Appendix 1. Results of Assessing the Record of Completeness for Different VEI Categories

Appendices

Appendix 1. Results of assessing the ‘record of completeness’ for different VEI categories for different countries in the Asia-Pacific region. A ‘complete’ record was represented on graphs by a relatively constant slope leading up to the present time – See Figure 2. Notes on table: *** means that an insufficient number of eruptions were recorded with this VEI to allow the completeness of the record to be assessed.

Interval over which a volcanic record was deemed ‘complete’ (years)

Country VEI 1 VEI 2 VEI 3 VEI 4 VEI 5 VEI 6 Philippines 25 150 175 300 600 10,000 Indonesia 50 200 200 400 500 **** Papua New Guinea 35 135 135 135 3,000 6,000 Vanuatu 60 60 60 150 *** 6,000 Tonga 35 160 160 200

1 Appendix 2. Results of power-law fits to data on the eruption magnitude-frequency plots used in this study. In many cases the VEI 1 eruptions were not included in the line-fit due to a significant shallowing in the slope at these low eruption volumes. Note 1: return period = {1/(axk)}, where values for a and k are given in the table and x is the tephra volume (or VEI). Note 2: the r2 values may be seen to have limited value given that the were generated on from a log-log graph; howevere, they have been tabulated here to demonstrate that the line-fits are better in some countries and/or provinces than in others.

Country/Province a k r2 Notes regarding line fit Philippines 0.0036 -0.7713 0.99 Excludes VEI 1 Mindanao 0.0010 -0.7072 0.78 Excludes VEI 1 Southern Luzon 0.0013 -0.8167 0.96 Excludes VEI 1 Central Luzon 0.0023 -0.5506 0.97 Excludes VEI 1 Indonesia 0.0101 -0.8365 0.99 Excludes VEI 1 Maluku 0.0019 -0.6874 0.99 Excludes VEI 1 Sulawesi 0.0018 -0.8337 0.99 Excludes VEI 1 East Sunda Islands 0.0011 -0.7157 0.88 3-point line that includes VEI 1 West Sunda Islands 0.0010 -0.7542 0.9 Excludes VEI 1 Bali 0.0021 -0.5115 0.99 3-point line that includes VEI 1 East Java 0.0036 -0.7776 0.97 Excludes VEI 1 Central Java 0.0012 -0.7750 0.95 Excludes VEI 1 West Java 0.0014 -0.7181 0.96 Excludes VEI 1 Lampung 0.0014 -0.6172 0.94 Excludes VEI 1 Papua New Guinea 0.0067 -0.7792 0.96 Excludes VEI 1 Madang 0.0019 -0.7716 0.99 Excludes VEI 1 West New Britain 0.0026 -0.7487 0.98 Excludes VEI 1 East New Britain 0.001 -0.6991 0.89 Excludes VEI 1 Bougainville 0.0009 -0.7963 0.98 Excludes VEI 1 Vanuatu 0.0036 -0.8762 0.99 Excludes VEI 1 Tonga 0.0018 -0.6737 0.97 Excludes VEI 1

2 Appendix 3. Total population within 15 km, 25 km and 50 km of Holocene (or possibly Holocene) volcanoes in Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Tonga, as determined from the LandscanTM Global Population Database. Indonesia

Population within Population within Population within Volcanoes Latitude Longitude 15 km radius 25 km radius 50 km radius Agung -8.34 115.51 412,005 852,065 2,489,029 Amasing -0.55 127.50 15,833 20,385 41,981 Ambang 0.75 124.42 200,790 287,372 573,256 Arjuno-Welirang -7.73 112.58 248,613 2,058,758 9,471,299 Awu 3.67 125.50 34,090 48,074 62,526 Baluran -7.85 114.37 151,518 328,516 1,521,033 Banda Api -4.53 129.87 3,042 3,184 3,184 Banua Wuhu 3.14 125.49 589 610 38,424 Batur -8.24 115.38 317,681 768,127 2,491,070 Belirang-Beriti -2.82 102.18 479 26,874 345,102 Besar -4.43 103.67 8,021 39,363 107,811 Bibinoi -0.78 127.72 5,662 10,392 38,251 Bombalai 4.40 117.88 45,090 288,597 382,525 Bratan -8.28 115.13 105,133 634,881 2,815,179 Cereme -6.89 108.40 405,272 2,057,890 7,861,175 Colo [Una Una] -0.17 121.61 2,518 2,518 7,375 Daun, Bukit -3.38 102.37 123,139 393,309 1,126,566 Dempo -4.03 103.13 53,967 91,104 401,649 Dieng Volc.Complex -7.20 109.92 456,124 1,474,653 5,905,952 Dukono 1.68 127.88 34,034 90,173 201,979 Ebulobo -8.81 121.18 46,037 120,628 228,834 Egon -8.67 122.45 39,153 132,393 473,691 Emperor of China -6.62 124.22 0 0 24,009 Galunggung -7.25 108.05 352,755 2,116,997 5,995,036 Gamalama 0.80 127.33 201,503 276,258 372,238 Gamkonora 1.38 127.52 21,799 47,804 182,033 Gede -6.78 106.98 331,493 1,384,221 7,443,953 Geureudong 4.81 96.82 46,242 99,829 335,488 Guntur -7.13 107.83 1,307,957 2,673,213 9,907,533 Gunungapi Wetar -6.64 126.65 2 2 2 Helatoba-Tarutung 2.03 98.93 16,310 95,438 842,635 Hiri 0.88 127.32 181,099 229,539 377,475 Hulubelu -5.35 104.60 11,207 84,101 495,027 Hutapanjang -2.33 101.60 5,951 22,032 281,767 Ibu 1.48 127.64 27,660 63,162 262,589 Ijen -8.06 114.24 35,923 486,973 2,549,044 Iliboleng -8.34 123.26 86,503 173,093 463,090 Ililabalekan -8.53 123.42 71,013 137,969 319,457 Ilimuda -8.48 122.67 150,026 243,959 492,671 Iliwerung -8.54 123.59 15,775 109,790 297,806 Imun 2.15 98.93 71,471 118,243 1,020,136 Inielika -8.73 120.98 49,588 123,390 305,616 Inierie -8.88 120.95 29,793 74,551 258,542 Population within Population within Population within Volcano Latitude Longitude 15 km radius 25 km radius 50 km radius Iyang-Argapura -8.88 121.63 29,485 414,637 5,357,627 Jailolo -7.97 113.57 31,271 62,217 393,001 Kaba 1.08 127.42 177,673 304,464 1,101,007 Kamojang, Kawah -3.52 102.62 901,129 3,012,242 9,666,242 Karaha, Kawah -7.13 107.80 476,670 1,748,481 6,980,672 Karang -7.12 108.08 134,920 858,319 4,085,247 Karangetang [Api Siau] -6.27 106.04 5,211 12,492 13,651 Kawi-Butak 2.78 125.48 316,347 1,984,162 8,575,277 Kelimutu -7.92 112.45 18,008 111,181 318,137

3 Population within Population within Population within Volcanoes Latitude Longitude 15 km radius 25 km radius 50 km radius Kelut -8.76 121.83 165,898 1,232,570 8,467,747 Kembar -7.93 112.31 9,588 19,648 155,796 Kendang 3.85 97.66 305,262 1,804,285 9,435,983 Kerinci -7.23 107.72 156,092 253,647 554,382 Kiaraberes-Gagak -1.81 101.26 78,108 1,359,990 6,804,143 Klabat -6.73 106.65 82,676 734,821 1,033,517 Krakatau 1.47 125.03 1,094 1,464 194,748 Kunyit -6.10 105.42 16,571 35,339 214,987 Lamongan -2.59 101.63 386,438 1,421,268 5,011,910 Lawu -8.00 113.34 243,225 1,314,099 8,390,834 Leroboleng -7.63 111.19 57,332 275,024 535,438 Lewotobi -8.36 122.84 152,397 257,609 499,487 Lewotolo -8.53 122.78 62,728 165,008 322,031 Lokon-Empung -8.27 123.51 324,756 849,139 1,201,477 Lubukraya 1.36 124.79 297,579 369,508 695,396 Lumut Balai, Bukit 1.48 99.21 6,119 25,164 211,600 Lurus -4.22 103.62 276,148 470,058 2,205,043 Mahawu -7.70 113.58 479,658 870,310 1,183,413 Makian 1.36 124.86 9,868 16,051 150,460 Malabar 0.32 127.40 755,090 3,915,384 9,351,867 Malang Plain -7.13 107.65 1,867,291 2,904,875 5,758,815 Manuk -8.02 112.68 0 0 3,239 Marapi -5.53 130.29 286,536 597,920 1,485,437 Mare -0.38 100.47 69,874 253,367 342,851 Merapi 0.57 127.40 387,159 1,972,022 9,638,095 Merbabu -7.54 110.44 355,391 1,559,446 9,981,703 Moti -7.45 110.43 9,574 61,359 315,348 Muria 0.45 127.40 69,236 1,300,747 2,944,059 Ndete Napu -6.62 110.88 17,730 89,837 296,439 Nieuwerkerk -8.72 121.78 0 0 17,893 Nila -6.60 124.68 188 188 292 Paluweh -6.73 129.50 471 1,916 65,178 Papandayan -8.32 121.71 323,499 1,324,627 8,149,492 Patah -7.32 107.73 1,070 17,411 255,288 Patuha -4.27 103.30 123,057 634,534 8,796,340 Penanggungan -7.15 107.37 1,005,202 3,079,302 11,657,640 Pendan -7.62 112.63 4,482 35,997 347,083 Perbakti -2.82 102.02 135,370 1,374,314 6,609,782 Peuet Sague -6.75 106.68 477 4,350 396,945 Poco Leok 4.91 96.33 117,766 204,620 583,793 Population within Population within Population within Volcano Latitude Longitude 15 km radius 25 km radius 50 km radius Pulau Weh -8.68 120.48 25,574 27,385 583,305 Pulosari 5.82 95.28 170,487 490,358 3,484,622 Rajabasa -6.34 105.98 258,798 503,782 1,297,707 Ranakah -5.78 105.63 93,092 238,268 582,406 Ranau -8.62 120.52 9,907 14,999 78,522 Raung -4.83 103.92 4,742 241,406 3,669,389 Riang Kotang -8.13 114.04 115,526 213,543 525,962 Rinjani -8.30 122.89 145,033 1,005,366 3,045,453 Ruang -8.42 116.47 1,928 3,178 12,327 Salak 2.28 125.43 336,618 1,807,470 8,132,442 Sangeang Api -6.72 106.73 1,128 23,108 286,415 Sano, Wai -8.18 119.06 79,618 220,504 439,563 Sarik-Gajah -8.68 120.03 41,828 131,892 1,162,668 Sekincau Belirang 0.08 100.20 5,822 14,477 111,723 Semeru -5.12 104.32 67,520 494,141 5,758,252 Sempu -8.11 112.92 195,098 385,113 1,177,362 Serua 1.14 124.73 55 55 55 Seulawah Agam -6.30 130.00 38,258 176,890 1,104,759 Sibayak 5.45 95.66 55,054 97,339 3,376,832

4 Population within Population within Population within Volcanoes Latitude Longitude 15 km radius 25 km radius 50 km radius Sibualbuali 3.20 98.52 12,235 352,846 717,765 Sinabung 1.56 99.26 58,391 93,975 1,012,290 Sirung 3.17 98.39 38,301 64,369 120,241 Slamet -8.51 124.15 122,048 1,782,641 9,054,072 Soputan -7.24 109.21 177,990 335,377 1,176,302 Sorikmarapi 1.11 124.73 3,333 64,736 243,667 Sukaria Caldera 0.69 99.54 58,242 75,808 224,119 Sumbing -8.79 121.77 831,109 2,148,427 5,877,775 Sumbing -7.38 110.06 10,089 31,276 141,042 Sundoro -2.41 101.73 1,113,352 1,808,679 6,197,605 Suoh -7.30 109.99 3,536 12,184 80,639 Talagabodas -5.25 104.27 371,159 2,165,548 6,298,095 Talakmau -7.21 108.07 80,001 286,881 908,296 Talang 0.08 99.98 61,631 175,282 1,758,936 Tambora -0.98 100.68 20,717 78,305 177,158 Tampomas -8.25 118.00 368,213 1,201,807 11,072,435 Tandikat -6.77 107.95 148,176 376,012 1,616,636 Tangkubanparahu -0.43 100.32 1,704,122 4,848,226 10,013,659 Tara, Batu -6.77 107.60 431 431 3,469 Tarakan -7.79 123.58 29,877 69,200 178,690 Telomoyo 1.78 127.79 485,956 1,601,033 10,829,878 Tengger Caldera -7.37 110.40 108,351 660,142 6,500,239 Teon -7.94 112.95 104 104 292 Tidore -6.92 129.13 129,480 282,008 360,492 Tigalalu 0.65 127.40 2,276 4,393 33,690 Toba 0.07 127.42 65,717 154,670 1,087,880 Tobaru 2.58 98.83 26,707 43,854 204,477 Todoko-Ranu 1.63 127.68 22,320 51,528 307,870 Tondano Caldera 1.22 127.43 327,856 476,924 1,203,391 Tongkoko 1.23 124.83 79,607 120,095 839,886 Population within Population within Population within Volcano Latitude Longitude 15 km radius 25 km radius 50 km radius Ungaran 1.52 125.20 756,084 2,991,067 9,156,827 Unnamed -7.18 110.33 0 0 13,168 Wayang-Windu 3.97 124.17 215,325 1,451,259 9,314,656 Wilis -7.21 107.63 90,929 807,740 7,899,771 Wurlali -7.81 111.76 563 720 724 Yersey -7.13 128.68 0 0 416

Average Population (per volcano) 174,319 600,766 2,510,389 Percentage Population (per volcano) 0.1 0.3 1.1 Eruption Frequency 1 in 15 years 1 in 100 years 1 in 680 years

5 Philippines

Population within Population within Population within Volcano Latitude Longitude 15 km radius 25 km radius 50 km radius Ambalatungan Group 17.32 121.10 9,285 31,282 305,063 Amorong 15.83 120.81 370,966 1,064,775 3,869,911 Apo 7.01 125.27 25,345 324,978 2,489,693 Arayat 15.20 120.74 410,758 1,831,140 5,768,651 Babuyan Claro 19.52 121.94 336 336 456 Balatocan 8.80 124.92 40,408 206,756 1,089,374 Balut 5.40 125.38 2,801 6,547 61,979 Banﾟhao 14.07 121.48 283,876 1,262,251 4,009,695 Biliran 11.52 124.54 100,218 196,789 745,623 Bulusan 12.77 124.05 152,433 395,835 836,055 Cabalﾝan 10.29 125.22 150,947 200,316 596,424 Cagua 18.22 122.12 7,871 18,276 199,909 Calayo 7.88 125.07 239,362 439,495 926,524 Camiguin 9.20 124.67 71,394 83,743 144,694 Camiguin de Babuyanes 18.83 121.86 1,167 1,500 4,037 Canlaon 10.41 123.13 134,673 586,096 2,175,747 Cuernos de Negros 9.26 123.18 167,672 391,815 914,119 Didicas 19.08 122.20 0 0 1,500 Iraya 20 122 5,516 6,796 7,138 Iriga 13.46 123.46 330,557 804,318 2,543,429 Isarog 13.66 123.38 152,639 887,708 2,061,596 Jalajala 14.35 121.33 238,474 1,702,565 15,322,494 Jolo 6.01 121.06 355,418 425,045 553,356 Kalatungan 7.95 124.80 69,362 215,144 1,305,131 Labo 14.02 122.79 58,632 464,155 1,019,892 Laguna Volc Field 14.12 121.30 559,150 2,016,554 7,262,668 Latukan 7.65 124.47 15,602 117,144 1,201,532 Leonard Range 7.38 126.05 18,470 163,154 1,523,424 Mahagnoa 10.87 124.85 134,300 434,952 1,488,326 Makaturing 7.65 124.32 51,190 247,230 1,269,812 Malinao 13.42 123.60 253,315 814,066 2,198,856 Malindang 8.22 123.63 65,539 419,084 1,683,350 Malindig 13.24 122.02 49,959 159,160 273,726 Mandalagan 10.62 123.22 52,080 336,714 2,391,884 Maquiling 14.13 121.20 1,321,979 2,604,436 9,929,900 Mariveles 14.50 120.50 116,077 373,542 2,415,057 Masaraga 13.32 123.60 441,591 1,019,834 2,123,056 Matutum 6.37 125.11 27,739 365,985 1,858,622 Mayon 13.26 123.69 614,787 972,897 2,049,589 Musuan 7.88 125.07 239,362 439,495 926,524 Natib 14.71 120.40 164,678 848,602 2,541,587 Paco 9.59 125.52 131,167 274,288 429,857 Panay 13.72 120.89 68,942 625,678 2,179,708 Parker 6.12 124.89 11,673 250,965 1,544,090 Patoc 17.15 120.98 37,296 61,815 263,002 Pinatubo 15.13 120.35 12,811 379,076 3,403,539 Pocdol Mountains 13.05 123.96 172,343 464,964 1,533,911 Population within Population within Population within Volcano Latitude Longitude 15 km radius 25 km radius 50 km radius Ragang 7.70 124.50 18,439 176,252 1,164,304 Santo Tomas 16.33 120.55 519,537 856,173 2,658,848 Silay 10.77 123.23 60,567 628,032 1,978,899

6 Taal 14.00 120.99 181,602 1,176,849 7,090,766 Unnamed 20.33 121.75 1,466 4,478 7,138

Average Population (per volcano) 167,726 534,213 2,122,009 Percentage Population (per volcano) 0.2 0.6 2.3 Eruption Frequency 1 in 50 years 1 in 280 years 1 in 1600 years

7 Papua New Guinea

Population Population Population within 15 km within 25 km within 50 km Volcano Latitude Longitude radius radius radius Ambitle -4.08 153.65 8,823 8,823 8,823 Bagana -6.14 155.20 1,865 6,303 65,239 Balbi -5.83 154.98 2,158 9,500 28,532 Baluan -2.57 147.28 252 846 3,433 Bam -3.60 144.85 75 75 615 Bamus -5.20 151.23 3,337 11,460 22,059 Billy Mitchell -6.09 155.23 1,630 8,416 65,425 Blup Blup -3.51 144.62 90 122 2,104 Boisa -3.99 144.96 1,079 7,604 41,079 Bola -5.15 150.03 1,171 5,477 51,442 Crater Mountain -6.58 145.08 8,704 18,958 122,158 Dakataua -5.06 150.11 900 1,573 10,257 Dawson Strait Group -9.62 150.88 3,022 5,750 14,094 Doma Peaks -5.90 143.15 12,376 52,530 278,272 Garbuna Group -5.45 150.03 10,922 51,712 79,314 Garove -4.69 149.50 4,732 5,115 5,998 Garua Harbour -5.27 150.09 4,963 9,548 72,415 Goodenough -9.48 150.35 3,141 14,235 26,204 Hargy -5.33 151.10 8,131 10,887 24,186 Hydrographers Range -9.00 148.37 3,106 13,245 59,430 Iamalele -9.52 150.53 1,671 6,042 23,683 Kadovar -3.62 144.62 90 197 6,808 Karkar -4.65 145.96 13,253 13,253 33,817 Koranga -7.33 146.71 13,537 26,243 77,875 Lamington -8.95 148.15 5,564 34,526 66,721 Langila -5.53 148.42 4,136 7,916 18,247 Lihir -3.13 152.64 2,811 3,251 3,395 Lolo -5.47 150.50 13,637 23,572 85,095 Lolobau -4.92 151.16 2,346 5,595 16,250 Loloru -6.52 155.62 2,833 13,397 77,416 Long Island -5.36 147.12 3,367 3,637 3,707 Madilogo -9.20 147.57 1,576 4,885 166,210 Managlase Plateau -9.08 148.33 3,446 9,104 61,606 Manam -4.10 145.06 1,459 9,860 55,827 Mundua -4.63 149.35 998 5,115 5,998 Musa River -9.31 148.13 2,360 6,205 25,842 Narage -4.55 149.13 14 284 5,998 Pago -5.58 150.52 10,413 27,431 83,372 Rabaul -4.27 152.20 86,581 166,480 196,729 Ritter Island -5.52 148.12 262 2,322 14,184 Sakar -5.41 148.09 142 347 10,404 Sessagara -9.48 149.13 2,900 7,073 31,666 St. Andrew Strait -2.38 147.35 643 1,482 28,531 Takuan Group -6.44 155.61 2,626 37,366 78,176 Tavui -4.12 152.20 37,625 72,703 189,980 Tore -5.83 154.93 1,475 6,344 28,677 Ulawun -5.05 151.33 4,177 8,321 22,239 Population Population Population within 15 km within 25 km within 50 km Volcano Latitude Longitude radius radius radius Umboi -5.59 147.88 1,417 2,928 6,616

8 Unnamed -5.20 148.57 0 0 4,867 Unnamed -4.75 150.85 0 0 506 Unnamed -4.31 146.26 0 0 8,587 Unnamed -3.03 147.78 0 0 0 Victory -9.20 149.07 2,174 9,531 21,066 Waiowa -9.57 149.08 2,140 7,357 33,101 Walo -5.53 150.90 3,038 7,298 30,136 Yelia -7.05 145.86 3,455 9,086 37,846 Yomba -4.92 146.75 0 0 315

Average Population (per volcano) 5,485 13,708 44,607 Percentage Population (per volcano) 0.1 0.2 0.8 Eruption Frequency 1 in 25 years 1 in 150 years 1 in 900 years

9 Vanuatu

Population Population Population within within 15 km within 50 km 25 km radius Volcano Latitude Longitude radius radius Ambrym -16.25 168.12 8,119 9,113 17,212 Aneityum -20.20 169.83 649 649 649 Aoba -15.40 167.83 0 134 11,261 Eastern Gemini Seamount -20.98 170.28 0 0 0 Epi -16.68 168.37 300 3,733 13,629 Gaua -14.27 167.50 0 0 0 Hunter Island -22.40 172.05 0 0 0 Kuwae -16.83 168.54 2,597 3,819 11,393 Lopevi -16.51 168.35 1,421 4,253 17,276 Matthew Island -22.33 171.32 2 2 2 Mere Lava -14.45 168.05 73 73 73 Motlav -13.67 167.67 0 0 0 North Vate -17.45 168.33 7,415 14,306 50,850 Suretamatai -13.80 167.47 0 0 0 Traitors Head -18.75 169.23 966 4,856 6,848 Unnamed -16.99 168.59 3,562 5,529 7,494 Yasur -19.52 169.43 10,857 23,404 23,985

Average Population (per volcano) 2115 4110 9451 Percentage Population (per volcano) 1.0 2.0 4.5 Eruption Frequency 1 in 40 years 1 in 280 years 1 in 2100 years

Population Population Population within within 15 km within 50 km 25 km radius Volcano Latitude Longitude radius radius Curacoa -15.62 -173.67 0 0 2,090 Falcon Island -20.32 -175.42 319 469 562 Fonualei -18.02 -174.325 158 181 181 Home Reef -18.992 -174.775 0 98 303 Kao -19.67 -175.03 3,040 3,040 3,284 Late -18.806 -174.65 284 284 303 Metis Shoal -19.18 -174.87 19 19 175 Tafahi -15.85 -173.72 1,238 2,090 2,090 Tofua -19.75 -175.07 3,040 3,040 3,284 Total 8,098 9,221 12,272 Unnamed -21.38 -175.65 0 0 19,382 Unnamed -20.85 -175.53 0 0 49,688 Unnamed -18.325 -174.365 0 0 4,877

Average Population (per volcano) 1,350 1,537 7,801 Percentage Population (per volcano) 1.2 1.3 6.7 Eruption Frequency 1 in 118 years 1 in 556 years 1 in 2621 years