Unit I: Earth S Systems and Resources (10-15%)

AP Environmental Science Course Review

Unit I: Earth’s Systems and Resources (10-15%) 1. Geologic Time Scale i. Rock layers (strata) are laid down in succession with each strata representing a period of time ii. The principle of superposition – any given stratum is probably older than those above it and younger than those below it 2. Earth Structure i. Crust i.i. Composition of (in order): Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, etc. i.ii. Two types i.ii.1. Continental i.ii.2. Oceanic ii. Moho ii.i. Boundary between crust and mantle iii. Mantle iii.i. Majority of mass & volume of Earth iii.ii. Upper third (asthenosphere) is plastic-like iv. Core iv.i. Iron (mostly) and nickel iv.ii. So hot that the outer core is liquid while inner core is under such pressure as to be solid 3. Tectonics i.i. Plate Types i.i.1. Continental – Formed of Granite i.i.2. Oceanic – Formed of Basalt i.ii. Plate boundaries i.ii.1. Convergent (mountain building or subduction zones) i.ii.2. Divergent (Mid-Atlantic ridge, rift valley) i.ii.3. Transform (San Andres Fault) i.iii. Plate boundaries among oceanic and continental plates vary depending on boundary type i.iv. Earthquakes i.iv.1. Sudden movement of crust i.iv.2. Measured on logarithmic Richter scale i.iv.2.a. Waves i.iv.2.a.i. Body waves i.iv.2.a.i.1. P-waves (compressional) i.iv.2.a.i.2. S-waves (shear) i.iv.2.a.ii. Surface waves 4. Seasons, solar intensity and latitude i.i. Caused by tilt of the earth not relative position of the earth in orbit i.ii. Angle of incidence of the sun’s rays determine energy 5. Soil i.i. Horizons - OABCR i.i.1. Characteristics of each i.ii. Sand, Silt, Clay i.ii.1. Loam – equal parts sand, silt, clay (very good nutrients and water holding without becoming water logged) i.iii. Leaching i.iv. Desertification i.iv.1. Productive potential of arid or semi-arid land falls by at least 10% due to human activity or climate change i.v. Salinization i.v.1. Water that is not absorbed into the soil and evaporates leaves behind dissolved salts in topsoil i.vi. Waterlogging i.vi.1. Standing water in the roots of plants. Can drown plants. i.vii. Soil degradation by type i.vii.1. water erosion (56%) i.vii.2. wind erosion (28%) i.vii.3. chemical degradation (12%) i.vii.4. physical degradation (4%) 6. Rock Cycle i.i. Rock Types i.i.1. Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic i.i.1.a. Sedimentary is most common on surface of Earth i.i.1.b. Igneous is most common in the total crust of Earth i.ii. Transitional processes – Weathering, sedimentation, melting, compression i.iii. Weathering i.iii.1. Physical/mechanical (frost wedging) i.iii.2. Chemical (dissolving) i.iii.3. Biological (roots, lichens) 7. Atmosphere i.i. Composition

i.i.1. N2 – 78%

i.i.2. O2 – 21%

i.i.3. H2O – 0-4%

i.i.4. CO2 – <1% (~350ppm)

i.i.5. CH4 (greenhouse gas)

i.i.6. N2O (greenhouse gas)

i.i.7. O3 (Ozone Layer - 97% in stratosphere) i.ii. Layers of the Atmosphere (They Say My Time Is Ending; Spheres - Tropo, Strato, Meso, Thermo, Iso, Exo) 8. Weather and Climate i.i. Air masses (tropical, maritime, etc.) i.ii. Air pressure i.iii. Albedo (Latin for “White”) – measured in 0-1 - Reflectivity i.iii.1. mountain ranges i.iii.2. landmasses i.iv. El Nino Southern Oscillation - ENSO 9. Atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis Effect i.i. From equator out - Hadley, Ferrel, Polar Cells (Hey Fat Puppy) i.ii. Monsoons (ICTZ – Inter-tropical Convergent Zone) 10. Earth’s Water Resources and Use i.i. Water Distribution i.i.1. 97% saline i.i.2. 3% fresh i.i.2.a. 30% ground i.i.2.b. 68.7% icecaps/glaciers (bulk is frozen) i.i.2.c. surface 0.3% i.i.2.c.i. 87% lakes i.i.2.c.ii. 11% swamps i.i.2.c.iii. 2% rivers i.ii. Aquifers i.ii.1. Overpumping, pollution, recharge i.iii. Water Chemical Parameters i.iii.1. Temperature vs. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) i.iii.2. Nutrients (N, P) i.iv. Primary Productivity i.iv.1. Gross Primary Productivity i.iv.2. Net Primary Productivity i.v. lake zonation i.v.1. Horizontal i.v.1.a. littoral zone (shore) i.v.1.b. limnetic zone (open water) i.v.2. Vertical i.v.2.a. Euphotic zone (with light) i.v.2.b. Benthic zone (aphotic depths) i.vi. Ocean circulation i.vi.1. Thermohaline current i.vi.1.a. Sinking north of England (Polar Latitudes) i.vi.1.b. Rising in Indian Ocean and south of Aleutian Range (Warming zones) i.vi.2. Ekman Spiral (transport) i.vi.2.a. Results in 45° transport of surface water in relation to wind direction i. Results in coastal upwelling Unit II: The Living World (10-15%) A. Ecosystems ii. Community characteristics ii.i. Diversity (number of different species) ii.ii. Abundance (number of individuals of each species) ii.iii. Evenness ii.iv. Richness iii. Species interactions iii.i. Amensalism (bad/neutral – black walnut tree emits chemical that kills neighboring plants) iii.ii. Commensalisms (good/neutral – remora on shark) iii.iii. Competition (good/bad) iii.iv. Mutualism (good/good – bees pollinating flowers) iii.v. Parasitism (good/bad – tapeworms, etc.) iii.vi. Predation (good/bad) iii.vii. Saprotrophism (good/neutral – obtain nutrients from dead or decaying plants or animals) iv. Keystone species v. Edge effects – how the local environment changes along some type of boundary or edge v.i. Some species do well in edge environments (“Edge species”) while others do not vi. Invasive Species vi.i. Modes of introduction vi.i.1. Ornamental release, accidental release, Purposeful introduction, Aquatic hitchhiking, ship ballasts vi.ii. Reasons for concern vi.ii.1. No predation, vii. Biomes vii.i. Distribution by latitude vii.ii. Temperature and precipitation determinations viii. Threats to Biodiversity (HIPPCO) viii.i. Single greatest threat is habitat destruction ix. Energy flow ix.i. Food chains/webs ix.ii. Trophic levels ix.ii.1. 10% rule – Only 10% of the energy is transferred up the food chain x. Natural selection x.i. Stabilizing selection x.ii. Directional selection x.iii. Disruptive selection xi. Succession xi.i. Primary (bare rocks) (Lava Flow, New Islands – Krakatoa) xi.ii. Secondary (disturbed area but topsoil still remains) (Forest fire, flood) xii. Strategists xii.i. r-strategists (mature rapidly/short-lived species/niche generalists) [Rabbit] xii.ii. k-strategists (mature slowly/long-lived/niche specialists) [Elephant] (K is carrying capacity) xiii. Survivorship curves xiii.i. Type I – (man) low mortality and long lifespan xiii.ii. Type II – (birds) moderate both xiii.iii. Type III – (oysters) high mortality xiv. Biogeochemical Cycles xiv.i. Carbon Cycle

xiv.i.1. An increase in CO2 is the leading cause of global warming xiv.i.2. Photosynthesis: xiv.i.2.a. 6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2 xiv.i.3. Respiration: xiv.i.3.a. C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy xiv.ii. Nitrogen Cycle xiv.ii.1. Fixation – N2 to NH3 xiv.ii.2. Nitrification – ammonia is then nitrified by bacteria in the soil to form first nitrite (NO2-) and then nitrate (NO3-) ions xiv.ii.3. Assimilation – Nitrate (largely) is absorbed by the roots of plants, where it enters the biological reservoir xiv.ii.4. – Take nitrates and nitrites in organic structures and break them down into ammonia xiv.ii.5. Denitrification – Take nitrates break down into atmospheric nitrogen (N2) xiv.iii. Phosphorous Cycle xiv.iii.1. Phosphorus is extremely limited in the atmosphere. xiv.iii.2. The largest quantities of phosphorus occur in mineral deposits, largely as marine sedimentary rocks xiv.iii.3. The phosphorus from rocks is slowly released to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems through the gradual weathering of rocks. xiv.iii.4. It is then absorbed by plants and slowly recycled in ecosystems. xiv.iv. Sulfur Cycle xiv.v. Water Cycle xiv.v.1. Major reservoirs - Gt is Gross Ton: xiv.v.1.a. Atmosphere - 750 Gt xiv.v.1.b. Biosphere – 575 Gt xiv.v.1.c. Geosphere – 1,500 Gt xiv.v.1.d. Hydrosphere – 36,000 Gt

Topic III: Populations (10-15%) A. Carrying capacity (k) 1. The number of organisms that can be supported in a given area sustainable B. Population curves 1. J-shaped (exponential growth 2. S-shaped (logistic growth) 3. Real model (fluctuations around k) C. Thomas Malthus and Malthusian Decline 1. Decline of living conditions, and hence, populations 1.a. Overpopulation of the young 1.b.Inability of resources to keep up with the rising population 1.c. Irresponsibility of the lower classes D. Reproductive strategies 1.a. r-strategists 1.a.1. mature rapidly, short lived, many offspring, tend to be prey 1.a.1.a. Rabbits, mice, insects, oysters 1.b.k-strategists 1.b.1. mature slowly, long lived, tend to be both predator and prey, pop. stabilizes around k E. Survivorship curves 1.a. Type I 1.a.1. Late loss 1.b.Type II 1.b.1. Constant loss 1.c. Type III 1.c.1. Early loss F. Human Population history 1.a. Major influences in growth 1.a.1. Industrial Revolution(s) 1.a.2. Improved medical and public health technologies 1.a.3. Improved sanitation and personal hygiene 1.b.Pop. Change 1.b.1. Change (BR is birthrate)= (crude BR + immigration) – (crude DR + emigration) 1.b.2. Pop. Distribution 1.b.2.a. By continent 1.b.2.a.i. 61% - Asia (mainly China and India) 1.b.2.a.ii. 13% - Africa 1.b.2.a.iii. 12% - Europe 1.b.2.a.iv. 9% - South America 1.b.2.a.v. 4.5% - North America 1.b.2.a.vi. 0.5% - Oceania 1.c. Urbanization 1.c.1. For the first time in history, more people (51%) live in urban areas than in rural areas 1.d.Replacement Level Fertility (RLF) 1.d.1. Number of children a couple must have on average to replace themselves 1.d.1.a. Global average of 2.1 children (higher in less developed countries [LDC]) 1.d.1.b. Global TFR is 2.6 children 1.e. Doubling Time 1.e.1. DT = 70 / %r (ex 70/2%) = 35 years 1.f. Demographic Transition 1.f.1. Pre-industrial 1.f.2. Transitional 1.f.3. Industrial 1.f.4. Post-industrial 1.g. Age-Structure Diagrams (pop. Histograms) 1.h.Case Studies in policy 1.h.1. China 1.h.1.a. “One Child Policy” 1.h.1.a.i. incentives for only one child 1.i. Developed vs. Developing nations 1.i.1. Characteristics of each 1.i.2. Usage of resources G. Anthropogenic 1. Man-made items. From chemical to changes in the environment. H. Economic Advantages to processes (Money) 1. Job Creation 2. Ecotourism (ways to generate revenue without habitat destruction)

Topic IV: Land and Water Use (10-15%) A. Agriculture 1. Crop rotation 1.a. Industrial agriculture/Corporate farming (includes pressures to raise as monocultures) 1.b.Intercropping/Interplanting (more than one crop on the same field) 1.c. Low-till/conservation tillage 1.d.Monoculture 1.e. Organic farming 1.f. Subsistence (carried out for survival) 2. Green revolution 2.a. Introduction of more industrial practices to agriculture, including synthetics and artificial irrigation 3. GMOs 3.a. modifying genes from one organism to carry out a role in another, or designing “designer” genes to carry out novel functions 3.b.Transgenic – Organism combined from genes from one species to another species 3.c. Cisgenic – Organisms combined from genes from the same species B. Irrigation 1. ¾ of all fresh water used on Earth is for agriculture 2. Most efficient is drip irrigation; alternates include center pivot and ridge and furrow systems C. Controlling pests 1. Biological (ladybeetles, etc.) 2. Carbamates (affect the nervous system of pests. More water soluble, so carries water pollution risk) 3. Chloronated hydrocarbons (synthetics that affect the nervous system like DDT. Highly resistant to decomposition and require larger volumes than carbamates) 4. Inorganic (metals that kill broadly. Accumulate in the environment 5. Organophosphates (extremely toxic but only remain in the environment for a short time. Examples include malathion for mosquitoes and parathion) 6. Integrated pest management (IPM) – uses a series of ecological controls that are not intended to eradicate pests, but to control their numbers to acceptable levels D. Forestry 1. Tree plantations 1.a. Monocultures of trees primarily for pulp and lumber 1.b.Old-growth forests 1.b.1. not been significantly impacted by humans for hundreds of years 2. Types of Forestry (Silviculture) 2.a. Clear cut, Selective cutting, Strip cutting, 3. World forest distribution 3.a.1. 22% S. America 3.a.2. 19% N. America 3.a.3. 19% Russia 3.a.4. 18% Africa 3.a.5. 13% Asia 3.a.6. 5% Oceania 3.a.7. 4% Europe 4. World Land Use 4.a.1. 32% forest 4.a.2. 26% rangeland 4.a.3. 11% cropland 4.a.4. 4% preserves 4.a.5. 10% unproductive 4.a.6. 17% other E. Urban land development 1. Planned development (sustainability, minimize waste, air quality, UHI, etc.) 2. Suburban sprawl and urbanization F. Transportation infrastructure 1. Federal Highway System 1.a. Reduce pollution due to traffic reductions, improve fuel economy, return $6 in economic productivity for every $1 invested 1.b.Federal Aid Highway Act (1956) 1.b.1. Fed agreed to fund 90% of the construction costs for interstates with states absorbing all other costs and responsibilities G. Public and Federal Lands 1.a. Bureau of Land Management (manages about 1/8 of the land in the US 1.a.1. National Parks (over 1,100 N.P. in the world) 1.a.2. Wildlife refuges (mainly for migratory waterfowl) 1.a.3. Wetlands (very high plant productivity) 1.b.Wilderness Act 1.b.1. Wilderness lands H. Mining 1. Types 1.a. Subsurface Mining 1.b.Surface Mining (Open Pit, Mountain Top Removal, Strip) 2. Acid Mine Drainage 3. Processing (chemical intense) 4. Global reserves 4.a. Oil (from 45-70% has already been depleted) 4.b.Coal (abundant reserves – 300 years remain globally at current trends) 5. Depletion Rates (extended with proper recycling efforts) 6. Fracking 6.a. Process 6.b.Locations 6.c. Negative effects (microquakes, aquifer pollution, water depletion) I. Fishing 1. Bottom trawling – funnel shaped net dragged across the ocean bottom 2. Drift net – long nets hand down that traps many species (1992 voluntary ban on drift nets longer than 1.5 miles has had some success) 3. Longline – contains thousands of baited hooks 4. Purse seine – surrounds large schools of fish spotted by aircraft or sonar, then net is drawn tight J. Overfishing 1. Oceans provide 1% of the world’s food and 10% of the world’s protein 2. Exclusive Economic Zones K. Aquaculture (fish farming) L. Tragedy of the Commons – Garrett Hardin

Topic V: Energy (10-15%) 1. Prefixes a.i. Kilo – 1x103 a.ii. Mega – 1x106 a.iii. Giga – 1x109 2. Laws of thermodynamics 1.a. First – energy can’t be created or destroyed 1.b.Second – energy tends toward a state of disorder (entropy) 3. Consumption trends (US) a. Transportation (27%) b. Industrial (38%) c. Residential and commercial (36%) 4. Commodity consumption by the US (% of total world usage) a. Oil (21%) b. Natural Gas (23%) c. Coal (23%) 5. Commodity Consumption by World a.i.1. Oil a.i.1.a. United States (21%) a.i.1.b. China (11%) a.i.1.c. Japan (5%) a.i.2. Coal a.i.2.a. China a.i.2.b. United States a.i.2.c. India a.i.3. Natural Gas a.i.3.a. United States a.i.3.b. Russia a.i.3.c. China 6. Reserves (Country with the greatest reserves) a.i.1. Coal – United States a.i.2. Oil – Venezuela a.i.3. Natural Gas - Russia 7. Energy Fuels (nonrenewable) a. Coal b. Oil c. Natural Gas d. Nuclear e. Synfuels – liquid fuel synthesized from a nonpetroleum source 8. Future energy needs a. Methane hydrates – pressure and low temps b. Clean coal – cleaning and pulverizing to increase combustion and capturing air emissions c. Oil Shale – contains organics called kerogen, which can be turned to oil at high temperatures d. Tar Sands – contains bitumen, a type of oil that doesn’t flow. Can be converted into liquid fuels at high energy costs 9. OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 10. Nuclear a. U-235 – must be enriched to increase concentration of U-235 b. U-238 – most common isotope (99.3%) c. Pu-239 – can be produced in breeder reactors from U-238 d. France currently obtains the most energy from Nuclear power e. Reactor design a.i.1. Core – contains rods a.i.2. Fuel – fuel rods (Uranium or Plutonium) a.i.3. Control rods – in and out to absorb neutrons (Boron, Cadmium) a.i.4. Neutron moderator – reduces velocity of neutrons to allow them to sustain the nuclear chain reaction a.i.5. Coolant – removes heat and produces steam to generate electricity 11. Hydroelectric Dams a. Flood control b. Salmon (Migratory fish species) c. Silting 12. CAFE standards 13. Renewables (all associated pros and cons) a. Solar a.i.1. Active and passive heating a.i.2. Photovoltaic (PV Cells) a.i.3. Concentrated Solar Power

b. hydrogen fuel cells (2H2 + O2  2H2O) c. biomass (pulp wood, agricultural waste, animal manure) d. wind e. ocean waves and tidal energy f. geothermal VI: Pollution (25-30%) 1. LD50/LC50 2. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) a. Chemical compounds that have an adverse effect on human health b. Stockholm Convention c. Dirty Dozen c.i. DDT, PCBs, Dioxins, etc. 3. Air pollution a. Any release of chemical, physical, biological, or radioactive contaminants into the atmosphere b. Primary pollutants vs. secondary pollutants c. Fugitive emissions – those which escape accidentally from their sources into the atmosphere c.i. Sulfur Dioxide - SO2 – leads to acid rain (H2SO4) c.ii. Carbon Monoxide - CO – incomplete combustion c.iii. Particulate Matter - PM – 10 and 2.5 c.iv. NOx – NO initially formed, which further oxidizes in the atmosphere to form nitrogen dioxide (responsible for giving photochemical smog it’s reddish brown color) c.v. Lead – problem mostly of the past (leaded gasoline phased out in developed world) d. Temperature inversions d.i. Warm air above cold air mass trapped in location d.ii. Heat islands (urban) e. Indoor air pollutants – typically 2-5 times higher indoors than outdoors e.i. Smoking – most significant indoor pollutant in the US. Causes approximately 20% of all deaths in the US e.ii. Formaldehyde e.iii. Radon e.iv. Asbestos 4. Noise pollution a. Permanent damage in humans after 8 hours exposure to 85 dB or greater 5. Light Pollution a. Urban environments cast large amounts of light into the sky during evening hours. Disrupting migrations among other effects. Most noticeable when looking to observe the stars. 6. Water pollution a. Types: a.i. Infectious agents – bacteria, viruses, etc. a.ii. Oxygen demanding wastes – “dead zones” a.ii.1. Sewage, decomposing bacteria a.iii. Inorganics – acids, metals, etc. a.iv. Organics – oil, pesticides, etc. a.v. Sediment a.vi. Heat (thermal) – lowers Dissolved Oxygen – DO b. Nutrient rich vs. Nutrient poor b.i. Eutrophic (excessive nutrients lead to algal blooms) b.i.1. Nitrogen, phosphorous b.i.1.a. Fertilizer run-off, sewage b.ii. Oligotrophic (nutrient poor) c. Nonpoint vs. Point c.i. Originating from specific, identifiable locations (point – You can point to the point of pollution) c.ii. Originates from a collective of sources (non-point, runoff, farm waste, etc.) d. Groundwater pollution – 50% of US depends on aquifers for drinking water d.i. Example: Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is a gas additive to help in air pollution. It is a carcinogen. It leaks from underground storage tanks e. Water treatment e.i. Septic systems e.i.1. Utilizes natural processes in areas with small population densities e.ii. Municipal sewage treatment e.ii.1. Primary treatment – Physical separation & treatment e.ii.2. Secondary treatment – activated sludge – Biological Treatment e.ii.3. Tertiary treatment – removes any residuals from secondary treatment e.ii.4. Sterilization e.ii.4.a. Chlorine Treatment e.ii.4.b. UV radiation treatment 7. Solid Waste a. Landfills b. Incineration c. Recycling 8. Legislature a. All legislature directed at controlling pollutants 9. Heavy Metal Pollutants a. Lead, Mercury 10. Human Caused Environmental Disasters a. SUPERFUND sites b. Chernobyl, 3 mile Island, Fukishima c. Love Canal d. Global Change (10-15%) 1. Stratospheric ozone a.i.1.a. O3 formed from sun splitting O2 up, which then reacts with other O2 to form the O3 a.i.1.b. Takes place more readily from the Sun, so higher concentrations are found at equator (spread globally by wind circulations) 2. Depletion of Ozone a.i.1.a. Chlorine is the main culprit, originating from Chloroflurocarbons – CFCs a.i.1.b. Bromine, used extensively in fire retardants, is even worse than chlorine, but not used as much a.i.1.c. Montreal Protocol (1987) phased out all use of CFCs in 81 developed nations and set up fund to assist others in doing the same a.i.1.d. Studies show that levels will return to normal around 2040 3. Global Warming a.i.1.a. Blocking the release of long wave (IR) radiation to space during the evening hours a.i.1.b. Correlates with an increase in CO2 in the atmosphere which coincides with the industrial revolution a.i.1.c. Keeling curve a.i.1.c.i. Seasonal fluctuations due to carbon sequestration and release during specific seasons (Charles Keeling) a.i.1.c.ii. Peak CO2 levels occur in May, then drop due to increased photosynthesis in northern hemisphere 4. Greenhouse Gasses a.i.1.a. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) a.i.1.b. Methane (CH4) a.i.1.c. Water Vapor (H2O)