Appendix 1. Record of Review Findings

Appendix 1. Record of review findings

1. Criteria for review VanderZaar et al., (2008) considered that to obtain reliable data on emissions from livestock facilities is challenging. They cited Jungbluth et al. (2001) who distinguished between “data” and “reliable data,” and summarized requirements for collecting reliable data at livestock facilities as:

1. Continuous measurement of ventilation rates and gas concentrations.

2. Long‐term experiments, to cover diurnal and seasonal effects.

3. Simultaneous measurement of multiple gases. 4. Sampling an area as large as possible.

These targets are useful when reviewing published data on emissions from buildings housing livestock and from manure stores. Meeting those targets present logistical, technical, and cost challenges - often at the expense of replication.

2. Results of literature review

2.1 Ammonia emissions from buildings housing cattle

Table 1 below gives a summary of each paper reviewed. Table 2 reports the approach of each paper according to the criteria of Jungbluth et al. (2008). As well as noting the country of work, the following information is recorded:  Livestock type.  Experiment, whether the study was a comparison of abatement techniques or an exercise to measure emissions from commercial buildings.  Treatments, any abatement measures evaluated.

 NH3 measurement, technique used to measure NH3 and any other gases reported.  N excretion, whether N excretion was reported.

 Effect of temperature, effect of temperature on NH3 emissions.  Area per animal, surface area of floor available per animal.  Ventilation, method of ventilation used in the building.  Results, a brief summary of the findings.  Conclusion(s), the key conclusions.  Relevance to UK, whether the results might also be applicable to UK livestock production and hence used to fill gaps in NARSES.

1 Table 1. Summary of published work reporting emissions of ammonia from buildings housing cattle

Authors(s) Ngwabie et al., 2011 Country of work Sweden Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Monitoring of building, evaluation of rubber mats with a layer of peat Treatments Measurements of emissions in relation to temperature and activity

NH3 measurement Photo-acoustic multi gas analyser, ventilation by CO2 mass balance N excretion Yes Effect of temperature Y= 0.37*T + 15.79 Area per animal NA Ventilation ACNV Results Hourly scraping, plus sloped floor with partial urine faeces separation will

have reduced emissions. Average NH3-N emission, 10.1% of TAN Conclusion(s) Emissions increase with temperature Relevance to UK Moderate since peat not used as a bedding in the UK

Authors(s) Fiedler and Muller, 2011 Country of work Germany Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Comparison of commercial buildings Treatments None NH3 measurement photo acoustic field multigas-monitor. 4 weeks in August N excretion NA Effect of temperature None reported - work carried out in summer Area per animal 9 and 10 m2 Ventilation Naturally-ventilated Results The range of variability for cow shed 1 ranged from 0.2 to 6.4 mg/m3 for 3 NH3 and from 1.8 to 114.8 mg/m for CH4. The average emission rates were 4.1 g/h/LU (shed 1) and 1.8 g/h/LU (shed 2) for NH3. Conclusion(s) Average emissions 31.1 and 70.9 % of TAN Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Pereira et al., 2011 Country of work Portugal Livestock type Dairy - manure taken from high-yielding herd, 10,000 L annum Experiment Two scale models were built to simulate a level solid floor without urine drainage, and a slatted concrete floor. The experimental area was 1.0 by 1.0 m and the slatted floor was equipped with a drainage channel, as would be found in a dairy house with a slatted floor. Before beginning the experiment the model floors were installed in a dairy building, for a year, to generate urease activity. Each scale model was covered with hermetic PVC containers.

Treatments Two floor designs and three air temperatures (5, 15 and 25°C) on NH3, N2O, CH4 and CO2 emissions NH3 measurement Acid traps for 72h. N excretion NA Effect of temperature Significant increase in emissions with temperature on both floor types Area per animal NA -manure applied at rate equivalent to 6.1 m2 Ventilation Natural Results Emissions of NH3, N2O, CO2 and CH4 increased significantly with air temperature with both floor types and emissions of NH3, N2O and CO2 were significantly greater from the solid floor relative to the slatted floor at all temperatures considered. Cumulative NH3 (27-66% of total N applied) and CO2 (<19% of total C applied) emissions were greater from the solid floor than from the slatted floor (by 36% and 44%, respectively). The cumulative N2O (<0.1% of total N applied) and CH4 (<0.4% of total C applied) emissions were relatively

2 small and CH4 values did not differ significantly between treatments. Cumulative GHG emissions (as CO2-equivalents) increased significantly with temperature but did not differ between the floor types. There were no interactions between temperature and floor type.

Conclusion(s) Floor modifications may reduce NH3 emissions without increases in GHG emissions Relevance to UK Limited to impact of temperature as measurements made of a scale model.

Authors(s) Pereira et al., 2010 Country of work Portugal Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Measurements from farm buildings. Cows zero-grazed and fed maize silage and concentrates. Slurry removed every 3 h from B1 and scraped manually and hosed down in B2. Pine shavings as bedding, 400 kg/cow. Treatments None NH3 measurement 8 measurements over 12 m. Re-curved Ferm tubes. N excretion Yes, 165, 130, 118 kg N cow.yr Effect of temperature Significantly greater in summer Area per animal 8 m2 Ventilation Natural Results Emissions between May-07 and Sept-07 (spring/summer) for buildings 2B and 2C were significantly more (P < 0.05) than in the autumn/winter period and represented 64 and 66%, respectively, of the total emission from each building over the whole year and increased with inside mean air temperature (R2 = 0.18, P < 0.05). However, for building 1 there was no difference (P > 0.05) in emissions between spring/summer and autumn/winter seasons. Large differences considered due to differences in building design with no ridge roof openings at farm 2. Conclusion(s) As % TAN emissions 17.1, 3.1 and 1.0 Relevance to UK Moderate since emissions at farm 2 were difficult to unambiguously assign between building and outdoor yards. However, measurements made with re- curved Ferm tubes and N excretion reported.

Authors(s) Schrade et al., 2010 Country of work Switzerland Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment 6 loose housed naturally-ventilated systems Treatments None

NH3 measurement Tracer ratio 3 day periods in summer and winter N excretion NA

Effect of temperature Average daily values for NH3 emissions ranged from 46.2 to 67.4 g/LU·d in summer and from 12.4 to 12.9 g/LU·d in winter. Area per animal 11.5 m2 Ventilation NA

Results The average daily values for NH3 emissions ranged from 46.2 to 67.4 g/LU·d in summer and from 12.4 to 12.9 g/LU·d in winter. Conclusion(s) Ammonia emissions showed a strong seasonal dependence. Relevance to UK Medium - data on seasonal variation

Authors(s) Ngwabie et al., 2009 Country of work Sweden Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Measurements during winter housing period. Treatments Commercial farm with daily flushing of manure from slatted walkways

NH3 measurement Photoacoustic multi-gas analyser 1412 and a multiplexer 1309 N excretion 130 kg N/cow/year Effect of temperature Not reported but results do not appear to be affected by temperature - smallest emission in May when temperature greatest Area per animal 10 m2 Ventilation Naturally-ventilated dairy cattle building through automatically regulated

3 ventilation flaps mounted on the sidewalls below the eaves and also at the ridge. Results Ammonia emission from the building was in the range of 0.89-1.13 g LU-1 h-1 and corresponded to a mean N loss of about 0.02 kg N LU-1 d-1 from the manure. Considering an estimated 0.36 kg N LU-1 d-1 N content in the manure, the NH3 emission corresponded to a N loss of c. 6%. Conclusion(s) Small concentrations of N2O were measured, suggesting that cow barns with liquid manure systems and daily or frequent manure removal into

external storage tanks do not constitute a major source of N2O. Relevance to UK Medium - colder winter period

Authors(s) Harper et al., 2009 Country of work USA Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Measurements made autumn, summer and winter at 3 farms in 2 years Treatments None

NH3 measurement bLS inverse-dispersion technique N excretion No, but diet data available Season Winter Effect of temp Mean whole-farm NH3 emissions in winter, autumn, and summer were 1.5, 7.5, and 13.7% of feed N inputs emitted as NH3-N, respectively. Building emissions averaged 12.5, 38 and 50 kg NH3/component/d winter, autumn, summer. Area per animal NA Ventilation Naturally-ventilated Results Average annual emissions from barns and manure treatment and storage for all farms were 7.6 ± 1.5% of input feed N. Conclusion(s) Relevance to UK Small to medium

Authors(s) Bluteau et al., 2009 Country of work Canada Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Monitoring Treatments None NH3 measurement Acid traps N excretion NA Season February-March and May-Sep Effect of temperature Appears to increase emissions. Mean Feb, Mar 5.3 g day-1 animal-1 while those during summer averaged 14.8 g day-1 animal-1 (but different buildings) Area per animal NA Ventilation

Results The NH3 emission rate expressed on a per-animal basis for building B during summer, 11.33–18.20 g day-1 animal-1, would appear greater than the -1 -1 NH3 emission rates for building A during winter, 3.77–6.80 g day animal . Conclusion(s) Mechanical Relevance to UK None for absolute emissions- tie stall

Authors(s) Mukthar, 2009 Country of work US Livestock type Dairy Experiment Free stall barns, flushed 4 times a day. Very open Treatments None NH3 measurement Flux chambers N excretion NA Season Winter and summer Effect of temperature Greater in summer Area per animal NA Ventilation Natural Results Ambient winter temp. 6.3 °C, 1.7 kg NH3/hd/yr

4 Ambient summer temp. 34.0°C, 2.4 kg NH3/hd/yr Conclusion(s) Very small annual emissions Relevance to UK Doubtful value because of small measurements (<2% TAN) which cast doubt on their reliability.

Authors(s) Teye and Hataula, 2008 Country of work Finland Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Measurements to parameterize model Treatments Experimental dairy building. Milking parlour within building together with calf pens. Solid floor, manure removed daily, dry peat spread on floor. NH3 measurement Measurement of mass transfer coefficient. Ventilation by CO2 dilution. N excretion NA Season Spring - summer Effect of temperature NA Area per animal NA Ventilation Natural Results Mass transfer coefficient same as reported by Hutchings et al., 1996. Conclusion(s) Relevance to UK Limited, main objective to measure mass transfer coefficient for model development.

Authors(s) Rumburg et al., 2008 Country of work US Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Monitoring Treatments 185 cow house with solid concrete floors and daily scraping NH3 measurement Area source tracer gas (SF6) ratio method N excretion 180 kg cow-1 year-1 diet 19% crude protein, 10,300 L annum Season Summer, 18 ± 5 °C Effect of temperature The model developed is temperature dependent Area per animal 14 m2 Ventilation Natural Results Emissions for the entire dairy of 185 milking cows were seasonal and -1 -1 ranged from about 10 kg NH3 day in the winter to over 80 kg NH3 day in the summer. The measured stall flux for the summers averaged 29 ± 19 g -1 -1 NH3 cow h at an average temperature of 18 ± 5 °C. Conclusion(s) Total annual NH3 emissions for the dairy of 185 milking cows was 7400 kg -1 -1 or 40 kg NH3 cow year , in good agreement with the N mass balance. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Zhang et al., 2005 Country of work Denmark Livestock type Dairy cows Experiment Comparison of commercial buildings Treatments Nine freestall dairy cattle buildings with different floors and manure- handling systems. NH3 measurement A 20 m long measurement section was chosen as representative of the animal-occupied part of each building. Air temperatures and gas concentrations were determined in five points in the measurement section and one point outside as reference about 5m from a side wall, over 3-5 days N excretion NA Effect of temperature Annual variation reported Area per animal NA Ventilation Natural Results The smallest NH3 emission was found for buildings with solid floors with a smooth surface, scraper and drain. For buildings with slatted floors, manure treatment with acid, scraper on the slatted floor surface or channel scraper

are potential alternative methods for reduction of NH3 emissions.

5 The solid floor in building 2 sloped towards a liquid drain ensuring that most of the urine drained off quickly. Large portions of the floor dried

quickly at high room temperatures, resulting in relatively low level of NH3 emission compared with building 1. Buildings 3 and 4 had floors made from new pre-manufactured concrete elements. Drain and scraper were applied in both buildings. Emissions were small and did not increase much with temperature.

Buildings 5 and 6 had slatted floors above slurry channels: one with scraper in the channel and the other with back flushing. Ammonia emissions at 8–9 °C were nearly the same for the two buildings. However, the emission increased much faster with temperature in building 6 than in building 5. Conclusion(s) The results indicate that a solid floor with a smooth surface, scraper and drain may reduce the NH3 emission from free-stall dairy cattle buildings. For buildings with slatted floors, manure treatment with acid, scraper on the slatted floor surface or channel scraper are potential alternative methods for

reduction of NH3 emission.

The minor temperature effect found in building 5 with the channel scraper manure removal system makes it preferable.

In all cases, NH3 emissions increased with increasing temperature, but the increase was highly dependant on floor type and manure system. Relevance to UK High for conclusions. But some buildings include quite large numbers of

calves and not possible to allocate NH3 emissions between the two.

New UK work Authors(s) Defra project AC0102, Burton et al., 2008 Country of work UK Livestock type Appears to be fattening beef cattle but not stated in report and still awaiting confirmation from the authors Experiment NA Treatments Measurements from commercial buildings

NH3 measurement Ferm tubes N excretion NA Effect of temperature None reported - temperature not measured. Building A, measured Mar-Nov (including June and July when partially occupied). Building B, measured Mar-Nov (including June and July when fully occupied). June and July emissions much greater. Building D, measured Nov-Apr - no relation with temperature. Area per animal NA Ventilation Natural

Results Mean emission 16 g NH3-N per LU/d Conclusion(s) Assuming these are fattening beef cattle, and converting the reported emissions to %TAN on the basis of average N excretion for this class of cattle used in NARSES, emissions are 19.4% of TAN, very similar to the value currently used (22.9%). [Personal communication from N Wyke indicated that the cattle were totally confined. It is possible that exceptionally, they might have been moved out into the yard or even to pasture to allow the building to be used for other activities. Relevance to UK Very high

Authors(s) Camp et al. (undated) Country of work UK Livestock type Beef cattle Experiment Effect of floor area on emissions from straw bedding Treatments 6, 7, 9 and 12 m2/ animal

6 NH3 measurement Bubblers N excretion Yes Effect of temperature Not reported Area per animal 6, 7, 9 and 12 m2/ animal Ventilation Natural Results 2.5% of N excreted. Low protein diet so assuming only 50% TAN = 5.0% TAN a much smaller emission than currently estimated by NARSES Conclusion(s) There were no significant differences among treatments, but there was some

evidence of decreasing NH3 emission per animal with increasing stocking density. Relevance to UK Very high

Table 2 summarizes key aspects of the methodology used in studies on which the current NARSES calculations are based, referred to by their Defra project number unless a peer-reviewed papers was produced, and in those studies from outside the UK that were summarized in Table 1.

Table 2. Buildings housing cattle, summary of key aspects of methodology used in studies on which the current NARSES calculations are based and in studies from outside the UK summarized in Table 1 Paper Continuous Long- Effects Other Area measurement term? Diurnal Seasonal emissions Sample Animal of ventilation rate and concentration? UK, dairy WA0653 No, 19 * 2 d 5 m No Yes All 8 Dore et al., 2004 No, 6* 1 d No No Nov-Mar All NA AM0102 No, No No Aug-Apr All NA WA0722 (FYM) No, 8 * 3 d No No Dec-Mar All 8 AM0103 (FYM) No, 2*1, 8*2 d No No Oct-Jan All NA Beef WA0632 (slurry) No, 49 d Yes Yes Oct-Apr All 6 WA0632 (FYM) No, 49 d Yes Yes Oct-Apr All 9 AM0103 (FYM) Yes No Oct-Apr All AC0102 (FYM) No, 8d No No 10 m All NA Camp et al. No, 2 * 5 *4 Yes No 6-12

Outside UK - dairy

Ngwabie et al., 2011 Yes 70 d Yes Feb-May *N2O, CH4 All NA Fiedler/Muller, 2011 Yes 4 wks Yes Jul-Aug *N2O, CH4 All 9 & 10 Pereira et al., 2010 No (8 meas.) 12 m No Yes All 8 Schrade et al., 2010 No, 3 d/season 6 d Yes Yes All 11.5

Ngwabie et al., 2009 No 97 d Yes Dec-May *N2O, CH4 All 10 Mukthar, 2009 No No No Win/Sum No NA Teye, Hataula, 2008 Yes 3 m Yes Mar-Jun All NA Rumburg et al., 2008 Yes 12 m No Yes All 14

Zhang et al., 2005 No, 3-5 d No Yes No N2O, CH4 No NA *not different to outdoor concentration

2.1.1. Ammonia emissions If we use data from other countries we need to ensure measurements were made at the appropriate seasons/temperature range as emissions clearly increase with temperature.

7 In their discussion Pereira et al., (2011) pointed out that there are other considerations to take into account when selecting floor type for a cattle house, including animal health and welfare, slurry removal management and cost. Compared with a solid floor, a slatted floor has the following characteristics:

1. A potential increase in cattle foot problems. 2. Animals tend to remain cleaner. 3. Improved slurry removal via an under floor collecting pit or channel below the slats, although emissions will occur from this channel. 4. More expensive.

However, a cattle house with a solid floor needs cleaning more frequently and the presence of excessive moisture on the floor could enhance foot diseases and the development of mastitis. They concluded that, from the animal health and welfare point of view, it may be preferable to use a solid floor than a slatted floor in cattle houses. However, the points they made could also be interpreted as suggesting it would be better to adopt slatted floors.

They also stated that an alternative to both floor designs may be the use of a central gutter in a double-sloped solid floor that reduces NH3 emissions by c. 50% relative to a slatted floor (Braam et al., 1997). This is less expensive than a slatted floor and addresses the animal health and welfare concerns.

Pereira et al., (2011) also reported no significant differences in cumulative N emissions were observed until 6-h after deposition of the excreta on the two floors. This suggests that if solid floors are cleaned at intervals of < 6h emissions will be no greater than would occur from slatted floors.

2.1.2. Greenhouse gas emissions Of the studies that measured GHG emissions from cattle buildings, only Zhang et al. (2005) reported emissions greater than background. Emissions of N2O were reported to be small except for except for a building with slatted floor, circulation and no acid added to the slurry. The authors made no further comment. Emissions of CH4 will be predominantly from enteric fermentation and hence little affected by housing design and management.

2.2. Ammonia emissions from cattle manure stores

Table 3 below gives a summary of each paper reviewed. Table 4 reports the approach of each paper according to the criteria of Jungbluth et al. (2008). As well as noting the country of work, the following information is recorded:

 Livestock type, the type of livestock which produced the stored manure.  Experiment, whether the study was a comparison of abatement techniques or an exercise to measure emissions from commercial stores.  Treatments, any abatement measures evaluated.

 NH3 measurement, technique used to measure NH3 and any other gases reported.

8  N input, whether the N input to the store was reported.

 Effect of temperature, effect of temperature on NH3 emissions.  Area of store, surface area the manure store.  Results, a brief summary of the findings.  Conclusion(s), the key conclusions.  Relevance to UK, whether the results might also be applicable to UK livestock production and hence used to fill gaps in NARSES.

Table 3. Summary of published work reporting emissions of ammonia from cattle manure stores Authors(s) Harper, 2009 Country of work US Livestock type Dairy cattle Treatments Lagoon Experiment Monitoring NH3 measurement bLS dispersion model N input NA Effect of temperature Increase with temperature Area of store 14,000 and 16,000 m2 Results The emission rates for lagoons during autumn were much less than during summer and not measurable in winter. Farm 1: summer 54, autumn 20; Farm 2: summer 103, autumn 71 kg NH3/day. Conclusion(s) Difficult to make any as the paper does not give an estimate of N entering the lagoons, nor of N excretion. An approximation suggests autumn emissions are c. 10% of TAN, summer c. 22%. The authors acknowledge their results are considerably smaller than those of other workers. Relevance to UK Limited due to difficulties in interpreting the data

Authors(s) Rumberg et al., 2008 Country of work US Livestock type Dairy Experiment Lagoon was sampled for N spp. Treatments Anaerobic diary lagoon NH3 measurement Differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS), tracer ratio flux experiments and the testing of two mechanistic emission models. N input Yes Area of store Yes -2 -1 Results Measured NH3 fluxes from the tracer experiments ranged from 0.11 gm h at an air temperature of 11 °C to 0.54 gm-2 h-1 at an air temperature of 27 °C. -1 -1 Annual emissions were 55 kg NH3 cow yr from all lagoons, estimated excretion is 180 kgNcow-1 yr-1.

Using literature lagoon design criteria to estimate lagoon size resulted in an underestimation of emissions of -29%.

An estimate of the amount of N entering the store is available from a sister

publication and so it is possible to make a good estimate of NH3 emissions as % TAN.

NH3 emissions well correlated with lagoon NH4-N concentration NH4-N concentration 535 mg/L 176 cows - 24% of N excreted Lagoon N input - 30,900 kg Lagoon emissions - 7900 kg Assume 50% TAN Gives an emission of 51%, very similar to UK value.

9 Conclusion(s) Around half of the TAN entering a lagoon may be lost as NH3 Relevance to UK Year long measurements made, for a total of 3 years, at an average temperature of 11°C, so same as average temperature in England

Authors(s) Amon et al., 2006 Country of work Austria Livestock type Dairy slurry Experiment Approximately 10 m3 of differently treated slurry were stored in pilot scale slurry tanks. Emissions were measured for c. 80 days. Treatments The influence of the manure treatment options ‘‘no treatment’’, ‘‘slurry separation’’, ‘‘anaerobic digestion’’, ‘‘slurry aeration’’ and ‘‘straw cover’’ on the emission level was investigated on stores with a wood cover - apart from the straw cover store. [BA 190811 - Yes. The wooden lids were in place during the measurements. The treatment "straw cover" had a layer of chopped straw on the slurry surface and no wooden lid.] NH3 measurement Emissions of NH3, N2O and CH4 were quantified by moving a large open dynamic chamber over a slurry tank and collecting the emissions. Due to variability in emissions it was necessary to have frequent sampling. Emissions of each variant were measured at least twice a week for several hours N excretion Manure analysis and store volumes reported so N and TAN into store could be calculated Area of store Pilot scale stores, 4.9 m2 Results Expressing results as % of control: Separation - NH3 800, GHG 62; Digestion - NH3 24, GHG 41; Straw cover - NH3 124, GHG 127; Aeration - NH3 509, GHG 57. Conclusion(s) Anaerobic digestion was a very effective means to reduce GHG emissions Relevance to UK Moderate

Authors(s) Balsari et al., 2007 Country of work Italy, in an area of 12°C average annual temperature Livestock type Cattle and pig slurry and cattle FYM Experiment Cattle slurry, 480 m3, pig slurry 314 m3 slurry storage volume Treatments Monitoring

NH3 measurement Emissions were measured from pig and cattle slurry storage by means of the funnel technique on the slurry surface and floating wind tunnels. Emissions from FYM heaps were quantified by the large open dynamic chamber technique. N inputs Slurry analysis: Pig, 3.5 kg/t N, 1.2 kg/t TAN (34% TAN) Cattle, 4.0, 1.15 kg/t TAN (29% TAN) FYM, 3.8 kg/t N, 0.3 kg/t TAN (8% TAN), 6.5 kg/t N, 0.3 kg/t TAN (5% TAN) 200 kg FYM trial 1, 300 kg FYM trial 2 Surface area Cattle slurry, 120 m2. Pig slurry, 78.6 m2 -2 -1 Results Emissions from cattle slurry ranged from 1 to 1.6 g [NH3]m day with slurry temperatures of 4.7 and 24.3 °C, respectively, whereas emissions from pig slurry ranged from 0.8 to 2.5 g m-2 day-1 with slurry temperatures of 6.0 and 25.5 °C, respectively. Winter NH3 emission from slurry storage was 30–60% of summer emission.

-2 -1 FYM heaps showed average emissions of 3.4 g[NH3] m day , with losses ranging from approximately 4.4% to 7.4% of the total Kjeldahl nitrogen

(TKN) content. Emissions of NH3 from animal waste storage correlated with slurry temperature and were dependent on the measuring method used. Conclusion(s) Results obtained by the wind tunnel were considered to be the most representative of losses under real environmental conditions and could be used for an investigation of the national inventory. Relevance to UK Moderate since based on small scale stores

10 Authors(s) Vaddella et al., 2008 Country of work US Livestock type Cattle

Experiment Comparison of NH3 emissions following separation of urine and faeces post collection during storage compared with a conventional scrape manure handling method where urine and faeces are comingled. Treatments Laboratory scale studies were conducted to evaluate NH3 emissions from simulated post-collection storage of three waste streams: (i) idealistically separated faeces and urine (no contact between urine and faeces), (ii) realistically separated urine and faeces (limited contact of urine and faeces), and (iii) conventionally scraped manure (control).

NH3 measurement Acid traps N input NA Area per animal NA Ventilation NA

Results NH3 loss, in descending order, was: aggregate of realistically separated waste streams (3375.9 ± 54.8 mg); aggregate of idealistically separated urine and faeces (3047.0 ± 738.0 mg); scraped manure (2034.0 ± 106.5 mg), respectively. Conclusion(s) On the basis of these results, the extra effort of separating the waste streams would not enhance mitigation of NH3 losses from post-collection storage of the separated waste streams compared to the conventional scrape manure collection system. Relevance to UK Moderate

Table 4 summarizes key aspects of the methodology used in studies on which the current NARSES calculations are based, referred to by their Defra project number unless a peer-reviewed papers was produced, and in those studies from outside the UK that were summarized in Table 3.

Table 4. Cattle manure stores, summary of key aspects of methodology Paper Continuous Long- Effects Other Area (m2) measurement term? Diurnal Seasonal emissions Sample Store of ventilation rate and concentration UK, dairy WA0625, tank No No No Fb, My, Jul N2O, CH4 0.625 WA0625, covered No No No Fb, My, Jul N2O, CH4 0.625 OC0953, tank Yes, 6d No No Jun Down 441 AM0102, lagoon No Yes No Jan - Oct Down WA0714, Exptl Yes Yes No 12 m All WA0714, Farm No No No Jan, Mar Box WA0717, lagoon No Yes No Oct - May WA0717, w wall No Yes No Oct - May All

UK, beef WA0632, tank Yes Yes No Nov-Mar Down WA0632, FYM Yes Yes No Nov-Mar Down WA0716 Yes Yes No 12 m All

Outside UK - dairy Slurry Harper, 2009 No, 30-40d No No Au, wi, su All Rumberg et al., 2008 Yes Yes No 2 years All

11 Balsari et al., 2007 No, 4 * 6d No No F, M, Jl, O Chamb Amon et al., 2006 Yes Yes No 80 d N2O, CH4 All

FYM Balsari et al., 2007 No, 2 * 6d No No Aut, win Chamb *not different to outdoor concentration

WA0625 NH3 emissions, average reduction 70% for pig slurry and 78% for cattle slurry, could be increased to 95% by greatest sealing.

N2O emissions reduced by 90% by covering CH4 could be doubled by covering

2.2.1 Ammonia emissions The measurements reported by Rumberg et al. (2008) for cattle slurry in lagoons, at 51% of TAN, were similar to those used in NARSES. While those reported by Balsari et al. (2007) for cattle slurry in an above-ground concrete tank (11% of TAN) were also similar to that used in NARSES. The results reported by Amon et al. (2006) were for covered storage. The large emissions reported by Balsari et al. (2007) for FYM were attributed to daily addition of fresh manure. In undisturbed heaps NH3 emission decrease with time (after 2–3 weeks).

2.2.2 Greenhouse gas emissions Only Amon et al. (2006) reported GHG emissions. Straw covering increased total GHG emissions by *2-3 compared with separation, aeration or digestion.

2.3. Ammonia emissions from buildings housing pigs

Table 5 below gives a summary of each paper reviewed. Table 6 reports the approach of each paper according to the criteria of Jungbluth et al. (2008).

Table 5. Summary of published work reporting emissions of ammonia from buildings housing pigs Authors(s) Wang et al., 2011 Country of work China Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment Two identical climate rooms Treatments Fully slatted (plastic) vs. deep litter ('fermentation'). Litter, sawdust/rice hulls. Litter fermented. In slurry system manure removed twice daily

NH3 measurements Continuous sensors over 15 days N excretion No data on diet Area per animal 3 m2 among two 37 kg pigs Ventilation Mechanical Results No difference in weight gain, feed conversion, temperature relative humidity or ventilation rate among treatments. -1 -1 Average NH3 emission from the slatted floor was 8.82 g d pig , and 2.16 g d-1 pig-1 from the deep litter room (p < 0.001). Emissions increased from the

1st to the 2nd period by about 4.9 times for NH3 with a fully slatted floor, but only 1.1 times using fermented deep litter. Whatever the floor type, NH3 emissions increased from the beginning to the end of the fattening periods by about 5 times (Philippe et al., 2007a).

Conclusion(s) The four parameters that explained most of the variability of the NH3 emissions were: floor type; pig weight; outdoor temperature; ventilation rate. Relevance to UK Very little as experiment was a test of an approach (fermented deep litter) developed for use in cold climates and unlikely to be adopted in UK

12 Authors(s) Ogawa et al., 2011 Country of work Japan Livestock type Pigs Experiment Prototype spray tower Treatments Air cleaning system, spray tower using microbial water purification unit NH3 measurements Inlet and outlet concentrations and airflow rate measured on-line N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation NR Results The spray tower reduced NH3 emissions by 55-95%. The NH3 reduction efficiency was improved by increasing the air retention time, which varied from 0.7 to 1.6 s. Conclusion(s) Consistent with other reports which indicate mean abatements of 80 (±17), 69 (±16) and 85 (±15) % of NH3 emissions Relevance to UK Relevant since such an approach could be adopted in UK. Lack of data on N excretion etc., not a limitation since the study was investigation of abatement by scrubbing exhaust.

Authors(s) Phillipe et al., 2011a Country of work NA Livestock type Pigs Experiment Review Treatments NA NH3 measurement NA N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation NA Results See text in main report Conclusion(s) See text in main report Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Phillipe et al., 2011b Country of work Belgium Livestock type Gestating sows Experiment Experimental facility - concrete slatted floor or deep litter Treatments Floor type

NH3 measurement 3 times (weeks 2, 5 and 8 of stay) during 6 consecutive days by infra red photoacoustic detection.

N excretion Yes, 43.9 g/sow/d slurry, 44.5 g/sow/d litter. NH3-N emissions 34.2% slurry, 24.1% litter Area per animal Same for both systems - 2.5 m2 per sow Ventilation Mechanical Results Sow performance (body weight gain, backfat thickness, number and weight of piglets) was not significantly affected by floor type. With sows kept on slatted

floor, gaseous emissions were significantly greater for NH3 (12.77 vs. 9.05 g −1 −1 −1 −1 d sow ; P < 0.001) and CH4 (10.12 vs. 9.20 g d sow ; P < 0.01), and −1 −1 significantly less for N2O (0.47 vs. 2.27 g d sow ; P < 0.001), CO2 −1 −1 equivalents (0.44 vs. 0.94 kg d sow ; P < 0.001) and CO2 (2.41 vs. 2.83 kg d−1 sow−1; P < 0.001) compared with sows housed on straw-based deep litter.

Conclusion(s) Deep litter: less NH3 (and CH4) but more N2O. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Hamelin et al., 2010 Country of work Canada Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment 3 x 2 x 2 factorial Treatments Three design factors:  The cross-section shape of the slat (S1: control trapezoidal shape; S2: T shape; S3: curved shape).

13  The presence (N1) or absence (N0) of a notch along the slat.  The presence (E1) or absence (E0) of a smooth epoxy coating applied to the slat sides and bottom surfaces. NH3 measurement Emission chamber and bubblers N excretion Solution of urea and urease Area per animal NA Ventilation NA Results The only factor that significantly reduced NH3 emissions from the fouled slat surfaces was the presence of a notch (P < 0.10) by between 23 and 42%. a curved surface does not help to diminish the NH3 emission potential from the fouled concrete slat surfaces. Conclusion(s) Notches can reduce NH3 emissions Relevance to UK A test of slat design and not measurement of emissions from buildings. Limited by emissions being only 0.1% of TAN applied which casts doubt on wider applicability of results

Authors(s) Dekock et al., 2009 Country of work Belgium Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment Validation of intermittent measurements. In this study, NH3 emissions were modelled in a more precise, stepwise manner such that model parameters were calculated over shorter time periods, such as 70 days. Treatments The method of ‘‘intermittent measurements’’ models the relationship between NH3 emission and easily measurable variables such as in- and outdoor temperatures, ventilation rate and weight of the animals. NH3 measurement The accuracy of the method was obtained by evaluating the difference between the NH3 emission calculated from the model with the measured total NH3 emission, sampled every 12 min over a whole fattening period. NOx analyser Rotronic hygrome Fancom FMS N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation Mechanical, commercial buildings. 1. Slatted floor (60%) with domed middle. 2. Fully slatted Results With 4 measuring days per fattening period, a maximum model error of less than 10% was achieved for all datasets; while previous method with fixed model parameters throughout the year on the new validation datasets resulted sometimes in errors above 25%. Conclusion(s) This resulted in an optimised procedure in which, for fattening pigs, each fattening period was modelled in two parts: the first part from day 1 to day 70 and the second part from day 70 to the end of the fattening period. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Cabaraux et al., 2009 Country of work Belgium Livestock type Weaners Experiment Experimental facility Treatments Slurry vs. litter: straw or sawdust

NH3 measurement 3 times (at c. 1 week intervals) over 6 consecutive days (45% of time) by infra red photoacoustic detection. N excretion NA [Assume 3.8 kg] Slat = 4.6%; Straw = 8.4%; Woodshavings = 7.5% TAN

N2O = Slat = ND; Straw = 0.4%; Woodshavings = 4.4% TAN Area per animal Slatted system, 0.31 m2 pig-1; litter system, 0.54 m2 pig-1 Ventilation Mechanical Results Housing pigs on straw deep litter produced c. 100% more NH3 than on a -1 -1 -1 -1 slatted floor (0.61 g NH3-N d pig vs. 0.31 g NH3-N d pig ; P < 0.05). Differences in CO2, H2O and CH4 emissions were not significant between

14 systems. Housing pigs on sawdust deep litter produced more NH3 (+52%; 0.55 g NH3- -1 -1 -1 -1 N d pig vs. 0.36 g NH3-N d pig ; P < 0.01) but also more CO2 (+25%; 427 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 g d pig vs. 341 g d pig ; P < 0.001) and H2O (+65%; 981 g d pig vs. -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 593 g d pig ; P < 0.001) and less CH4 (-40%; 0.52 g d pig vs. 0.86 g d -1 pig ; P < 0.001) than on a slatted floor. Practically no N2O emission was observed from rooms with slatted floor while the N2O emissions were 0.03 -1 -1 and 0.32 g N2O-N d pig for the straw and sawdust deep litter respectively. Conclusion(s) Small emissions from slurry system may be due to the use of plastic slats. Emissions from rearing of weaned pig seem less with fully slatted plastic floor system than with deep litter systems. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Blanes-Vidal et al., 2008 Country of work Denmark Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment See below Treatments Evaluation of different factors: animal activity, outdoor temperature, ventilation flow, number of heat production units, time of day and type of rooting material provided to the

animals as environmental enrichment; on NH3, CH4 and N2O emissions. 1/3 slatted floor. 37d

NH3 measurement Ambient measurements comprised temperature (12 measurements per hour) and concentrations of NH3, CH4 and N2O (six measurements per hour, each), in incoming and outgoing air. Gas concentrations were measured by an infrared photoacoustic multi-gas analyzer N excretion NA Area per animal 1 m2 Ventilation Mechanical Results The measured N2O concentration was generally close to the instrument detection limit. Changing the rooting material, from maize silage to straw, increased NH3 emissions, and decreased CH4 emissions. Conclusion(s) The three parameters that explained most of the variability of the NH3 and CH4 emissions from the pig building were rooting material, animal activity, and ventilation flow. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Blunden et al., 2008 Country of work USA Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment Monitoring Treatments Measurements on commercial farm. Pit recharge after 1 week NH3 measurement For 1 week in each of 4 seasons N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation Mechanical Results NH3-N emission rates were greatest in winter and spring (33.6±21.9 and 30.6±11.1 g N day-1AU-1, where 1AU (animal unit) = 500 kg) and least during summer and autumn (24.3±12.4 and 11.8±7.4 g N day-1 AU-1)

Conclusion(s) Ammonia emission rate correlated better with ventilation rate than with NH3 concentration Relevance to UK Small

Authors(s) Kim et al., 2008 Country of work Korea Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment 5 pig housing types with 30 sites visited for each type Treatments The three types of manure removal systems found in Korean pig buildings were (a) manure removal system by scraper, (b) a deep-litter bed system and

15 (c) a deep-pit manure system. The manure removal system by scraper, called the Haglando system (Groenestein, 1993), consists of a shallow manure pit with scrapers under a fully slatted floor. The floor of the pit has a smooth finish and is covered with an epoxy coating, allowing the manure to be completely removed from the pig building several times a day. The deep-litter bed system is a housing system where pigs are kept on a 40 cm-thick layer of a mixture of manure and litter composed of sawdust, straw or woodshavings. The manure mixes with the litter, is fermented in the bed, dries up during the pigs’ growing period, and is cleaned out once a month. This system has an advantage in reducing the labour in manure handling and rapid manure drying, while its disadvantage is that it generates a lot of dust, bioaerosols, and parasites. Both nitrification and denitrification occur in this + system, which can prevent the emission of NH3 by producing N2 from NH4 instead of NH3. When conditions for nitrification and denitrification are suboptimal, NO and N2O, both volatile intermediates, can be emitted (Betlach and Tiedje, 1981; Lipshcultz et al., 1981, cited in Kim et al., 2008). The deep-pit manure system, which has become popular in Korea in recent years, is composed of a deep manure pit under a fully or partially slatted floor. Manure stored in the pit for long periods is removed by pulling the pit plug, and letting the manure drain into a storage compartment located outside the pig building.

NH3 measurements Emission rates of NH3 and H2S were estimated by multiplying the average concentration mg/m3 measured near the air outlet by the mean ventilation rate m3/h and expressed either on a per pig (75 kg liveweight) mg/h/pig or per area mg/h/m2 basis. N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation Naturally- and mechanically ventilated systems Results Regardless of the type of manure collection system, NH3 concentrations in mechanically ventilated pig building were significantly greater than those in naturally ventilated pig buildings (P < 0:05).

Conclusion(s) Ammonia and H2S concentrations and emissions were greater in the pig buildings managed with deep-pit manure systems with slats and mechanical ventilation than in other housing types. But there were no significant differences in NH3 and H2S emissions among the pig housing types except in the naturally ventilated pig building with a deep-litter bed system, Relevance to UK Limited as UK litter systems are different to that described here.

Authors(s) Phillipe et al., 2007 Country of work Belgium Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment Experimental rooms Treatments Slurry vs. straw system NH3 meas Infra-red photoacoustic detection N excretion NA Area per animal 0.8 and 1.2 m2 for slatted and solid floor respectively Ventilation Mechanical Results Ammonia and N2O emissions were doubled by finishing pigs on straw rather than slurry Conclusion(s) Although rearing pigs on straw generally has a good brand image for the consumer, this rearing system produces more pollutant gases than keeping pigs on slatted floors. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Amon et al., 2007 Country of work Austria Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment Straw flow system, with and without daily removal of slurry

16 Treatments In each compartment, excreta were collected in a dung channel in the rear of the pen. In two compartments the dung channel was additionally equipped with a scraper that was operated twice a day and moved the slurry to an outside store (=“daily manure removal system”). The compartment without an additional scraper is referred to as “dung channel system” below. NH3 measurements Gas concentrations in the exhaust air, and in the inlet air outside the building, were measured with high resolution FTIR spectrometry. N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation Mechanical

Results Emissions of NH3 during housing were 2.10 and 1.90 kg NH3 per pig place per year without and with daily manure removal (not sig). The corresponding

N2O emissions were 39.9 and 24.5 g N2O per pig place per year, and CH4 were 1.24 and 0.54 kg CH4. Emissions of NH3, N2O, CH4 and of total greenhouse gases, from the straw flow system were less than literature reference values for forced ventilated fully slatted floor systems. Conclusion(s) Daily removal of the manure to an outside store reduced emissions from the pig house. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Hayes et al., 2006 Country of work Ireland Livestock type Dry sows, farrowing sows, first stage weaners, second stage weaners and finishers Experiment Monitoring commercial buildings Treatments Measurements taken from 4 integrated units over 2 years Unit 1, sows on partially slatted floor, finishers on fully slatted floor Unit 2, sows on partially slatted floor, finishers on fully slatted floor Unit 3, sows on partially slatted floor, finishers on fully slatted floor Unit 4, sows on partially slatted floor, finishers on fully slatted floor NH3 measurements iTX Multi-gas monitor fitted with a biased sensor. The biased sensor has a measurement range of 0–999 ppm, in 1 ppm increments. The sensor was set to take readings every 5 minutes over the duration of its placement within each house type; these data were logged. The ammonia measurements were taken at random locations within the house close to the exhaust outlets of the

ventilation system or from within the exhaust stacks. No ambient NH3 concentrations measured so assumed to be 0. N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation Units 1, 2 and 4, mechanical; Unit 3, ACNV Results Mean NH3 emissions (from Units 2 and 3 only) were 12.1, 17.1, 1.4, 2.9 and 10.0 g d-1 animal-1 for dry sows, farrowing sows, first stage weaners, second stage weaners and finishers, respectively. Suggestion that ACNV greatly increased odour emissions due to greater ventilation rates Conclusion(s) Measured emissions comparable to those reported in the literature. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Fabbri et al., 2002 Country of work Italy Livestock type Heavy pigs Experiment Fully and part slatted floors Treatments 80-166 kg

NH3 measurement Bruel&Kjaer analyser model 1302 N excretion NA Area per animal 1.3 m2 Ventilation Mechanical Results Fully slatted floor, 1.93 kg/hd/year Part slatted floor, 1.65 kg/hd/year

17 Conclusion(s) Partially slatted flooring reduces emissions by 16% Relevance to UK Limited as pigs not usually raised to 160 kg

New UK work Authors(s) AC0102 (Burton et al., 2008) Country of work UK Livestock type Pigs

Experiment Measurement of NH3 emissions from commercial buildings Treatments NA

NH3 measurement Ferm tubes N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation Natural

Results Mean 36 kg NH3-N/LU/d Conclusion(s) Expressed as %TAN, based on estimates of N excretion used in NARSES for the measurement years, the average emission (23.1%) is very similar to that currently used in NARSES (22.4%) Relevance to UK Very high

2.3.1 Ammonia emissions Ammonia emissions from buildings housing pigs have recently been reviewed by Phillipe et al. (2011a). Ammonia emissions are clearly correlated with excretory/ lying behaviour, ambient temperature and animal density Usually, pigs define separate areas for feeding, lying and excreting purposes, if the environment permits. Thus, pigs prefer to lie in warmer areas with comfortable solid floor and excrete in the coolest part of the pen on slatted floor (Hacker et al., 1994). But under hot conditions, pigs tend to foul the solid area in an attempt to create a wallow to cool themselves. The installation of a sprinkler to cool the animals or maintaining an adequate animal density could prevent increasing of NH3 emissions from partly slatted floor, under particular conditions. Moreover, designing housing conditions that respect the natural excretory/lying behaviour of the pig may contribute to limited emissions. In order to limit the NH3 emissions, the slatted floor would be preferably located at the back of the pen with open pen partition in this area.

Enlarging the gap between slats, from 2 to 30 mm, decreases emission by more than 50% (Phillipe et al., 2011a). European legislation (Directive 2008/120/EC) fixes the maximum opening widths and the minimum slat width for concrete slatted floors. For example, references for fattening pigs are 18 and 80 mm, respectively.

Table 6 summarizes key aspects of the methodology used in studies on which the current NARSES calculations are based, referred to by their Defra project number unless a peer-reviewed papers was produced, and in those studies from outside the UK that were summarized in Table 5.

Table 6. Buildings housing pigs, summary of key aspects of methodology Paper Continuous Long- Effects Other Area measurement term? Diurnal Seasonal emissions Sample Pig m2 of ventilation rate and concentration UK Finishing pigs Peirson, 1995 No No No No NA NA Groot K et al., 1998 Hourly, 1 d No No Yes All 18 Demmers et al., 1999 Yes, 5 weeks No Yes No, Aut All NA WA0720 Yes Yes Yes Yes All

Sows Dore et al., 2004 No, 6* 1 d No No Aug-Sep All NA

New work Finishing pigs AC0102 (FYM) No, 8d No No 10 m All

Outside UK Finishing pigs Wang et al., 2011 Yes, 15 d No Yes Dec-Jan All 1.5 Ogawa et al., 2011 Yes, 10 d No Yes Nov All Dekock et al., 2009 Yes, 86-132 d Yes 3-4 m All Blanes et al., 2008 Yes No No No N2O, CH4 All 1.0 Blunden et al., 2008 Yes, 1 No Yes Yes H2S All wk./seas

Kim et al., 2008 No, No No Sp, au H2S All Phillipe et al., 2007 Yes, 4 * 6 No No No N2O, CH4 All 0.8/1.2 Amon et al., 2007 Yes, Yes No Jul-Mar N2O, CH4 All Hayes et al., 2006 Yes, No No All Fabbri et al., 2002 Not clear Yes Yes Jan All 1.3

Gestating sows Phillipe et al., 2011 No, 3 * 6 d No No No N2O, CH4 All 2.5

Weaners

Cabaraux et al., 2009 Yes, 3 * 6d No No No N2O, CH4 All 0.3-0.5 *not different to outdoor concentration

2.4. Ammonia emissions from pig manure stores

Table 3 below gives a summary of each paper reviewed. Table 4 reports the approach of each paper according to the criteria of Jungbluth et al. (2008).

Table 7. Summary of published work reporting emissions of ammonia from pig manure stores Authors(s) Aneja et al., 2008 Country of work US Livestock type Pigs Experiment Assessment of manure treatment system Treatments Lagoon. Super Soils removes N by denitrification and nitrification. ET, solids flocculated and supernatant fluid filtered and aerated.

NH3 measurement A dynamic flow-through chamber. 2-week periods in 2 seasons N into store All emissions were normalized by N-excretion rates

Results Super Soils reduced NH3 emissions by 94.7% for the warm season and 99.0% for the cool season. Environmental Technologies had slightly larger reductions of 99.4% and 99.98% for the cool and warm season, respectively. However, default emissions were modelled, not measured Conclusion(s) Difficult to draw any as back calculation of the unabated emissions produce 3 estimates of more than the TAN excreted. This is unlikely since a substantial amount of TAN, c. 25% will have been emitted from the building, while one estimate of unabated emissions was an order of magnitude greater than TAN excreted. Recalculating emissions as % TAN, making an adjustment for likely housing losses, confirms the uncertainty of these results. Relevance to UK None, as such systems are not likely to find favour in the UK and the results

19 are contestable

Authors(s) Loyon et al., 2007 Country of work France Livestock type Farrowing sows Experiment Annual emissions were estimated for four slurry management schemes (three involving biological treatment with the fourth based on traditional storage/spreading) for a farrowing-fattening farm with 200 sows. 6 month storage. Treatments Biological aerobic treatment (using an intermittent aeration). Control was an unstirred reception pit. NH3 measurement Dynamic rectangular polyvinyl chloride (PVC) open bottom chamber (height 0.4 m, width 0.4m and length 0.6 m) placed on the liquid surface. N into store Yes

Results The results show a reduction of 30–52% for NH3 when the biological plant included mechanical separation and was 68% when there was no separation.

Greenhouse gases (CH4 and N2O) were reduced by about 55% whatever the composition of the biological treatment plant.

N2O, 0.03% TAN with surface aerator, 1.4% with fine bubble diffuser. Conclusion(s) Ammonia emissions of 10-16% TAN from storage of raw slurry. Relevance to UK Moderate

Authors(s) Amon et al., 2007 Country of work Austria Livestock type Finishing pigs Experiment Slurry was stored in pilot scale stores with or without a solid cover. Stores were 2.5 m diameter, 2.5 m deep. 10 m3 slurry in tank Treatments Straw flow system, with and without daily removal of slurry

NH3 measurement Large open dynamic chamber. N into store Yes

Results The solid cover reduced NH3 and GHG emissions by 30 and 50%, respectively. During cold climatic conditions stored pig manure emitted less

NH3 and greenhouse gases than when stored under warm climatic conditions. Conclusion(s) Recommend the use of separate emission factors for slurry storage in the colder and warmer periods in the national emission inventory, and the use of covers on pig slurry stores. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Portejoie et al., 2003 Country of work France Livestock type Pigs Experiment Pilot scale Treatments Evaluation of the effects of different covers (oil, plastic film, perforated polystyrene float, peat and zeolites) on NH3 emissions during slurry storage NH3 measurements Photo-acoustic gas monitor N into store Analysis, (Table 1), 5 kg slurry Results Perforated floating cover reduced emissions by 75%, floating plastic film (1mm) 99% Conclusion(s) The potential advantage of covered storage was maintained subsequent to spreading even if NH3 losses following surface application were greater from covered than uncovered slurry. Relevance to UK High

Table 8 summarizes key aspects of the methodology used in studies on which the current NARSES calculations are based, referred to by their Defra project number unless a peer-reviewed papers was produced, and in those studies from outside the UK that were summarized in Table 7.

Table 8. Pig manure stores, summary of key aspects of methodology 20 Paper Continuous Long- Effects Other Area measurement term? Diurnal Seasonal emissions Sample Store of ventilation rate and concentration? UK,

WA0625, tank No No No Dec, May N2O, CH4 0.625 WA0625, covered No No No Dec, May N2O, CH4 0.625 WA0632, tank Yes Yes No 12 m Down OC0953, lagoon Yes, 6 d No No Jul-Sep Down 610 AM0102, lagoon No Yes No Dec - Oct Down

UK, WA0632, FYM Yes Yes No 12 m Down AM0102, FYM No Yes No Feb - Oct Down

Outside UK - slurry

Balsari et al., 2007 No, 4 * 6d No No J, M, Jn, S Chamb Amon et al., 2006 Yes 12 m Loyon et al., 2007 Modelled NA NA NA N2O, CH4 Chamb

FYM Amon et al., 2006 Yes 12 m Chamb

2.5. Ammonia emissions from buildings housing laying hens and layer manure stores

Table 9 below gives a summary of each paper reviewed. Table 11 reports the approach of each paper, for both layers and broilers, according to the criteria of Jungbluth et al. (2008).

Table 9. Summary of published work reporting emissions of ammonia from buildings housing laying hens Authors(s) Dekker et al., 2011 Country of work Netherlands Livestock type Laying hens Experiment 3 commercial Aviary buildings, organic. Access to outdoor areas so akin to UK free range. Treatments Varying removal interval using manure belts

NH3 measurement NH3 concentrations and CO2 mass balance, includes GHG emissions N excretion 0.962 kg N annum Season Oct 2008 to Feb 2010, *4 per farm over 2 days Area per animal 6 hens/m2 (9 hens/m2 conventional) Ventilation Mechanical Results Emissions from organic system were within the same range as non-organic aviary systems. An earlier study reported aviary systems, because of manure removal on

21 belts, to reduce emissions by: 68% (NH3); 30% (N2O); 31% (CH4), compared with single layer tiered floor system. Conclusion(s) Housing organic laying hens in aviary systems instead of single-tiered systems has potential to reduce emissions of NH3, N2O, and CH4. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Gustaffson, 2010 Country of work Sweden Livestock type Layers Experiment Climate chamber Treatments Manure removal system NH3 measurements NA N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation NA Results It was possible to maintain the NH3 concentration below the hygienic threshold limit value when manure was removed daily with conveyors. Conclusion(s) Floor housing systems for laying hens with perforated floors should therefore be equipped with manure removal systems that enable daily removal of manure from the bins. Relevance to UK Medium - chamber study so needs validating at farm scale

Authors(s) Nimmermark et al., 2009 Country of work Norway Livestock type Layers Experiment 9 Commercial farms with improved welfare systems: furnished cages; manure removed every 5 days multilevel system; floor housing - manure for whole production period stored Treatments Measurements in March and April each year

NH3 measurements Kitigawa or Dräger gas detection tubes/IR spectrophotometer. Ventilation rate from CO2 mass balance N excretion NA Area per animal When emissions expressed per unit area (mg m-2 s-1) they were: Floor housing (0.18); Multilevel (0.16); Furnished cages (0.10) Ventilation NA Results Emissions increased with increasing amounts of manure stored indoors Conclusion(s) The high concentrations of air pollutants found in the present study indicate the need for further technical development and research regarding welfare- oriented systems for laying hens. It is important to develop preventive measures and solutions to air quality problems before the EU ban on conventional cages comes into force in 2012. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Fabbri et al., 2007 Country of work Italy Livestock type Laying hens Experiment 2 Commercial buildings, one deep pit, one air-dried belt removal Treatments Evaluation of belt removal. Air is recirculated from the inside in order to pre- heat it. The manure is discharged every 3-4 days to sheltered external storage.

NH3 measurement Infrared photoacoustic detector for N2O and CH4 as well N excretion No Area per animal NA Ventilation Mechanical

Results 0.162 kg.place cf 0.063 - eqv. to 61% abatement, N2O nd, CH4, 0.05 kg/pl Conclusion(s) Compared with the deep-pit the ventilated belt reduced NH3 emission by 62%. Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Hayes et al., 2005

22 Country of work Ireland Livestock type Layers Experiment Monitoring commercial units Treatments 2 commercial units, 1 battery with belt removal, 1 slatted floor, outdoor access NH3 measurement iTX multi-gas analyser, ambient conc. assumed zero, random 3 weeks N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation Mechanical Results 6% TAN from battery with belt removal, 25% TAN from slatted floor. Conclusion(s) Considerable range of emissions between the 2 units Relevance to UK None, as these systems are now redundant

No recent work was found reporting NH3 emissions from stored layer manure.

2.6. Ammonia emissions from buildings housing broilers and broiler manure stores

Table 10 below gives a summary of each paper reviewed. Table 11 reports the approach of each paper, for both layers and broilers, according to the criteria of Jungbluth et al. (2008).

Table 10. Summary of published work reporting emissions of ammonia from buildings housing laying hens Authors(s) Calvet et al., 2011 Country of work Spain Livestock type Broilers Experiment Commercial farm, rice hull litter Treatments One summer and one winter cycle, 2.43 and 2.69 kg final weight. 48 d rearing, 2-3 week interval gives 268 d occupancy.

NH3 measurements Inlet and outlet measurements using PAC multigas monitor and ventilation rate N excretion NA Temperature Yes Area per animal NA Ventilation Mechanically ventilated Results Although indoor temperatures were similar to UK, ventilation rates c. *10 greater. Ammonia emissions increased with bird age with emissions in last 3 weeks accounting for 73-92% of total. UK data indicate c. 50% of total emissions can be in the last week of the cycle.

NH3 emissions significantly greater in summer than winter but only by about 10%. This was considered to be due to the greater ventilation rate in summer keeping the litter dry for longer. N2O emissions c. 2-3% of TAN CH4 between 0.1 and 0.5 g/bird Conclusion(s) NH3 emissions c. 32% of TAN, much greater than UK but much greater ventilation rate Relevance to UK Moderate

Authors(s) Knížatová et al., 2010 Country of work Slovakia Livestock type Broilers Experiment Monitoring Treatments Commercial farm, wheat straw litter, 10 day break between crops, hence 292 production with 40 day rearing NH3 measurement Inlet and outlet measurements using PAC multigas monitor and ventilation rate over whole rearing period N excretion NA Area per animal 0.05 m2

23 Ventilation Mechanical Results No difference between winter and summer emissions. Annual emission c. 15% of TAN Conclusion(s) Increasing litter temperature during grow-out periods is a process which could

be controlled to prevent excessive NH3 volatilization from housing Relevance to UK Limited as litter was straw

Authors(s) Atapattu et al., 2008 Country of work Sri Lanka Livestock type Broilers Experiment Chamber Treatments Three litter materials (refused tea, RT; sawdust, SDT; and paddy husk, PH) were compared.

NH3 measurements Acid traps measuring NH3 emissions from manure subsamples in flasks. N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation NA

Results Emission of NH3 from poultry houses could be reduced substantially by using RT as a litter material Conclusion(s) Ditto Relevance to UK None as rejected tea not an available alternative

Authors(s) Hayes et al., 2005 Country of work Ireland Livestock type Broilers, solid floor - slaughter wt 2.5 kg (d 35) -Ass 280 d total, average of other studies Treatments 3 commercial units Experiment Monitoring NH3 measurements iTX multi-gas analyser, ambient concentration assumed zero, last 3 weeks N excretion NA Area per animal NA Ventilation ACNV Results Emissions, estimated as a % of TAN, ranged from 10% in winter to 32% in summer, albeit these results were obtained from different buildings. This gives an annual emission of 20% TAN Conclusion(s) None Relevance to UK High

Authors(s) Guizou and Beline, 2005 Country of work France Livestock type Broilers Experiment Experimental poultry station, 35 d rearing, to 1.8/1.9 kg Treatments 2 floors, clay and concrete, Jan Feb (2000)

NH3 measurements Acid traps N excretion Yes Area per animal 0.05 Ventilation Mechanical

Results N2O and CH4 emissions were below the level of detection. NH3-N 20% of TAN

Conclusion(s) Amounts of CH4 and N2O emitted during broiler rearing are negligible and could be omitted from national emissions inventories Relevance to UK Moderate- experimental facility

Table 11 below gives a summary of each paper reviewed and reports the approach of each paper according to the criteria of Jungbluth et al. (2008).

24 Table 11. Buildings housing poultry and poultry manure stores, summary of key aspects of methodology Paper Continuous Long- Effects Other Area measurement term? Diurnal Seasonal emissions Sample Animal of ventilation rate and concentration? UK, layers

WA0638, perchery No Yes No Jul-Jan All NA WA0638, deep pit No Yes No Mar-Sep All NA WA0651 No, 2 wk/m Yes No 11 m All

Outside UK

Dekker et al., 2011 No, 4 * 2 No Yes Oct-Feb N2O, CH4 All 0.13 Nimm'k et al., 2009 No No No Mar-Apr Dust All 0.06-0.14

Fabbri et al., 2007 Yes 6 * 1 wk No Yes 12 m N2O, CH4 Hayes et al., 2005 Yes, 6-8 d No No Sp, su All

UK -broilers Demmers et al., 1999 Yes, 6 weeks No Yes No, Aug All NA Robertson, e.a., 2002 Yes, 6 weeks No No No, Nov All WA0651 Yes Yes Sum, win All

Outside UK Calvet et al., 2011 Yes, 2 cycles No Yes Sum, win N2O, CH4 All NA Knížat. et al., 2010 6 cycles Yes No May - All 0.05 Dec

Guizou/Bel., 2005 No Jan-Feb N2O, CH4 Chamb. 0.05 Hayes et al., 2005 Yes, 6-8 d No No Wi, sp, All su

UK storage Layer WA0651 Yes Yes No 12 m All WA0712 Yes Yes No 12 m All

Broiler WA0651 Yes Yes No 12 m All WA0712 Yes Yes No 12 m All WA0716 Yes Yes No Apr-Nov All

*not different to outdoor concentration

References References are cited under the categories evaluated above. In some cases a reference will appear in two sections.

Ammonia emissions from buildings housing cattle

Bluteau CV, Massé DI, Leduc R, 2009. Ammonia emission rates from dairy livestock buildings in Eastern Canada. Biosystems Engineering 103, 480–488.

Braam CR, Smits MCJ, Gunnink H, Swierstra D, 1997. Ammonia emission from a double-sloped floor in a cubicle house for dairy cows. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 68, 375–386.

25 Burton CH, Guiziou F, Loyon L, 2008. Revising And Updating The Ammonia Inventory For UK Agriculture for 2005 and 2006. Report for Defra Project AC0102, March 2008, Cemagref, Rennes, France.

Camp V, Gilhespy SL, Misselbrook TH, Chadwick DR, undated. Relationship between cattle stocking density and NH3 emissions from cattle housing. Report sent to AEA by N Wyke Research.

Fiedler AM, Müller H-J, 2011. Emissions of ammonia and methane from a livestock building natural cross ventilation. Meteorologische Zeitschrift 20, 059–065.

Harper LA, Flesch TK, Powell JM, Coblentz WK, Jokela WE, Martin NP, 2009. Ammonia emissions from dairy production in Wisconsin. Journal of Dairy Science 92, 2326–2337.

Mukhtar, S., Mutlu, A., Capareda, S.C. and Parnell, C.B. 2008. Seasonal and spatial variations of ammonia emissions from an open-lot dairy operation. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association 58, 369–376.

Ngwabie NM, Jeppsson K-H, Gustafsson G, Nimmermark S, 2011. Effects of animal activity and air temperature on methane and ammonia emissions from a naturally ventilated building for dairy cows. Atmospheric Environment 45, 6760–6768.

Ngwabie NM, Jeppsson K-H, Nimmermark S, Swensson C, Gustafsson G, 2009. Multi-location measurements of greenhouse gases and emission rates of methane and ammonia from a naturally- ventilated barn for dairy cows. Biosystems Engineering, 103, 68–77.

Pereira J, Fangueiro D, Misselbrook TH, Chadwick DR, Coutinho J, Trindade H, 2011. Ammonia and greenhouse gas emissions from slatted and solid floors in dairy cattle houses: A scale model study. Biosystems Engineering 109 148–157.

Pereira J, Misselbrook TH, Chadwick DR, Coutinho J, Trindade H, 2010. Ammonia emissions from naturally ventilated dairy cattle buildings and outdoor concrete yards in Portugal. Atmospheric Environment, 44, 3413–3421.

Rumburg B, Mount GH, Filipy J, Lamb B, Westberg H, Yonge D, Kincaid R, Johnson K, 2008. Measurement and modeling of atmospheric flux of ammonia from dairy milking cow housing. Atmospheric Environment 42, 3364–3379.

Schrade S, Keck M, Zeyer K, Emmenegger L, Hartung E, 2010. Comparison of ammonia emissions from a naturally ventilated dairy loose housing with solid floor surfaces over two seasons. XVIIthWorld Congress of the International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR), Québec City, Canada June 13-17, 2010.

Teye FK, Hautala M, 2008. Adaptation of an ammonia volatilization model for a naturally ventilated dairy building. Atmospheric Environment 42, 4345–4354.

Zhang G, Strøm JS, Li B, Rom HB, Morsing S, Dahl P, Wang C, 2005. Emission of Ammonia and Other Contaminant Gases from Naturally Ventilated Dairy Cattle Buildings. Biosystems Engineering 92, 355–364.

Ammonia emissions from cattle manure stores

Amon B, Kryvoruchko V, Amon T, Zechmeister-Boltenstern S, 2006. Methane, nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions during storage and after application of dairy cattle slurry and influence of slurry treatment. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112, 153–162.

Balsari P, Airoldi G, Dinuccio E, Gioelli F, 2007. Ammonia emissions from farmyard manure heaps and slurry stores - Effect of environmental conditions and measuring methods. Biosystems Engineering 97, 456–463

26 Harper LA, Flesch TK, Powell JM, Coblentz WK, Jokela WE, Martin NP, 2009. Ammonia emissions from dairy production in Wisconsin. Journal of Dairy Science 92, 2326–2337.

Rumburg B, Mount GH, Yonge D, Lamb B, Westberg H, Neger M, Filipy J, Kincaid R, Johnson K, 2008. Measurements and modeling of atmospheric flux of ammonia from an anaerobic dairy waste lagoon. Atmospheric Environment 42, 3380–3393.

Vaddella VK, Ndegwa PM, Joo HS, Ullman JL, 2008. Impact of Separating Dairy Cattle Excretions on Ammonia Emissions. Journal of Environmental Quality 39, 1807–1812.

Ammonia emissions from buildings housing pigs

Amon B, Kryvoruchko V, Fröhlich M, Amon T, Pöllinger A, Mösenbacher I, Hausleitner A, 2007. Ammonia and greenhouse gas emissions from a straw flow system for fattening pigs: Housing and manure storage. Livestock Science 112, 199–207.

Blanes-Vidal V, Hansen MN, Pedersen S, Rom HB, 2008. Emissions of ammonia, methane and nitrous oxide from pig houses and slurry: Effects of rooting material, animal activity and ventilation flow. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 124, 237–244.

Blunden J, Aneja VP, Westerman PW, 2008. Measurement and analysis of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from a mechanically ventilated swine confinement building in North Carolina. Atmospheric Environment 42, 3315–3331.

Burton CH, Guiziou F, Loyon L, 2008. Revising And Updating The Ammonia Inventory For UK Agriculture for 2005 and 2006. Report for Defra Project AC0102, March 2008, Cemagref, Rennes, France.

Cabaraux JF, Philippe FX, Laitat M, Canart B, Vandenheede M, Nicks B, 2009. Gaseous emissions from weaned pigs raised on different floor systems. Agriculture. Ecosystems and Environment 130, 86–92.

Dekock J, Vranken E, Gallmann E, Hartung E, Berckmans D, 2009. Optimisation and validation of the intermittent measurement method to determine ammonia emissions from livestock buildings. Biosystems Engineering 104, 396–403.

Fabbri C, Valli L, Bonazzi G, 2002. Ammonia emissions from two different flooring systems for heavy pigs. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of the RAMIRAN network, (Venglovský, J., Gréserová, G., Eds), May 14-18, Štrbské Pleso, Slovak Republic.

Hacker RR, Ogilvie JR, Morrison WD, Kains F, 1994. Factors affecting excretory behavior of pigs. Journal of Animal Science 72, 1455–1460.

Hamelin L, Godbout S, Thériault R, Lemay SP, 2010. Evaluating ammonia emission potential from concrete slat designs for pig housing. Biosystems Engineering 105, 455–465.

Hayes ET, Curran TP, Dodd VA, 2006. Odour and ammonia emissions from intensive pig units in Ireland. Bioresource Technology 97, 940–948.

Kim KY, Ko HJ, Kim HT, Kim YS, Roh YM, Lee CM, Kim CN, 2008. Quantification of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emitted from pig buildings in Korea. Journal of Environmental Management 88, 195– 202.

Philippe F-X, Cabaraux, JF, Nicks B, 2011a. Ammonia emissions from pig houses: Influencing factors and mitigation techniques. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 141, 245–260.

Philippe F-X, Laitat M, Canart B, Vandenheede M, Nicks B, 2007. Comparison of ammonia and greenhouse gas emissions during the fattening of pigs, kept either on fully slatted floor or on deep litter. Livestock Science 111, 144–152.

27 Philippe FX, Laitat M, Wavreille J, Bartiaux-Thill N, Nicks B, Cabaraux JF, 2011b. Ammonia and greenhouse gas emission from group-housed gestating sows depends on floor type. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140, 498–505.

Ogawa H, Dahl PJ, Suzuki T, Kai P, Takai H, 2011. A microbiological-based air cleaning system using a two-step process for removal of ammonia in discharge air from a pig rearing building. Biosystems Engineering 109, 108–119.

Wang K, Wei B, Zhu S, Ye Z, 2011. Ammonia and odour emitted from deep litter and fully slatted floor systems for growing-finishing pigs. Biosystems Engineering 109, 203–210.

Ammonia emissions from pig manure stores

Aneja VP, Arya SP, Rumsey IC, Kim D-S, Bajwa KS, Williams CM, 2008. Characterizing ammonia emissions from swine farms in eastern North Carolina: Reduction of emissions from water-holding structures at two candidate superior technologies for waste treatment. Atmospheric Environment 42, 3291–3300.

Loyon L, Guiziou F, Beline F, Peu P, 2007. Gaseous Emissions (NH3, N2O, CH4 and CO2) from the aerobic treatment of piggery slurry - Comparison with a conventional storage system. Biosystems Engineering 97, 472–480.

Portejoie S, Martinez J, Guiziou F, Coste C.M. (2003). Effect of covering pig slurry stores on the ammonia emission processes. Bioresource Technology 87, 199–207.

Ammonia emissions from buildings housing laying hens

Dekker SEM, Aarnink AJA, de Boer IJM, Groot Koerkamp PWG, 2011. Emissions of ammonia, nitrous oxide, and methane from aviaries with organic laying hen husbandry. Biosystems Engineering 110, 123–2133.

Fabbri C, Valli L, Guarino M, Costa A, Mazzotta V, (2007). Ammonia, methane, nitrous oxide and particulate matter emissions from two different buildings for laying hens. Biosystems Engineering 97, 441–455.

Gustafsson G, 2010. Reducing ammonia release in a floor housing system for laying hens by daily removal of manure below a perforated floor. XVIIthWorld Congress of the International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR), Québec City, Canada June 13-17, 2010.

Hayes ET, Curran TP, Dodd VA, 2006. Odour and ammonia emissions from intensive poultry units in Ireland. Bioresource Technology 97, 933–939.

Nimmermark S, Lund V, Gustafsson G, Eduard W, (2009). Ammonia, dust and bacteria in welfare- oriented systems for laying hens. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine 16, 103–113.

Ammonia emissions from buildings housing broilers

Atapattu, N.S.B.M., Senaratna, D., Belpagodagamage U. D., 2008. Comparison of Ammonia Emission Rates from Three Types of Broiler Litters. Poultry Science 87, 2436–2440.

28 Calvet S, Cambra-López M, Estellés F, Torres AG, 2011. Characterization of gas emissions from a Mediterranean broiler farm. Poultry Science 90, 534–542.

Guiziou F, Béline F, (2005). In situ measurement of ammonia and greenhouse gas emissions from broiler houses in France. Bioresource Technology 96, 203–207.

Hayes ET, Curran TP, Dodd VA, 2006. Odour and ammonia emissions from intensive poultry units in Ireland. Bioresource Technology 97, 933–939.

Knížatová M, Mihina Š, Brouček J, Karandušovská I, Mačuhová J, (2010). Ammonia emissions from broiler housing facility: influence of litter properties. XVIIth World Congress of the International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR). Québec City, Canada June 13-17, 2010.

Other papers

Jungbluth T, Hartung E, Brose G, 2001. Greenhouse gas emissions from animal houses and manure stores. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 60, 133‐145.

VanderZaag AC, Gordon RJ, Glass VM, Jamieson RC, 2008. Floating covers to reduce gas emissions from liquid manure storages: a review. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers 24,

657‐671.