Defining WSP Service Area and Descriptions of Low-Income Areas

MajiData

Table of Contents 1 Service Areas and Urban Boundaries...... 2 2 Defining Low Income Areas: an Introduction...... 2 3 Characteristics of Urban Low Income Areas...... 3 4 Description of Various Types of Urban Low Income Areas...... 6 4.1 Informal Settlements...... 7 4.2 Planned Areas with (Planned) Low Income Housing...... 7 4.3 Informal Housing in Planned Residential Areas...... 8 4.4 Urban Sub-Centres...... 10 4.5 Large Rural Centres with Urban Characteristics and Low Income Housing 10 4.6 Urban IDP Camps/Settlements...... 10 4.7 Peri-Urban Areas...... 11 5 Water supply in Low-Income Urban Areas...... 11 Appendix: Pictures of Low Income Urban Areas...... 12

WSTF/MajiData Identifying Low Income Urban Areas November 2008 2

MajiData

Defining WSP Service Area and Descriptions of Low-Income Areas

1 Service Areas and Urban Boundaries The following remarks can be made with regard to urban boundaries and the WSP service area: 1. During the preparation of the data collection exercise it will be important to define the service area of the WSP. All low income areas within the service areas should be included in a detailed areas list.

2. In addition to the areas that lie within the WSP service area, the list should include all urban low-income areas that lie outside the service area but that could be supplied by the WSP through simple network extensions (max. 2- inch pipes).

3. The boundary of the urban conglomeration/area has to be defined by the Data Collectors on the basis of a set of criteria (see Appendix 1).

2 Defining Low Income Areas: an Introduction Kenya’s cities and towns are complex socio-economic and cultural entities characterised by a marked patterns of economic differentiation. In some cities and towns, low-income areas can be easily identified and have clear borders. Kibera and Mathare in Nairobi are clear examples of large well delineated informal settlements. In other towns, however, the urban poor reside in small formal estates or in rented accommodation which are surrounded by commercial plots or by high incomes housing. The question which has to be asked is which areas need to be included in MajiData. In order to make an informed decision there is need to provide detailed description of the various types of low-income areas. The descriptions presented in this chapter (see paragraph 3.3) are based upon:  A study carried out in Kitale, Webuye and Bungoma (KFW, November 2006).

 Discussion with a number of NGOs, active in the WSS Sector1 and with staff of the German Development Service (DED).

3 Characteristics of Urban Low Income Areas In order to prepare descriptions of urban low income areas the WSTF held meetings with Hakijamii Trust, Umande Trust and DED. According to these stakeholders many urban low income areas share the following characteristics: Water supply and sanitation:  Areas lack or have limited access to basic services such as safe water, and sanitation.  The existing infrastructure is usually in poor technical condition, not user- friendly and poorly managed.  Where WSS services are available they are usually shared. Residents use community stand pipes and shared ablution blocks.  Residents rely on informal water and sanitation service providers (water resellers, )  The price residents have to pay for water is not regulated.  The quality of water fetched from sources within the area (boreholes, protected open wells, etc.) is poor.  Lack of space (due to poor planning and high population densities) needed for the provision of basic infrastructure/services such as roads, safe water, adequate sanitation, drainage and solid waste management. Population, layout and infrastructure:  High population densities.  Many low income areas have not been constructed according to a proper layout plan.  Plots usually accommodate more than one household (in some informal urban areas a single plot can accommodate up to 35 households).  Most low income areas are located on marginalised land (areas with a high water table or situated on top of hills, etc.).

1 The WSTF organized discussions with Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO) that are running programmes in the low income areas. Two discussion meetings were held and the first one was held at Kenyatta market with Hakijamii Trust. Hakijamii Trust is currently working in the informal settlements of Kisumu, Nairobi, and Garisa. Their main focus is on educating the residents on their rights to housing, sanitation, and water. The second discussion meeting was held in Kibera with Umande Trust, an organization actively working in Nairobi, Kisumu, and Mombasa. The organisation mainly focuses on improvement of water supply and sanitation (basic services) in the low income areas.

 Most low income areas have poor infrastructure (roads, drainage) and services (solid waste collection). Land ownership:  Many residents lack security of tenure.  The areas are either planned or unplanned. Planned (formal) low income areas are mostly found on Government or Council land.  Many residents are renting their accommodation.  Many tenants live in flats which they share with other tenants. Quite often the landlord also resides on the plot.  Landowners often lack the financial resources to construct proper houses and to invest in proper water supply and sanitation.  Land is object of speculation of power-brokers, who are not really interested in developing it.  Obtaining land for the construction of WSS infrastructure (such as water kiosks and public sanitation facilities) is usually a challenge.  Most of these settlements are on marginalized land (flood prone, mountains etc)  Land tenure patterns in urban low income areas differ from region to region:  Communal land in North Eastern Kenya.

 Private land in Western Kenya (for example, Kisumu).

 Council and Government land in Nairobi.

Type of housing:  Housing in informal settlements, can be either permanent or temporal. The quality of housing often depends on the land tenure. Residents who own the land they occupy tend to put up permanent structures whilst residents who do not own the land tend to put up temporal structures. For example in Kisumu, a large proportion of residents living in low income areas have title deeds which explains why these areas tend to have a mixture of permanent and temporary houses. Low income areas in Kisumu are either found on privately owned land, Trust Land, or on land owned by the Council. In rural towns some settlements are located on Trust land but further investigations often reveal that titles to the land (trust land) have been issued to other people without the knowledge of the current occupants. Socio-economic situation:  Most residents (but not all residents) have low income levels.  Unemployment levels, and youth unemployment levels in particular, are high.

 Many residents are active in the informal sector of the local economy and derive an income from small-scale businesses, trade and casual labour (piece work).  Residents in formal employment are mainly Government or Council employees, shop attendants, security guards, drivers, (etc.) with low incomes.  Residents lack information on many issues and as a result many do not know their rights.  Mixed social economic make-up of the areas (the majority of the residents are renting the houses they live in, others are owned and are Landlords, high unemployment levels, the well-to-do businessmen etc.). Community characteristics:  Low income areas often lack social cohesion. This can often be attributed to the mobility of their residents. In informal settlements social cohesion tends to be higher than in planned low income settlements.  Community participation in low income areas is often lacking.  Strong presence, in some urban low income areas of civil society organizations and registered groups. Policy and development interventions:  Policy negligence. Governments tend to ignore urban low income areas when preparing the national budget.  Residents are often not consulted during the preparation of development interventions or the choice of technologies that aim to improve the living conditions in urban low-income areas.  Wrong technologies or poor designs are often adopted to improve infrastructure in low income settlements. Adapted technologies and the preferences and priorities of residents are often not considered.2  The authorities should also develop master plans and coordinate developments.  Land owners are not involved in the planning and implementation of projects which require land and aim to improve the welfare of the residents. This means that beneficiaries should be ready to offer land and legal documents signed between the stakeholders.  Development interventions tend to focus upon providing infrastructure instead of investing in people and improving capacities. Public health:  The public health situation in many urban low income areas is poor. This can be attributed to:

2 For example, in areas with high population densities that lack a proper layout, there may be need to develop an overhead piping technology for water supply.

o High population densities.

o Lack of safe water, adequate sanitation, drainage and waste collection systems.

o Poor hygienic practices of residents.

o Absence of community health education and sensitization programmes.

o Lack of health facilities (clinics, hospitals, etc.).

4 Description of Various Types of Urban Low Income Areas This paragraph contains descriptions of the various types of urban low income areas found in Kenya. These areas share many of the characteristics presented in the previous sections. These descriptions are based upon discussions with stakeholders and field visits. The objective is to identify and describe urban areas that should be included in the MajiData Database. These areas should also be suitable for the introduction and sustainable operation of urban pro-poor water supply solutions, such as water kiosks, and improved public sanitation facilities. The following low income urban areas are described in more detail: 1. Informal settlements with informal housing. 2. Planned areas with formal low income housing. 3. Planned areas with informal housing. 4. Semi urban sub-centres. 5. (Semi-permanent) refugee camps. 6. Large rural centres. A description of peri-urban areas has been included to show that these areas are not suitable for urban WSS solutions. Table 1 contains the descriptions of the types of low income urban areas. Pictures of a number of types of low income areas are presented in the Appendix.

Table 1: Urban WSTF-funded projects should target the low income urban areas Area Housing Formal housing Informal housing

Planned urban area  Planned low income areas with formal  Planned low income areas with low income housing (Council estates, informal housing etc.)  Pockets (plots or compounds) of low  Pockets (plots or compounds) of low income informal housing found income formal housing found within within residential or commercial

residential or commercial areas areas  Planned semi-urban sub-centres with  Planned semi-urban sub-centres formal low income housing with informal low income housing  Planned large rural centres with urban  Planned large rural centres with characteristics and formal low income urban characteristics and informal housing low income housing Unplanned urban area  Formal low income housing in  Informal urban settlements with unplanned urban areas informal housing  (Semi-permanent) urban refugee camps

4.1 Informal Settlements Informal settlements are often referred to as “slums” or “urban slums”. Their residents are called “slum dwellers” or “squatters”. Residents often depend on a small number of house/yard connections, springs and wells. Households residing on the same plot share pit latrines and in slums (such as Kibera in Nairobi) residents resort to flying toilets. Most slums are un-planned, often illegal, urban settlements with high population densities, poor service levels, and low incomes associated with lack of social cohesion. The land occupied by the residents of these slums is owned by the Municipality, the Government or by private individuals. In some cases, the land was allocated to the squatters. For example, in Kipsonge area in Kitale, squatters have occupied the land for a number of decades. Most houses in slum areas are constructed with what might be labelled as temporary materials. Substandard housing in slum areas is considered to be the result of high poverty levels and/or insecurity of tenure. The water supply and sanitation situation in most slums is poor. As far as water supply is concerned, residents often depend on a small number of house/yard connections, springs and wells. Households residing on the same plot share pit latrines and in slums (such as Kibera in Nairobi) residents resort to flying toilets. Not surprisingly residents and local health experts mention the high incidence of water-related diseases such as typhoid. Discussions with slum residents indicate that few households are able and willing to invest in house or yard connections. Most households are poor and simply lack the financial resources to invest in a house connection and to pay the monthly water bill. Others, who can afford, are not willing to invest in a house connection because of the insecurity of tenure. It is important to note that even in the informal settlements many residents are renting their accommodation. It is common practice that the landlord or landlady resides in a flat within the same compound. Water kiosks are the most feasible and sustainable solution for these informal settlements.

4.2 Planned Areas with (Planned) Low Income Housing Planned low income housing areas or estates with high population densities, dilapidated water supply and sanitation systems (e.g. Council and Government housing estates). In many cities and towns there are formal (planned) low-cost housing estates which are owned by the Municipality or by other (parastal) organisations.3 The tenants occupying the flats (one estate may have up to 35 flats), either do not pay rent or the rent is deducted from the breadwinner’s salary (in case he or she works for the Municipality). Income levels of most families are very low. In the past some of the estates were supplied through water kiosks, but in most cases these kiosks were disconnected a number of years ago and the residents were told to apply for house or yard connections. This did not happen as residents (who seemed to be aware of the costs involved of acquiring a connection) lack the financial resources to pay for a connection and in most cases even lack the finances needed to pay the monthly water bill. In Kitale and Naivasha many residents of such estates have to walk relatively long distances and fetch water at a relatively high price (KSh 3.00/20-litre container). 4 Improving water supply only would leave the problem of the dilapidated ablution blocks unaddressed. In many estates these ablution blocks are equipped with flush toilets connected to the sewer. In many cases these toilets are still being used (the sewer still flows) and the water for flushing is fetched from nearby springs or taps. In the rainy season rainwater is used for the same purpose.

4.3 Informal Housing in Planned Residential Areas Informal housing in planned urban areas where plot owners have title deeds. Sometimes the plots with informal housing constitute small pockets which are surrounded by well constructed homes or commercial properties. In many cities and towns, low-income informal housing can be found in planned areas where individuals or organisations hold title deeds to the land or where land is owned by the Government. Officially land has to be developed in accordance with the plans and bylaws of the Municipality. As the enforcement of these bylaws is often lacking,5 many landlords have taken the opportunity to ignore existing housing guidelines and standards and to develop cheap sub-standard housing for families with low incomes (see pictures 5 - 6). In most cases landlords have invested in

3 Many of these estates have centrally located ablution blocks linked to septic tanks. 4 Residents in Kitale stated they would prefer to have their old and abandoned kiosks rehabilitated and re-commissioned. According to residents, paying for water on a daily basis is preferred by households with low and/or irregular incomes. Even if kiosk water is more expensive, the fact that the household can pay a relatively small amount, just to satisfy the needs of that particular day or the next day, offers the household the much needed flexibility. 5 According to the Town Clerk of Webuye, there is no political will to enforce bylaws and regulations.

WSTF/MajiData Identifying Low Income Urban Areas November 2008 9 compounds that consist of flats which are rented out. Many houses are made of clay and other temporary building materials.6 Sub-standard/informal housing is found in almost all sections of the 3 western towns. Most flats are occupied by low-income households.7 According to the Town Clerk of Webuye, the non-enforcement of bylaws and building requirements and regulations explains why in Webuye proper housing structures (homes, flats, etc.) are often surrounded by sub-standard housing and why small- scale industries are found in residential areas. In other words, there often exists a discrepancy between the existing development plans and what can be found “on the ground”.8 In these areas the pattern of social and economic differentiation is marked: Poor households live amidst wealthier residents. This also means that in the 3 western towns poverty is not confined to specific areas. Water supply in the compounds (plots) varies. Some landlords have invested in yard taps and VIPs and even in indoor plumbing. A significant proportion of landlords, however, lack the financial resources or are unwilling to invest in proper water supply and sanitation for their tenants. Some yard connections are equipped with a water meter but many yard connections still have to be metered. Where un-metered and metered yard taps are found, water is often included in the rent. However, the rent of flats which are supplied through metered yard taps tends to be significantly higher. In many flats, tenants have to share a single yard tap. Access to the yard tap is in most cases restricted to the tenants. A number of landlords explained that they do not want to operate their yard tap as a kind of kiosk as it is already difficult enough to ensure that tenants pay their rent. In some estates water is rationed by most landlords.9 A considerable number of un- metered yard taps have been disconnected by the Company due to non-payment of water bills.

6 All plots (even after a sub-division exercise) have been surveyed and are usually accessible as all roads and pathways are owned by the Municipality. 7 Housing can not always be used as a poverty indicator. Some urban residents living in informal housing prefer to invest their income in their house in the village and in their farming enterprise. When working in town, they do not bother to look for proper accommodation. Strong ties with the rural areas and lack of land in the urban areas, may also explain why only a small proportion of households occupying informal housing in planned urban areas, is engaged in urban gardening. 8 According to the Town Clerk of Webuye there is no proper coordination between developers, landlords and the Municipal Council. 9 One landlord in Sango, Webuye closes his yard tap at 08.00hrs not opening it before 17.00hrs. In other areas the rationing system introduced by the Water Service Provider, NZOWASCO, is said to assist landlords in the management of their yard tap.

The sale of water to neighbours mainly occurs at un-metered yard taps.10 WSPs, therefore, should consider supplying these areas, especially where there are large numbers of low-income compounds, through water kiosks. In some areas, however, there will be a large demand for house connections. The Project should be able to make reliable assessments of that demand. In some estates many flats had water connections before supply got cut off or simply stopped.

4.4 Urban Sub-Centres An urban sub-centre can be defined as a relatively small urban centre, which is situated at some distance from the main town. Most sub-centres and large rural centres have a small commercial centre and socio- economic infrastructure (health centre, one or more schools, a market). Most sub- centres and many large rural centres are linked to the electricity grid and many sub centres are found along main tarmac roads (for example, Bukembe which is situated along the Webuye – Bungoma road). The water supply situation in many sub-centres is not good.11 Some of these sub- centres are potential kiosk areas. It should be noted, however, that some centres are not yet connected to the supply network.

4.5 Large Rural Centres with Urban Characteristics and Low Income Housing A large rural centre can be defined as a large settlement located in a rural setting. The size of the population and the population density render rural water supply solutions (hand pumps, etc.) unsuitable. In large rural centres the majority of the population derive their income from farming activities, casual labourers at the farms and farming estates. Some of these centres are unplanned and the high population density is due to the lack of land for expansion. WSS service levels are often poor and residents often use sources such as hand pumps, boreholes, protected and unprotected wells and springs. Some of these centres even lack land required for the provision of basic social and economic services.

10 A targeted metering programme is therefore likely to have an impact upon the water supply situation of households which lack direct access to a yard tap. 11 Matete (near Webuye), for example, used to be supplied by the Webuye distribution network, but was disconnected years ago. In response to the poor water supply situation, households and institutions have managed to develop alternatives. Some schools have invested in rainwater harvesting installations or hand pumps, health centres have sunk boreholes and households depend upon springs, protected and unprotected wells. Most (if not all) sub-centres along the main tarmac roads are supplied by the WSP (NZOWASCO). The number of domestic connections is, however, relatively low. Residents of the sub-centres along the Webuye-Bungoma road who do consume water from the Matisi waterworks, complained (like the residents of Bungoma) about the poor quality of their piped water.

4.6 Urban IDP Camps/Settlements In some towns such as Kitale, there are a number of old well established internally displaced persons (IDP) settlements. These settlements are characterised by high population densities and informal housing (houses and huts constructed with branches, plastics and other available materials). Income levels in these settlements are usually very low and the WSS situation is often poor.12

4.7 Peri-Urban Areas Many peri-urban areas surrounding many Kenyan towns share the following characteristics:  Low population densities (average distances between dwellings usually range between 30 and 200 metres).  Farming is the main economic activity.  Housing patterns: Farms, high-cost housing (villas) and compounds/plots with flats.  Residents fetch water at springs, protected wells, unprotected wells and hand pumps.  Most residents own their house.  In most cases water is fetched free of charge.  Water supply is not really considered to be a problem.  Residents use pit latrines and VIPs.  Income levels are relatively high (when compared with informal settlements). In many ways it would be more appropriate to label these areas as semi-rural areas. Water kiosks should, therefore, not be considered appropriate water supply options for many peri-urban areas. Peri-urban residents either prefer house connections (especially residents living in high-cost housing) or tend to be relatively satisfied with the water sources they currently use. Kiosks would be the wrong solution for the peri-urban areas because there would not be sufficient demand for kiosk water to render the kiosks sustainable. Water kiosks would not contribute to the revenue base of the Company and would only increase overall maintenance costs. It is unlikely that Water Vendors can be found who are willing to operate isolated kiosks without customers.

5 Water supply in Low-Income Urban Areas Residents of low income urban areas use a wide variety of sources of safe and unsafe water:  House connections linked to the distribution network.  Yard connections.

12 The WSTF has no data on the number of well established refugee settlements in urban centres.

 Public taps.  Communal taps managed by a committee.  Hand pumps.  Formal water kiosks.  Informal water kiosks.  Protected wells.  Unprotected wells.  Springs.  Streams.  Rain water. 13 Especially poorer households tend to fetch their water from a number of different sources. This should be seen as a response to low household incomes, erratic supply and poor water quality (For example, in Bungoma piped water is considered to be of poor quality). Many households try to fetch the water they need for drinking and preparing meals from a safe source, whereas water which is required for other usages is fetched from other sources such as unprotected wells.

Appendix: Pictures of Low Income Urban Areas

13 Rainwater harvesting is a common practice in most parts of Kenya.

WSTF/MajiData Identifying Low Income Urban Areas November 2008