, body, tail; b. pancreatic ducts: duct of Wirsung (main duct which leads to major papilla) and duct of Santorini (smaller duct which leads to minor papilla) 15. Liver: a. right lobe, left lobe (containing caudate and quadrate lobe) b. hepatic artery c. portal vein d. hepatic vein 16. Membranes: Describe each of the following: a. parietal and visceral peritoneum b. mesentery, mesocolon c. greater omentum, lesser omentum d. falciform ligament, ligamentum teres

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 9 Digestive Enzymes Exercises 39A

This week, read through the lab exercise and complete as much as you can before coming to lab. macromolecule enzyme building block(s) source Calories / gram proteins meat, soy beans 4 carbohydrates potatoes, rice 4 triglycerides glycerol and adipose, oils 9 (fats)

In the third column, list the building blocks of each of the organic molecules.

In the second column, write an enzyme that speeds the breakdown of each macromolecule into its subcomponents.

Assays: You will use the following assays to detect organic molecules.

starch + IKI  blue-black color sugar + Benedict’s solution + heat  green-orange precipitate BPNA + active trypsin  yellow color litmus cream + base  blue color litmus cream + acid  pink color

Assessing enzyme activity:

Proteins Pepsin comes from the ______(in the presence of HCl.) Proteins are digested by pepsin into ______Pancreatic enzymes such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase break large polypeptides down into ______Dipeptidases on the brush border and inside intestinal epithelial cells digest dipeptides into ______What is trypsin? What does it do? ______What is BAPNA? ______How does BAPNA work to indicate protein digestion? What color does the solution change to? ______

Starch

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 10 Amylase comes from ______and ______Amylase digests starch to ______and ______Lactase, maltase, and sucrase are ______border enzymes of the small intestine. Lactose is digested by lactase to ______and ______Maltose is digested by maltase to ______and ______(careful!) Sucrose is digested by sucrase to ______and ______salts are amphipathic, and emulsify fats so that they can be digested by the enzyme ______Which reagant tests for starch? ______What color does it turn if starch is present? ______If starch has been digested, will you see this color? ______What enzyme digests starch? ______If starch is digested, what disaccharide is formed? ______Which reagant tests for this disaccharide? ______What color is this reagant in the bottle? ______What color will it change to if maltose is present and the reagant and maltose are heated to an extremely high temperature? ______List conditions that will slow starch digestion. Examples of conditions include temperature, pH changes (if mentioned in the lab-if not, think this through. Enzymes function the best in the pH of the fluids in which they are secreted.), enzymes, etc.______Name a condition or conditions that can speed starch digestion ______

Triglycerides Pancreatic lipase breaks triglycerides down into monoglycerides and ______

What does bile do to speed triglyceride digestion? ______What fat-digesting enzyme is in pancreatin? ______What color does litmus cream change to when fat digestion has occurred? ______What pH range specifically makes the litmus turn this color? ______What product of fat digestion creates this pH? ______What conditions speed fat digestion? ______What conditions slow fat digestion? ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 11 Surface Anatomy Exercises 46

Head and Neck: 1. Temporalis Muscle 2. External Occipital Protuberance 3. Superficial Temporal Artery 4. Auricle 5. Mastoid process 6. Angle of Mandible 7. Superciliary Arch 8. Temporomandibular joint 9. Ramus of Mandible 10. Facial Artery 11. Frontalis muscle 12. Lacrimal fossa 13. Ala of nose 14. Bridge of nose 15. Dorsum nasi 16. Apex of nose 17. Philtrum 18. Hyoid bone 19. External jugular vein 20. Laryngeal prominence 21. Cricothyroid ligament 22. Sternocleidomastoid: sternal and clavicular heads 23. Subclavian artery: feel pulse 24. Clavicle 25. Jugular notch 26. External carotid artery 27. Trapezius 28. Posterior triangle of neck 29. Anterior triangle of neck: note carotid arteries and internal jugular vein here

1. Deltoid 2. Triceps 3. Medial and lateral epicondyles of humerus 4. Olecranon process 5. Biceps 6. Cephalic vein 7. Median cubital vein 8. Basilic vein 9. Brachial artery 10. Brachioradialis Wrist/Hand

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 12 1. Styloid process of radius 2. Styloid process of ulna 3. Radial artery 4. Pisiform bone 5. Ulnar artery 6. Dorsal venous network on hand 7. Hypothenar eminence 8. Thenar eminence

Leg 1. Three sites of intramuscular injections (See lab manual.) a. deltoid b. gluteus medius c. vastus lateralis 2. Greater trochanter 3. Patella 4. Vastus medialis 5. Rectus femoris 6. Vastus lateralis 7. Patella 8. Medial malleolus 9. Lateral malleolus 10. Tibialis anterior muscle 11. Tibia 12. Hamstrings muscles: know biceps femoris, semitendinosus tendons 13. Medial condyle of femur 14. Medial condyle of tibia 15. Patellar tendon (ligament) 16. Tibial tuberosity 17. Lateral condyle of femur 18. Lateral condyle of tibia 19. Dorsalis pedis artery 20. Popliteal fossa 21. Lateral and medial heads of gastrocnemius 22. Soleus 23. Calcaneal tendon=Achilles' tendon 24. Calcaneus

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 13 Urinary System Exercises 40

Gross Anatomy: Note the position of the kidneys compared to the peritioneum. What term describes its relationship?______What is the "casing" around the kidney called? It contains adipose tissue. ______What endocrine glands are on the superior pole of the kidneys? ______What is the medial border of the kidneys called? ______Name three structures that enter or leave the kidneys at this area. ______What is the relationship between the kidneys and the ribs? major calyces

Internal Anatomy: Identify the cortex, columns, and pyramids. Which of these structures is equivalent with the renal medulla? ______What is the tip of the pyramid called? ______What part of the calyceal system is next to this tip? ______Identify the minor calyces (singular=calyx), major calyces, renal pelvis, and ureter. ______. Identify the renal artery and vein. ______

Histology: 1. A nephron includes a glomerulus plus a ______2. A renal corpuscle includes a glomerulus plus Bowman's capsule. 3. What is the glomerulus? ______4. What is contained inside it? ______5. The cells of the glomerulus are ______(starts with letter f), meaning they have tiny holes in them. 6. The visceral layer of Bowman's capsule has podocytes. The outer layer of Bowman's capsule is the parietal layer. What fluid is in between these two layers? How is this different from the fluid inside the glomerulus? ______7. Identify the proximal convoluted tubule, the descending limb of the loop of Henle, the ascending limb of loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule. 8. The distal convoluted tubule contains the macula densa, which monitors NaCl in the filtrate and feeds this information to the juxtaglomerular apparatus, which can adjust the glomerular filtration rate via a process called autoregulation (see lecture text).

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 14 9. Most regions are made of simple cuboidal epithelium. However, the thin segment of the descending limb of the loop of Henle is made of simple ______epithelium. 10. Multiple nephrons drain into a single ______duct. 11. These ______ducts drain urine into the minor calyx through the ______(region) of the renal pyramid. 12. Contrast the afferent and efferent arteriole. Which supplies the glomerulus, and which drains the glomerulus? ______13. What pressure(s) cause filtration volume to increase in the glomerulus? ______14. The ______capillaries are near the convoluted tubules; the ______are looping vessels near the long loops of Henle in the renal medulla. 15. Describe the conceptual difference between filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. ______16. What is the difference between the macula densa and the juxtaglomerular cells? (Review lecture notes.) ______17. Which of these monitors the filtrate passing through the distal convoluted tubule? ______18. Which of these secretes renin? ______19. What is the action of renin? ______20. Urinary bladder: Identify the following: a. trigone and the ureteral orifices b. internal urethral orifice c. internal urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter d. detrusor muscle. 21. What is the difference in length between the male and female urethra? ______22. What is one consequences of this difference? ______23. What is transitional about transitional epithelium? Explain when transitions would occur. ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 15 Urinalysis Exercises 41A

1. What makes urine yellow? ______2. What can cause an ammonia-like odor to urine? ______3. What does the urine smell like if a diabetic is suffering from ketoacidosis? ______4. Urine pH: What is the average, as well as the normal range? ______5. How does diet influence urinary pH? ______6. What is the medical term for a kidney infection? ______7. What is the medical term for a kidney stone? ______

Define the following: , , , , , , and. List the cause(s) of each. Pay special attention to the differences between the causes of hematuria and hemoglobinuria. 8. glycosuria ______9. albuminuria ______10. ketonuria ______11. hematuria ______12. hemoglobinuria ______13. bilirubinuria ______14. pyuria ______

15. Specific gravity is the relative weight of a specific volume of liquid compared to an equal volume of ______16. What is the normal range for the urine specific gravity? ______17. What conditions would lead to a specific gravity near 1.001? ______18. How about a specific gravity of 1.030? ______

The most important nitrogenous wastes to enter the urine are urea, uric acid, and creatinine.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 16 19. Urea comes from ______20. Uric acid comes from ______21. Creatinine comes from ______

22. What is the usual cause of high urine sodium: high sodium intake or dehydration? Explain. ______

23. Is there any significance to seeing epithelial cells in the urine? ______24. How about white blood cells? ______25. How about red blood cells? ______26. What is a cast? Describe examples of different casts. ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 17 Electrolyte Lab Handout

Intravenous(IV) Solutions: Normal Saline

1. Make up a normal saline IV solution (0.9% NaCl solution.) 0.9% means that for every 100ml of solution, 0.9 grams will be NaCl. Therefore, you need to dissolve 0.9 grams (=900 mg.) sodium chloride in enough water to make a 100 ml. solution.

2. Calculate how many millimoles and milliequivalents of sodium and chloride are present in the 0.9%NaCl solution.

Overview of the calculations: a. Express the concentration of each ion in millimoles/L i. Figure out how much a mole of the substance weighs (in grams ii. One mole of a substance is the molecular weight expressed in grams. iii. The molecular weight of NaCl is 58.4; its molecular weight expressed in grams is 58.4g. b. You need to figure out how many grams NaCl are in a Liter of the above solution, instead of the 100 ml that you learned about above i. There are 1000 ml in a liter. ii. The solution has 0.9grams NaCl per 100 ml, or 9 grams per 1000 ml. c. Convert the weight of the NaCl to moles i. Convert 9 grams to moles: 9 grams x 1 mole/58.4 grams = 0.154 moles d. Convert moles to millimoles i. 0.154 moles x 1000 millimoles/mole = 154 millimoles NaCl ii. NaCl splits apart (since it is held together by ionic bonds) iii. There are thus 154 millimoles of sodium and 154 millimoles of chloride ions. e. Convert millimoles to milliequivalents. i. multiply #millimoles/L times the charge of the ion. ii. The charge of the sodium ion and chloride ion is 1 (Ignore the sign of the charge.) iii. In this case, the #millimoles/L equals the # milliequivalents/L. iv. There are 154 mEq/L of sodium ions, and 154 mEq/L of chloride ions. v. Note: 1 millimole Ca++/L equals 2 mEq Ca++/L because Ca++ has a charge of two. Notes: ______

1. What is the total osmolarity of the solution? 1 millimole of sodium ions does not dissociate any further, so 1 millimole = 1 milliosmoles. However, if you were talking about a molecule that breaks apart in solution, such as NaCl: 1 millimole/L of NaCl = 2 milliosmoles/L, since each sodium chloride molecule breaks apart to form two osmotically active ions.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 18 2. Change each constituent's concentration from millimoles to milliosmoles.

154 millimoles NaCl  154 milliosmoles/L of Na+ plus 154 milliosmoles/L of Cl-

3. Add up the total milliosmoles/L to get the total osmolarity: 154 + 154 = 308 milliosmoles/L. Alternatively, you knew that the NaCl concentration was 154 millimoles/l and that this would break apart into two osmotically active ions, so 154 x 2 = 308 milliosmoles/L

4. If you give this IV to a patient, what space, or combination of spaces will sodium readily enter? Intravascular, and/or interstitial, and/or intracellular? ______

5. Will this cause water to be drawn out of cells? Is the sodium concentration outside cells what is important, or is it the total osmolarity of the interstitial fluid? Why? ______

IV Solutions: 25% Albumin Solution

Make up a 25% albumin solution by adding 25-g albumin plus water to make a 100-ml. solution. It contains 25% albumin. Albumin should not be used as an IV nutrient, because of the slow breakdown & unfavorable composition with respect to essential amino acids. Two main reasons for its use: Plasma or blood volume deficit. Since the oncotic pressure of 25% albumin is four times higher than that of normal human plasma, it will expand the plasma volume if interstitial water is available for inflow through the capillary walls. However, many patients suffering from an acute volume deficit also have some degree of interstitial dehydration. In these patients, albumin should also be given with an isotonic electrolyte solution. Oncotic deficit resulting from hypoproteinemia. The 25% albumin concentration is oncotically equivalent to approximately 5 times its volume of normal plasma.

Maintenance IV therapy Minimum daily water & electrolyte requirements can be provided IV to a patient who is temporarily unable to ingest food & fluids. This assumes normal renal function is present, & does not address any water or electrolyte imbalances.

Minimum water requirements for fluid balance can be estimated from the sum of the urine output necessary to excrete the daily solute load: 500 ml/day (obligatory minimal urine output) & the insensible loss of water from skin & respiratory tract (700 ml/day) minus the amount of water being produced in the body from endogenous metabolism: 250 ml/day.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 19 1. What is the minimum water requirement per 24 hours? ______2. How many ml/hour does this represent? ______

It is customary to administer 2000ml-3000 ml/day to produce a urine output of 1000- 1500ml/day, since there is usually no advantage to minimizing the urine output.

3. How many ml/hour does this IV infusion rate of 2000-3000ml/day represent? ______

4. Weighing the patient daily is the best means of assessing net gain or loss of fluid, since the GI, renal, and insensible fluid losses of hospitalized patients are unpredictable. Does a loss of two pounds indicate a loss of 1 liter of water, or could there be other factors causing the weight loss? ______

The electrolytes that are usually administered during maintenance IV fluid therapy are sodium, chloride, and potassium. The kidneys are normally capable of compensating for wide variations in sodium intake. For example, in absence of sodium intake, urinary sodium excretion can be reduced to less than 5 mEq/day. It is customary to supply 50-150 mEq of sodium daily.

Some potassium supplementation is also given, due to its obligatory renal potassium excretion. Usually 20-60 mEq/day is given if renal function is adequate.

Carbohydrates: 100 to 150 g. /day of glucose is necessary to minimize protein catabolism and to prevent ketosis.

An adequate maintenance IV fluid regimen is 2000 ml/day of 0.45% NaCl (“1/2 normal saline”) with 5% dextrose and 20 mEq KCl/liter. Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, vitamins, and protein replacement are necessary after 1 week of parenteral (IV) therapy.

5. If the fluid rate is 2000 ml./day, what is the IV rate in ml/hour? ______

6. How many milliequivalents of Na+ ions is the person receiving per day? ______7. If the person is receiving more than their minimal needs, how are they dealing with the excess? ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 20 8. How many milliequivalents of K+ ions is the person receiving per 24 hours? ______

9. If the person is receiving more than their minimal needs, how are they dealing with the excess? ______10. If their serum potassium increases, what hormone will help them secrete more potassium?______

11. How many grams of carbohydrates is the person receiving? ______12. How many Calories is in that? ______

IV Replacement of abnormal water and electrolyte losses: Insensible water losses average 500-1000 ml/day and depend on respiratory rate, temperature, humidity, and body temperature. Water losses increase by 125 ml/day for each degree of body temperature over 37.

If a person has a temperature of 103, how much extra fluid loss are they suffering from? ______

First, convert from Fahrenheit to Centigrade: (5/9) x (Degrees F - 32) = Degrees Centigrade ______

Then calculate the extra water loss: ______

Note: insensible water losses from the skin would best be corrected with hypotonic saline: sweat is hypotonic, and the sodium concentration ranges from 5-50 millimoles/L

13. The sodium concentration of sweat is about 35 mmol/L in your patient. Convert this sodium concentration from mmol/L to mEq/L. ______

14. Assuming the person's sweat has a sodium concentration of 35 millimoles/L, which IV solution would be most appropriate to correct these losses? 1/4 normal saline, 1/2 normal saline, or normal saline? ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 21 Fluid losses from sweating can vary enormously: from (0-2000 ml/hour) and depend on physical activity, body temperature, and outside temperature.

Gastrointestinal losses vary in composition & volume depending on the source.

Note: The following table values are approximate, and have been adjusted a bit for ease of learning.

Fluid Lost [Na+] [K+] mEq/L [H+] mEq/L [Cl-] mEq/L [HCO3-] mEq/L mEq/L Sweat 35 5 50 Gastric 50 10 90 120 Juice Diarrhea 35 45 35 35

Don't worry about memorizing the above, but remember these key points:

 Sweat causes loss of a hypotonic saline solution.

 Vomiting and nasogastric suction causes loss of fluid that is a hypotonic saline solution containing a small amount of potassium, but very rich in HCl.

 Diarrhea causes loss of fluid that is a hypotonic saline solution very rich in potassium.

15. If you lose hypotonic saline, and do not drink fluids, what will happen to your serum sodium level: will it go up, stay the same, or decrease? (Hint: pretend you are just losing water. You are actually losing relatively more water than salt.) ______

16. If you lose hypotonic saline and replace it by drinking pure water, what will happen to your serum sodium level: will it go up, stay the same, or decrease? ______

Calculations for your own body: 1. Calculate your own total body water (TBW): 2. Convert your weight in pounds to kilograms: # pounds x 1kg/2.2 pounds = #kg. 3. Multiply wt. x 55% if female, 60% if male to get TBW: ______4. What is your intracellular fluid volume? ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 22 5. What is your extracellular fluid volume? ______

6. What is your interstitial fluid volume? ______

7. What is your plasma volume? ______

8. What is your blood volume? ______

Acid-Base disorders:

Normal arterial blood gasses: pH7.35-7.45, PO2 90-100, pCO2 38-42, HCO3-: 22-26 mEq/L

Describe the primary acid-base disturbance and the compensatory mechanism that would occur in a person who: 1. Overdoses on heroin (which depresses respirations) ______

2. Chronically hypoventilates, and is hypoxic & retains CO2 ______

3. Suffers from an anxiety attack and acutely hyperventilates ______

4. Has a renal disorder where they lose excessive bicarbonate into the urine ______

5. Has suffered from repeated vomiting, losing HCl. ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 23 ______

Hypernatremia: elevated serum sodium above 145 (normal = 135-145). Usually due to a water deficit rather than a sodium excess. If someone has volume depletion and a pure water deficit as the cause of hypernatremia, they should be treated by mouth and /or an IV solution of 5% dextrose in water. This is because they lack mainly water; they usually do not have a sodium excess if they are volume depleted. (Your volume status is often a better clue to your total body sodium level than your serum sodium.) The benefit of giving D5W is that it provides some tonicity to the solution (D5W has an osmolarity of 252 mOsm/kg) and thus won't burst their red cells when given IV, and you avoid giving the person any sodium.

Hypernatremia should be corrected slowly; no more than half the water deficit should be replaced in the first 12-24 hours.

If a person has severe volume depletion causing hemodynamic instability (such as orthostatic hypotension, very low urine output, shock), saline solutions should be infused to restore the volume status; then D5W can be given to help correct the hyponatremia.

Hyponatremia: very complicated; does not imply a sodium deficiency, can be due to water excess. Can result from: Primary sodium loss, water gain, or both combined. Associated with volume depletion: lose sodium via diarrhea and replace fluid loss with pure water. Treat with isotonic saline Associated with normal (or slightly elevated) volume status: syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion = SIADH: causes water retention. Treat with fluid restriction. Other causes, such as hyperglycemia may lower the serum sodium.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 24 Reproductive System Anatomy Exercises 42

Gross Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System External Anatomy: Scrotum, shaft of penis, glans penis, foreskin (prepuce), perineum, inguinal region, external urethral meatus

Internal Anatomy: Corpus cavernosum, corpus spongiosum. Which is contiguous with the glans penis? Testes, seminiferous tubules, rete testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands. How does the prostate change with aging? ______What are the consequences of this? ______Urinary bladder, prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, penile urethra. What spongy tissue does the penile urethra travel through? ______List some major components of seminal fluid. ______List some major components of the spermatic cord. ______From your text, what is the difference between the cremaster muscle and the dartos muscle? ______Discuss the course of the vas deference from the scrotum to the back of the bladder. ______

Histology of the Male: Penis: Do you notice the spaces for blood in the corpora carvernosa and the corpus spongiosum? ______How does erection occur? ______

Histology of the seminiferous tubules: Discuss the difference between the locations of spermatogonia and more mature spermatozoa. ______What is the function of Leydig (interstitial) cells? Where are they located compared to the seminiferous tubules?

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 25 ______From lecture, what hormone stimulates them? ______What are some functions of Sertoli cells? ______Where are they located? ______What is the difference between the epididymis and the seminiferous tubules (in terms of location and function) ?______

External genitalia of the female: Perineum, mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, prepuce, clitoris, head of clitoris, vestibule, external urethral orifice, vaginal orifice, hymen. Internal anatomy:

Vagina, posterior fornix, cervix, endocervical canal, external os, internal os, uterus, body of uterus, fundus, endometrium, fallopian tubes (=oviducts), fimbriae, ovaries. Which of these structures is not retroperitoneal? ______

Breasts: areola, nipple, mammary glands, lobules, alveoli, lactiferous ducts, lactiferous sinuses. What muscle is deep to the breast tissue? ______From lecture text, which lymphatics drain the breasts? ______Why would a cancer surgeon need to know about this? ______Histology of the Female: Click here

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 26 Gametogenesis Exercises 43

Define gametogenesis ______

Click here to review Mitosis, which you should learn well before learning meiosis. Click here for a comparison between mitosis and meiosis.

Meiosis: Differentiate between the terms haploid and diploid. ______What is another word for a zygote? ______What are homologous chromosomes? ______How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are in humans? ______What process occurs in the gonads to form a haploid number of chromosomes? ______What phase of meiosis does synapsis occur in? ______Define synapsis. ______What is another word for crossing over? ______What is a half of an x-shaped chromosome called? ______When chromatids pull apart during anaphase, what are they called? ______

Male spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis: To help you understand spermatogenesis, sort the following in the correct order, from least mature to most mature: spermatids, primary spermatocyte, functional sperm, secondary spermatocyte, spermatogonium. ______Which are 2n (46 chromosomes) and which are 1n? ______What are some functions of Sertoli cells? Where are they located? ______What are some functions of interstitial (Leydig) cells? Where are they located? ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 27 What is the difference between the terms spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis? ______

Describe the contents of the head, midpiece, and tail of a spermatozoa. ______Be able to identify seminiferous tubules, spermatozoa, spermatogonia, interstitial cells from a microscope slide.

Ovaries: Sort the following in the correct order: Mature ovum, oogonium, secondary oocyte, primary oocyte ______When is meiosis I? Meiosis II? ______How primordial follicles are present at birth? ______What is a polar body? ______Describe and identify (from microscope) a primordial follicle, primary follicle, secondary follicle, mature=vesicular=Graafian follicle, and corpus luteum. ______Note the fluctuations of the pituitary hormones, ovarian hormones, ovaries, and endometrial changes during the menstrual cycle. See illustrations at the end of your lab exercise.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 28 Principles of Heredity Exercises 45

Karyotypes: allow one to visually see the chromosomes of a person, and detect abnormalities such as an abnormal number of chromosomes. Obtained by taking fetal lymphocytes obtained during amniocentesis. Cells are stimulated to divide & grow in culture, which will increase the chance of obtaining cells with visible chromosomes (recall most cells usually in interphase, where chromosomes not visible). A drug is applied which arrests cells in metaphase. At this phase: each chromosome is a double structure: two chromatids connected by centromere. Then cells are harvested & treated with a solution to make their chromosomes spread out, & prepared for microscopy. Chromosomes are photographed; photo is entered into a computer for arrangement into homologous pairs. The first pair is the largest & the pairs get progressively smaller. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes.

To assist you in preparing your karyotype: Pairs 1-3: Centromere in middle Pairs 4-5: centromere slightly closer to one end than the other, so each chromatid has short arm & long arm Pairs 6-12: some centromeres in middle, some closer to one end Pairs 13-15: short arms extremely short; tiny masses of chromatin called satellites are attached to short arms. Pairs 16-18: No satellites, centromere central or slightly closer to one end Pairs 19-20: The two smallest chromosomes that have centromeres in middle Pairs 21-22: The two smallest chromosomes that have extremely tiny short arms; have satellites Pair 23: the sex chromosomes. Y chromosome: extremely tiny short arms; no satellites X chromosome: looks similar to chromosome #6. The only way to discern it is to use banding, which is the use of special stains to differentiate between chromosomes. The sequence of nucleotides will determine the bands; since the DNA in X chromosome is different from pair 6, it will have different banding.

Exercise 1: Obtain a photocopy of human chromosomes, and perform a karyotype analysis by cutting out the chromosomes and pasting them on the form. Queues. A: What is the sex of the individual? ______Ques. B: What is the chromosomal abnormality that you found? ______Hint: it is either Normal Female, Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), 47xxy (Klinefelter syndrome), normal male, 47xyy male, 45,xo (Turner Syndrome) or 47, xxx (Superfemale) Ques. C: From your text, how would this abnormality manifest itself. In other words, what would the phenotype be? ______

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 29 Exercise 2: Terminology From your lab notebook, define the following: 1. Homozygous - ______

2. Heterozygous ______

3. Dominant gene (allele) ______

4. Recessive gene (allele) ______

5. Genotype ______

6. Phenotype ______

Exercise 3: Punnett Squares, Complete Dominance: see lab notebook; construct the Punnett squares & answer the questions regarding the crosses between tall parents & dwarf parents, rough & smooth coat guinea pigs.

Exercise 4: Punnet Squares, codominance: Draw a punnett square, showing the offspring produced by crossing a person who is AB with a person who is A0. Now do one crossing a person who is AO and BO. Is the O allele codominant with the others, or recessive? Which blood group alleles are the codominant ones?

Exercise 5: Punnett Squares, Incomplete Dominance: see lab notebook; construct the Punnett squares & answer the questions regarding the crosses between red, white, & pink snapdragons; sickle cell anemics.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 30 Exercise 6: Probability. Remember: probability of event A occurring OR event B occurring = (probability of event A) + (probability of event B). Probability of event A occurring AND event B occurring = (probability of event A) x (probability of event B); if you ask the question before either A or B has occurred. BE CAREFEL! If event A has already happened when you ask about the probability of event B, and A & B are two independent events, then you may need to ignore A's probability when asking about B. See #C Do the coin problems in the lab notebook, than complete the following:

What is the probability of a mother having a girl? ______

What is the probability of a mother having a boy or a girl? ______

If a mother has given birth to a girl for her first child, what is the probability of her having a girl as her second child? ______

Say a mother has a genetic disease and there is a 25% chance of her offspring having the disease. Say she intends to have three kids. What is the probability of all three kids having the disease? ______

Say a mother has a 50% chance of having a blue eyed child and 50% chance of having a brown- eyed child. If she has had six kids, all blue-eyed, what is the probability that her seventh kid will be blue eyed? ______In the above question, what is the probability that her seventh kid will be a brown-eyed boy? ______

If a woman is planning on having six children, what is the probability that they will all be boys? ______

Exercise 7: Pedigrees. In pedigrees, the male is represented as a square & the female as a circle. Say albinism is homozygous recessive. A= normal allele; a=albino.

Construct a pedigree showing a normal male crossing with a normal female and producing three children: one daughter has albinism, one daughter does not, and one son does not. Determine the phenotype & genotype of each of the three offspring.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 31 Color blindness is X-linked recessive. Say XC = Normal color x chromosome; Xc= Color blindness x chromosome.

Say a normal visioned man marries a normal visioned woman. Their two children are a color- blind boy and a normal visioned girl. Draw a pedigree and shade in the box or circle of color blinded individuals. What is the genotype of each individual?

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 32 Embryology Lab Exercises 44

Summary of Germ cell layers:

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm Nervous system Muscle Epithelial lining of gut & lower respiratory tract Epidermis bone, cartilage all ducts entering gut lining of mouth, anus blood, kidneys, ovaries, testes, lining of body cavities sense organs such as eyes

Human Embryologic Events Click here for some cool embryo images; also here for more . Click here for a nice review of week 1-3 Mont Day Event h 1 1 Fertilization 2 2,4 cell stages 4-6 In uterus 7 Implantation of blastula 8 embryo beneath uterine surface 24 implantation complete 31 all major organ systems begin to form, though not functional 2 1.25 inches long; distinct limbs, head, ears, nose; lidless eyes; placenta functional; reproductive organs form; bone forming 3 to After 8 weeks called a fetus. 3 inches long. Breathing in amniotic fluid, end of swallowing amniotic fluit, body movements possible. Behavior first becomes individualized. Excreted urine into amniotic fluid. trimes ter 4 Reacts to stimuli, blood formed in bones, eyes light sensitive 5 Kicking & turning. Loss of ancestral tail. 6 to 1.5 Lbs. May be able to survive (25 wks record). Skeleton formation end most active (mother must increase calcium intake) 2nd trimes ter 7 Mother’s blood volume 30% greater than normal. Fetus has 10% survival chance if born prematurely. (70% if lives to 8th, 95% if to ninth). 84% of calcium consumed by mother goes to fetal skeleton. Antibodies (IgG) passed to fetus-may protect for up to about 6 months. 9 Uterus has increased to 60 times original size. Birth: 20 inches long, 6- 8 lbs. Click here to learn about the development of the brain

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 33 Models:

Model #, Description Structures to Identify Significant events 1 Fertilized ovum in Spermatozoa, Nucleus of Spermatozoa just penetrated fallopian tubes, minutes old Fertilized Ovum ovum; male & female pronuclei have not fused, some don't consider fertilization to have occurred until pronuclei fuse & zygote formed. 2. Two cell stage in Cleavage furrow, Cleavage=mitotic divisions, fallopian tubes, 1.5 days old blastomeres cells do not enlarge: as cells divide, offspring cells become smaller 3,4 : 4, 8 cell stage in Cleavage furrow, fallopian tubes, 1.5-3 days blastomeres old 5. Morula stage in fallopian Morula (=solid ball of 16 or tubes, 3 days old more cells); cleavage furrows, blastomeres 6. Blastocyst stage in Blastocyst Trophoblast becomes uterus, 5 days old Trophoblast; Inner cell placenta; Inner cell mass mass (=embryoblast) becomes embryonic disc; Blastocyst cavity Blastocyst implants day 6 7. Blastocyst in Blastocyst, endometrium, 7 days Trophoblast, Bilaminar germ disc: ectoderm (yellow) & endoderm (orange) Blastocyst cavity 8. Blastocyst in Syncytiotrophoblast Syncytiotrophoblast: endometrium, 8 days Cytotrophoblast invades endometrium Ectoderm (yellow) Cytotrophoblast: becomes Endoderm (orange) chorion (part of placenta) Amniotic cavity (cavity Amniotic cavity: eventually inside yellow) surrounds embryo; yolk sac Primitive yolk sac will shrink 9. Blastocyst in Syncytiotrophoblast (dark endometrium, 12 days grey) Cytotrophoblast (light grey) Bilayered embryonic disc: Ectoderm (yellow) Endoderm (orange) Amnion (con't) Yolk sac (yellow) Extraembryonic coelom

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 34 (light grey with dark grey network) 10. 16 day old embryo, in Chorionic villi Gastrulation: formation of endometrium Amniotic cavity mesoderm Body stalk Ectoderm Small amount mesoderm Endoderm Yolk sac Chorionic cavity (light grey) 11. 4.5 week old embryo, in Chorionic villi Amniotic cavity trivia: wall of uterus Umbilical vessels model mistake: should not Yolk sac be obliterating chorionic Amniotic cavity cavity until 12 weeks old Pharyngeal arches Lens placode gives rise to Lens placode eye Heart bulge Somites become muscle, Umbilical cord bone, & dermis Limb ridge Somites 12. 5 week embryo Chorionic villi Umbilical cord Yolk sac Amniotic cavity Pharyngeal arches Eye Heart bulge Umbilical cord Limb buds Somites

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 35 Human Development Handout

Ask your instructor if you are required to complete this handout. You will need to visit OMSI to view the Human Development Exhibit!

Development of the human embryo and fetus begins at fertilization of the egg by the sperm within the fallopian tube. Over the next four or five days the fertilized egg (zygote) will begin dividing and prepare for implantation into the endometrium of the uterus.

In this exercise you will have the opportunity to observe the human embryo and fetus at its various stages of development. Pay attention to the details and the changes that you see. Relative to the changes we see after a fetus is delivered things change very quickly. Use the informational signs and observations of the embryo and fetus to answer the following questions.

1. In the 38 weeks from zygote to parturition the single cell of the zygote will go from a single cell to approximately ______cells.

2. The zygote will begin to divide by mitosis after approximately ______hours, this first division will take 12 hours to complete. The next division only takes 12 hours to complete.

3. The zygote will reach the uterus in ______days.

As the zygote divides it will move through the stages of morula (a solid ball of cells that begins at the 16 cell stage approximately 96 hours after fertilization) and will continue to divide and in less than a day it will become a hollow ball of cells called the blastula or blastocyst consisting of about 132 cells.

4. The ______is the stage that implants into the endometrium of the uterus.

5. Of all the eggs that become fertilized only about ______% survive the development process to reach parturition. Most of these “pregnancies” end without the mother even knowing.

6. The first system to develop within the embryo is the ______system.

7. The heart will begin beating in the ______week of pregnancy.

8. The structures that will give rise to the vertebral column and muscles that develop during the fourth week are called the ______. Where in the embryo do you see these structures?

______.

9. The beginning of the fingers and toes can be seen by day ______.

10. Blood development began in the ______, by week 5 this job has been moved to the

______and by week 10 is moved again to the ______. At this point the

______will begin making the leukocytes immunocompetent.

11. Sweat glands and sebaceous glands begin to form by day ______.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 36 12. By day 43 the central nervous system has kicked into high gear producing about ______new cells per minute.

13. The fingers and toes have separated and the eyelids have begun to develop by day ______.

14. By day ______all the organs are present (although not fully developed, some development will continue for the first few years following birth).

15. At day 57 the embryo graduates and becomes the fetus. By this time the eyelids have formed, but will stay closed until week ______. What other epidermal appendage will have formed by now? ______.

16. By 9 weeks the fetus will begin to form ______and the fetus begins reflexive movement (but as you may note from the size, nothing the mother will be able to detect). Note the fuzzy appearance of the placenta, what do you think the function of this form is? ______.

17. By the 10th week the ______gland will begin to function, producing hormones to stimulate the growth and development of the gonads and other glands.

18. By the 11th week the muscles of the stomach begin contracting, the fetus is swallowing amniotic fluid that contains hair and shed fetal cells. The digestion products will remain in the colon until after birth when they are released as the first fecal matter called the ______. Thumb sucking may start and the permanent tooth buds are beginning to form.

19. The sex of the fetus can be determined at week ______.

20. At what stage can the fetus begin to detect and respond to sounds? ______

21. The white pasty substance that can be seen covering the fetus protects the skin from the constant bath of amniotic fluid.

This substance is called the ______and is produced by the sebaceous glands. Most bones and joint cavities are now distinct.

Imagine what you would look like after soaking for 9 months.

22. The fetus becomes large enough that the mother can feel it “kicking” in the ______week.

23. In the female fetus the ovaries will already be producing oocytes by week ______.

By 18 weeks the fetus has its own set of fingerprints.

24. By the 19th week the fetus is covered by a fine downy hair called the ______, which is thought to help

______. The hair will be shed during the ______month.

25. By the 20th week a special form of adipose develops called ______which is used in

______.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 37 26. By the ______week the lungs of the fetus begin to produce ______, which reduces the surface tension of water preparing the fetus for its first breath in a non-aquatic environment, though the amount is inadequate to allow independent breathing at this time.

27. Development of the brain which began during the ______week will, during the 25th week, change from a smooth structure to the folded structure we are familiar with in the adult. The grooves are the ______and the ridges are the ______.

28. By the 26th week the lungs can function properly and the CNS can control breathing and body temperature, at this point the fetus weighs about ______pounds.

29. By the 27th week the ______of the fetus begin to respond to stimuli.

30. The bones of the skull, although formed will continue to grow together for the first ______years after birth.

31. The number of Brain cells will continue to increase until the age of ______.

32. The lungs will continue to develop until the age of ______.

33. The vertebral column will continue to develop until the age of ______.

34. The nose and ears will continue to grow until ______

Extra credit. They will continue to cause you trouble until______.

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 38 Biology 233

Anatomy and Physiology III

Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update Anatomy and Physiology III Biology 233

Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide

Table of Contents

Lab Topic Marieb Lab PCC Lab Exercise Guide Page Safety Guidelines 1 Disposal Guidelines 2 Respiratory System 36, 37A 3 Digestive System 38 7 Digestive Enzymes 39A 10 Surface Anatomy Roundup 46 12 Urinary System 40 14 Urinalysis 41A 16 Fluids and Electrolytes (PCC Handout) 18 Reproductive System Anatomy 42 25 Gametogenesis 43 27 Principles of Heredity 45 29 Embryology Lab 44 33 Human Development (PCC Handout) 36

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, Table of Contents