IB History of the Americas Final Study Guide
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IB History of the Americas Final Study Guide 2[Type text]
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Latin American Independence Movements
European Circumstances at the Time Spain: Portugal:
-1746 – Decreased colonial trade -Napoleonic Wars -1807-1808 – Napoleon invades -French Revolution
-Misrule and wars bankruptcy -Political ideology – liberty -Spanish King abdicated and liberation
-Napoleon puts Joseph in charge
Country Movement for Leaders/Revolutionaries Significance/Impact Independence Details
Mexico -Hidalgo led some -Miguel Hidalgo -Itubile becomes a bloody battles -Jose Morelos dictator, he is then originally -Augustine de Ilaneros gotten rid of -It was a Creole and -Political unrest native army Gran Colombia -Bolivar used -Simon Bolivar -Countries were nativism to get liberated by Bolivar support and victory
Chile -Nativism -Bernardo O’Higgins -San Martin offered -Armies of SM and -Jose de San Martin chance to rule, says no O’H meet and fight -O’Higgins becomes together, winning the ruler after he is control of Chile beaten
Argentina -Bolivar led to -Jose de San Martin freedom after San Martin went back to Europe Brazil -Prince Pedro rallied -Prince Pedro -Declared an the natives together, independent refused to listen to monarchy Portugal, and -Makes itself a demanded republic independence
Peru -Simon Bolivar -Jose de San Martin -Tupac Amatu II Haiti -Slave revolt against -Toussaint L’Overture -Only successful slave leaders -Jean Jaques revolt ever -Napoleon served as -Napoleon -Creoles ended up on a distraction top, and mixed race -GB tried to take were still below advantage
Political Parties in American History
The First Two Party System, 1780s – 1801
Federalists Democratic Republicans Favored strong central gov. Emphasized states’ right “Loose” interpretation of the Constitution “Strict” interpretation of the Constitution Encouraged commerce and manufacturing Preference agriculture and rural life Strongest in Northeast Strength in South and West Favored close ties with Britain Sympathized with France Emphasized order and stability Stressed Civil liberties and trust in the people The Second Two Party System, 1828 – 1850
Democrats Whigs (revival of Federalists) Party of Tradition Party of modernization Looked back to past Looked to the future Spoke to the fears of Americans Spoke to the hopes of Americans Opposed banks and corporations Favored gov. promoted economic growth Opposed state-legislated reforms transportation/banks Preferred individual freedom of choice Wanted reforms such as temperance, public Jefferson agrarians who favored farms, rural schools, and prison reform independence, and the right to own slaves Favored industry, urban growth, and free labor Favored rapid expansion over space by Favored gradual territorial expansion purchase or war Opposed the Mexican War Believed in progress through external growth Progress through internal growth Favored in the South Favored in the North
Mid-19th Century Political Crisis
Disputes over slavery in the territories first eroded, then destroy what had become the second two party system. The erosion began in the 1840s as various factions opposed to the post-Jackson Democratic political coalition begin to form.
Liberty Part (abolition) Free Soil Party (stop expansion) Ran abolitionist candidate James Birney for Opposed to expansion of slavery in the president in 1844 territories Won 2% of the vote but drew votes from Whigs, Won 10% of the vote with Martin Van Buren as especially in New York the candidate in 1848 Lost 50% of support in 1852 when the candidate repudiated the Compromise of 1850 6[Type text]
Whigs American (Know Nothing) Party Southern “Cotton” Whigs eventually drifted to Nativist party based on opposition to the Democratic Party immigration and on temperance Northern “Conscience” Whigs moved to new Ran Millard Fillmore in 1856, won 21% of the parties; Free Soil, Republican popular vote Fillmore is the last Whig president Absorbed into Republican Party post 1856
Republican Party Formed in 1854 when a coalition of Independent Democrats, Free Soilers, and Conscience Whigs united in opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill Stressed free labor and opposed extension of slavery in the territories Moderates could oppose slavery on “moral” grounds as wrong, while admitting that slavery had a “right” to exist where the constitution originally allowed John C. Fremont was the first Republican presidential candidate in 1856
The Election of 1860
Democrats Republicans Split at 1860 Convention in Charleston, SC when Overtly sectional and decidedly opposed to a platform defending slavery was defeated and slavery draw in most northerners with a Deep South delegates walked out platform favoring a homestead act, protective At a splinter convention, Stephen Douglas was tariff, and transportation improvements nominated as presidential candidate on a Platform opposed extension of slavery but platform opposing Congressional interference defended the right of states to control their own with slavery “domestic institutions” Southern delegates met and nominated John Abraham Lincoln is nominated presidential Breckenridge of Kentucky as a candidate on a candidate on the third ballot pro-slavery platform Native American Removal
In the new nation, all rulers, no matter what party saw Native Americans as an impediment to expansion and growth of a Christian based civilization
Oppression of the Natives came in many different forms
o In Canada, church-run residential schools were established to educate, assimilate, and civilize (abusively) Native children by separating them from their parents
o In Latin America, natives were used as forced cheap labor on Creole owned haciendas
All over the Americas, natives were being pushed around by Europeans who believed that they had been chosen by God to rule the new world
Andrew Jackson, who became president in 1830, promised to expel Native Americans from many areas of the country
He supported the native way of life, but not if it impeded expansion
Jackson’s plan was to take the natives away from their original land, and force them into “Indian Territories” (current day Oklahoma)
However, problems such as run away slaves, resident indigenous tribes, and land-hungry settlers soon began to cause problems in these new lands
Also in 1830, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which forced Natives to sign over their land, and accept relocation to new territories
Of all the tribes, the Cherokees suffered the most
15,000 people began the trail to their new land, and 1/3 didn’t make it- “Trail of Tears”
By 1840, over 46,000 natives had been expelled, and the US government had gained 25 million acres of prime agricultural land Roots of the Supreme Court
Supreme Court decisions mirrored the nationalism at the time
As chief justice, John Marshall greatly expanded the power and independence of the court
By 1801, the court had decided only 100 cases, and met sporadically; at most six weeks per year
However, a series of cases led to a huge increase in the courts authority: 8[Type text]
o Marbury v. Madison: Established the Supreme Court as the final arbiter of the Constitution and its power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional
o Fletcher v. Peck: Declared the Court’s power to void state laws
o McCulloch v. Maryland: Established the constitutionality of the second Bank of the US, and denied to states the right to exert independent checks on federal authority
o Dartmouth v. Woodward: The Court promoted business growth by denying states the right to alter or impair contracts unilaterally
o Gibbons v. Ogden: Broadened federal power over interstate commerce
Two fundamental questions dealt with by the court were whether the federal government had the power to incorporate a bank, and whether a state had the power to tax a branch of the Bank of the US
The court decided yes to the first question, stating that Congress had the power to do whatever was necessary and proper to carry out its constitutional powers, in this case, the power to manage a currency
However, they decided no to the second question because they stated that the Constitution created a new government with sovereign power over the states
The distribution of constitutional powers established through these cases are still followed today
These cases established the supreme court as the final arbiter of the constitutionality of federal and state laws
It also became clear that Congress had powers that were not limited to those specifically referenced in the Constitution- Elastic clause
Caudillos
There were several conditions that allowed caudillos to emerge. They include economic depression, the breakdown of law and order in a country, and the militarization of a country. Basically, the country needed to be going through a state of disarray, economically, politically, militarily, and socially.
A caudillo was a charismatic leader who advanced their own interests through military and political skills. They would adopt any form of government that would best suit their strategy for getting control over public funds to increase their power network.
Caudillos did not become a permanent fixture in Latin America because they existed during times of disarray. Therefore, they were able to exist and thrive when the countries of Latin America were going through periods of uncertainty, but when the countries got their feet again, caudillos began to decline.
The caudillos were most popular with the “folk” because if the folk obeyed the leaders, then it was up to the caudillos to protect them. There was a sort of give and take relationship, where one would obey the other and in turn would receive protection from them.
South Americans supported caudillos originally because they were a form of government over areas of disarray. They provided protection to some people, and were able to unite the people under one common thread. The Civil War
Causes of the Civil War: • The fundamental cause of the Civil War was that the North did not want slavery to spread to the West and the South did. • The North opposed slavery because: o Slavery held down wages. o By the 1850s it was seen as an "old fashioned" embarrassment. o Northerners wanted western agricultural land farmed by free whites, not black slaves o The North was rapidly industrializing and favored "free labor." • The South supported slavery because: o It was profitable. o Southern capital was heaviIy invested in slaves. o Slave ownership helped determine one's status. o It was a method of race control. o It ensured a reliable labor supply for the plantation economy. • The expansion of slavery was necessary for slavery's survival. • The region that controlled the West wouId control the country. • Neither the North or South believed in racial equality.
Expansion: • The 1820 Missouri Compromise-MO a slave state; ME a free state. No slavery north of 36°30" in the LA Territory with the exception of Missouri. • Texas gained its independence from Mexico in 1835 but was not admitted into the Union until 1845 because of the issue of slavery. • The annexation of the Oregon Territory (1/54°40" or fight") in 1846 counterbalanced the admittance of Texas
The Mexican War (1846-1848): • Mexico refused to recognize the borders with Texas • Territory lost by Mexico In 1848 • President Polk believed in "Manifest Destiny" and he wanted California • of Texas. • USand Mexican troops clashed in disputed land south of the Nueces River and the US declared war. • Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Mexico ceded the U.S. its land north of the Rio Grande River for $15 million. • The Wilmot Proviso attempted to block the expansion of slavery in the Mexican cession. • The Mexican War forced Congress to deal with the slavery question. The expansion of slavery became a huge issue. • The Compromise of 1850: o California came into the Union as a free state. o Arizona and New Mexico organized by popular sovereignty. o The slave trade was abolished in Washington, DC. 10[Type text]
o A stronger fugitive slave law was enacted.
Uncle Tom's Cabin (1854) reinforced regional stereotypes.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) terminated the MO Compromise and opened the LA Purchase to slavery "Bleeding Kansas" resulted. (The Whig Party disappeared and the Republican Party became the “Free Soil” /anti-slavery party. )
Dred Scott In the 1857 Dred Scott decision the Supreme Court ruled that popular sovereignty was unconstitutional.
John Brown's 1859 raid on the armory at Harper's Ferry raised fears in the South of a slave insurrection.
Election of 1860: The election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency in 1860 with no Southern electoral votes meant that the South would be subservient to the North so it seceded.
The Civil War: • The war began April 12, 1861 when SC fired on Ft. Sumter. • South made three major errors: o Did not prepare for a war of attrition. o Put its faith in King Cotton. o Fought a defensive war. • The North: • Blockaded the Confederate coast. • Divided the South along the Mississippi River and through Georgi • Captured the Confederate capital of Richmond to end the war. • The Emancipation Proclamation and Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg ensured that European powers wouId not support the South . • The South surrendered on April 9, 1865 and Lincoln was assassinated on April 14.
The Civil War War in the South:
o The south was plagued with bad leadership, in the form of Jefferson Davis, the man charged with the task of rallying public support for the Confederacy
o Davis was a stubborn plantation owner, and lacked Lincoln’s common touch and political flexibility
o Politically, the absence of a party system in the south became a problem, as Davis lacked a counterpart to the well-organized republican party o Under Davis, the south became far more centralized, and the Confederate government took control of many things
o They also urged farmers to grow food instead of cotton, hoping that the shortage would force Britain to intervene on the side of the Confederacy
o However, the plan backfired. England turned to other countries for cotton, and when America resumed cotton production, led to worldwide overproduction, immediately driving prices down, impoverishing farmers all over
o Davis also had problems in dealing with obstructionist governors,
o As the war went on, the south became more divided, and the struggle for independence became a “rich man’s war and a poor man’s fight”
o Economic problems also hindered the south
o The south, like the north, borrowed a lot to finance the war, but unlike the north, the south printed far too much money, leading to great amounts of inflation, rather than levying taxes
o Women also served a part in the confederate cause
o Many were left alone on farms to deal with everything that needed to be done
o They were also mobilized to support soldiers in the field
o As the war went on though, the increased death toll led to women wondering whether or not the goal of independence was worth it
o Another significant thing in the south was the position of slaves in the war
o After soldiers became more scarce, the south decided to let slaves enlist
o The war ended before the recruitment of black soldiers actually began, but the army did employ blacks as laborers Impact of the War on Slavery and African Americans
o The most dramatic change the Civil War had on American life was the destruction of slavery
o Lincoln said that slavery was irrelevant to the war, in an effort at the beginning to keep the border states (which had slavery) including Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri from joining the confederacy
o In the early days of war, Congress adopted a resolution saying that the north had no intention of interfering with slavery
o When slaves began escaping to northern territories, the military adopted a plan of treating escaped blacks as property of military value subject to confiscation
o As the northern army began to occupy the south, slaves in mass numbers began moving toward northern lines
o They provided the northerners with detailed accounts of the southern terrain, and the confederate movements 12[Type text]
o Antislavery northerners said that emancipation was necessary to weaken the south’s ability to sustain the war
o Slavery became a growing focus of the war as time went on, and several act were conducted to further emancipation
o Missouri even voted to free its slaves, but Lincoln, fearing the reaction of the border states rescinded it, saying that those states should introduce gradual emancipation
o It was even proposed to send blacks to an island near Haiti, so that they wouldn’t mix with the white Americans
o By the summer of 1862, Lincoln decided that emancipation was a political and military necessity
o After the north’s victory at Antietam, Lincoln delivered the Emancipation Proclamation, officially bringing abolition into the war causes
o The emancipation did not actually free many slaves right away, and the nearly 3 million slaves in the confederacy would have to wait for northern victory for it to affect them
o The proclamation did however inspire hope in the minds of slaves
o It also altered the course of the war itself. Blacks were allowed to enlist in the union army, and the war included abolition, and not just to preserve the prewar union
o It changed the way that Lincoln acted, becoming the “Great Emancipator”
o At the beginning of the war, the union army did not accept black volunteers, except as sailors and other jobs such as cooks and laborers
o The administration feared that whites would be unwilling to fight with blacks, and worried that this would have bad effects in the border states
o Only after the emancipation Proclamation did black enlistment begin
o For black soldiers, military service proved a liberating experience
o For most, it was their first taste of freedom, one which would stay with them throughout their lives
o In the navy, blacks were treated equal to whites, receiving the same pay, food, living quarters, and promotion opportunities
o In the army however, black soldiers were put into segregated units, often under abusive white generals
o They received less pay, often assigned worse labor tasks, and could not rise to the same positions as whites
o Black soldiers however, played a key role in the success of the union
o Toward the end of the war, many believed that with emancipation should come equal rights
o Even Lincoln changed his views, claiming that blacks should receive the same treatment as whites when captured, and also pushing for black suffrage in some areas Role of Govt/War in the North
o Problems emerged for both the north and south early in the war when each side enacted a draft
o New York City – Draft Riots
o Lincoln goal: PRESERVE THE UNION
o The mobilization of the north led to increased power of the federal government, as well as the rise of a capitalist class of men who made tremendous money off the production of war goods
o Strong feelings of nationalism led Republicans equated criticisms as treason
o This led to the imprisonment of many people throughout the country, sometimes at the hands of Lincoln himself – Suspension of Writ of Habeas Corpus
o However, as Lincoln was not a true despot, all of those taken were quickly released
o These events continued to be published by the democratic press, and several contested elections occurred as a result
o Another key development during this time period was the first transcontinental railroad
o Built mainly by the Union and Central Pacific lines, and the brainchild of entrepreneur Asa Whitney, the railroad took 20,000 men and several years to build
o Also at that time, the financial system of the country changed - For the first time, the federal government and its national banks began printing uniform bills
o Additionally, it was the first time that an income tax was instated, and also included large purchasing of government bonds
o The role of women also increased at the time, as they began to take more positions in the army Post Civil War
After the Civil War, blacks began meeting with each other to make plans for their newly obtained independence
New freedoms: own property, vote, and do things without the permission of whites
Many moved to cities and towns, as they found more freedoms in those areas
New religions based out of black churches began to arise in the south, totally changing the religious map of the southern states
Additionally, many blacks felt that education was key to independence, and they began educating themselves
Many felt that the right to hold office and to vote was proof of independence, and those events were key in the road to equality
At that time, the role of women changed too. Without slavery, many black women stayed at home more often to raise their children and run the household 14[Type text]
Plantation owners and white southerners found the reconstruction time very difficult—labor shortage
Many found that the money they had invested in things like Confederate bonds were no longer worth anything
Overall, the mood of the white southern population was grim, and angry that they now had to “submit to the demands of the north”
The reuniting of the union was largely left to Lincoln’s successor, Andrew Johnson
Many opposed his ideas, but those in the north felt that they deserved a chance
In the end- Republicans turn against him when he grants pardons to the 1,000s of Southerners and former confederates
Reconstruction
At the time of reconstruction, several members of congress were Radical Republicans
They were the ones who pushed for the most freedom for blacks, and they were also the ones most opposed to Johnson’s plans
Two bills, the first extending the life of the Freedman’s Bureau, and the second making all those born in the US citizens, were both vetoed by Johnson
The vetoes split the president and the republicans even more, however they overturned his veto in the case of the Freedman’s Bureau in 1866
Later on, congress passed the Fourteenth Amendment, which placed in the Constitution the principle of citizenship for all persons born in the US, and allowed the federal government to protect their rights
The amendment did not however grant blacks the right to vote
This amendment even further split the parties at the time
After that, came the Reconstruction Act, which divided the south into five military districts with new state governments
Congress again overturned a presidential veto in the case of the reconstruction act
In 1867, congress began proceedings to impeach Johnson for trying to remove members of his cabinet
The impeachment failed, under promises that Johnson would stop interfering with reconstruction policy
Soon after, republicans nominated Ulysses S. Grant for president, and he won the election by a medium sized margin
After Grant’s election, the Fifteenth Amendment was passed, prohibiting the federal government from denying any citizen the right to vote because of race
All of these acts and amendments transformed the constitution to a document that was living, and into a source for which members of vulnerable minorities could stake claims to freedom During the reconstruction period, blacks began to enjoy the freedoms that they had recently obtained
Several were also elected to office, and for the first time, there was integration in politics
Blacks at the time made up most of the republican party supporters, especially in the south, where the republican party in favor of equal rights reigned supreme
Carpetbaggers were reconstruction officials who were northerners who had moved to the south after the war. The name came from the idea that they had packed everything they had into a blanket, and moved south
Scalawags, the more hated group were mostly non slave-holding white farmers from the southern upcountry. Many had been wartime Unionists, and they now cooperated with republicans to prevent rebels from returning to power
Biggest success of Reconstruction: public schools available to blacks and white Marcus Garvey
Marcus Garvey, aka Black Moses was a key player in the advancement of blacks in the early twentieth century
Unlike Booker T. Washington and WEB DuBois, Garvey didn’t preach assimilation, or even fully reject segregation, but rather the violence’s associated with it
Born in Jamaica, Garvey came from a family that he later quoted as being “black negroes”
Garvey worked throughout his life to advance the position of blacks, not necessarily by assimilation
Although Garvey and Washington disagreed on assimilation, they agreed on the idea of a trade school for blacks, and Garvey then dreamt of creating his own school in Jamaica
In 1914, Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association
The group had a pan-African agenda, including a call for Africans (no matter where) to unite, and on the other hand, a push to have the entire African continent under on government
Garvey came to the US in 1916, partly because the UNIA was not taking ground in Jamaica, but also to try and do something about his trade school
While in America, Garvey really spoke to black economic power
Garvey also had a newspaper, Negro World, which was his way of communicating his ideas (including African history and society) to his followers
Garvey founded the Black Star Line, in an attempt to make a company that could deal with shipping and trade between Africans around the world
In 1922, Garvey is arrested on 12 counts of mail fraud, which was all lawyers wanted against Garvey, as they were indeed charges
This then brought about questions regarding the Black Star Lines finances
The Black Star Line however ultimately contributed to Garvey’s downfall, in that the company afford to buy a ship from the US Shipping Board 16[Type text]
As his popularity plummeted, Garvey tried to get the worst allies possible, including the KKK
He is convicted in 1923, and sentenced to federal prison for six years, but his sentence is commuted by Calvin Coolidge after only two
He is then deported to Jamaica, but ends up in London, where he dies in obscurity
Causes of the Great Depression
Herbert Hoover became president in 1929 - Laissez Faire
The Great Depression was a severe and persistent worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted until 1949
The economic interdependence of nations at the time resulted in economic distress that included causes beyond the borders of any one nation
Since the founding of the US, economic panics were a common occurrence,
After the Panic of 1911, the US economy grew steadily throughout the twenties
The Great Depression can be divided in to the following phases:
o Pre-1929: Period leading up to and including the crash
o 1929-1933: Movement from panic to deep depression
o 1933-1937: Recovery
o 1937-1941: Concluded with the US joining WWII Causes:
In the twenties, under Calvin Coolidge, the US economy grew
This was a time of hands-off government in business, and therefore a time where the “Titans of Wall Street” grew to extreme prominence throughout the nation
It was the first time that common individuals owned stock, made possible by a new way of purchasing shares: buying on margin
Extension of credit became a huge deal throughout the twenties, and helped make even common household items available to Americans
Signs of economic trouble, such as decreasing farm prices did exist, but the tremendous success of the stock market led most investors to believe that it was a safe investment regardless
After the market hit its high on September 3rd, 1929, it began taking wild swings throughout the rest of September and October On October 24th, it crashed, but banks assured people that they could fix the problem by making funds available to purchase more stocks
Then, on October 29th, Black Tuesday, the market crashed again, and this time, the banks could do nothing to fix it
People began selling stocks as quickly as possible, and some small investors lost their entire life savings in a day
This led to “bank runs”, where people would rush to their bank to take out their savings
Additionally, US industries faced both domestic economic weakness as supply far outstripped demand, as well as a sharp drop in European markets
Hoover decreased government spending, took money out of the economy to put in the federal reserve, and passed legislation such as the Hawley-Smoot Act, which imposed high protective tariffs on international goods
The Hawley-Smoot Act was met with tariffs on American goods from other counties, decreasing worldwide exports by more than 50%
Hoover was sensitive to the plight of Americans, and tried to improve the status of some:
o He encouraged companies to keep people employed even if they were not needed at the time, and he urged governors to increase infrastructure projects and put people to work
o He did not give money directly to individuals though
o Encouraged “rugged individualism” and private charity
o Some direct aid given, but too little too late
The Great Depression
Sales of most all goods rapidly declined throughout the depression, as did average incomes
The one thing that was on the rise however, was the unemployment rate
Unemployment hit women and blacks particularly hard, as they were often let go of jobs so that white men could replace them
International trade was also a negative factor, as European countries could not afford American goods to begin with, but also protective tariffs in response to the American Hawley-Smoot Act
Socially, the Depression caused great amounts of tension among Americans
People would actually pretend to be going to work simply out of embarrassment of not having a job anymore
During the Depression, both the marriage and childbirth rates declined, while the suicide rate increased 18[Type text]
A lack of intervention from the government, and a sense of ill-preparedness also magnified both the economic and social problems caused by the depression
Relief programs were virtually nonexistent, and those that were in order, had barely enough money to cover a few people, let alone the millions that were unemployed or in need of assistance Depression in Argentina
Latin American countries, including Argentina, relied heavily on US and European (namely British) trade and investment
Primary Products, or those that have not been manufactured were already on the markets from South America by the 1920s, and included coffee and cotton
Latin American countries depended on foreign trade and investment for a number of reasons, including:
o Geographical factors made trade with each other difficult
o Most Latin American populations were comparatively poor and could not afford manufactured goods
o Industrialized nations demanded food and natural resource imports, and looked for outlets for their manufactured products
Throughout the 1920s, US investment in Argentina especially grew
The US funded a large part of Argentinean oil exploration, mainly through Standard Oil
Such involvement though led to fear in many native Argentineans, who looked to Britain rather than the US partly as a result of Dollar Diplomacy
Since the late eighteen-hundreds, many Latin American countries had been developing forms of democracies
Regardless of who actually ruled, effective power in these countries still was largely in the hands of the powerful landowners, while most of the populations were ill-educated
In the years leading up to 1920, there was considerable industrial unrest in the region, resulting in successful strikes
When the Depression finally came, it hit the countries of Latin America hard as they were ill-equipped to deal with it
However, earlier on in the 1920s, Argentina has great potential for development
Its capital, Buenos Aires developed primarily as a port, eventually handling the majority of the imports and exports to Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay, and also was the hub of the railway system
Bad leadership, in the form of clashes between the radicals, conservatives, communists, and others plagued the country for years throughout the late teens and twenties
Additionally, the weak leaders such as Hipolito Yrigoyen, Marcelo T. de Alvear, Jose Felix Uriburu, and General Agustin Justo did not help the cause Political tensions became so escalated that violence eventually broke out between strikers and policemen, leading to what is now known as “Tragic Week”
Economic problems began to arise at the time also, including a crisis in the beef industry, tariffs and debt, and the oil industry
The Fordney-McCumber Tariff tried to restore European trade with Argentina to counteract the US
When this original try expired, a new one came into play that was even less in Argentina’s favor
The 1930s in Argentina became known as the “Infamous Decade” because of the corruption and intimidation
This was a period of military dictatorship, where the leaders governed as civilians
The conservative regime of this era was known as the Concordancia, and included old-style conservatives, the Socialist party, and the Nationalists
The Depression hit Argentina quite badly
Agricultural production fell huge amounts, as did the exchange value of the peso, as well as exports
The government tried to fix these problems by reducing debts, cutting spending, and increasing trade
Argentina entered the Roca-Runciman Agreements with Britain in 1932, which guaranteed Argentina a fixed share in British markets for meat and ruled out tariffs on British cereal imports for tree years
The treaty was only signed after many conditions were agreed upon, most all of which supported Britain
When the three years had expired, Argentina and Britain then made the Eden-Malbran Treaty, which was even more in favor of Britain
During the 1930s, Argentina tried to maintain its key industries, including oil and meat packing
The 1930s also saw a growth of nationalistic fervor in Argentina, particularly aimed against foreign (namely British) involvement
Unions also grew at the time, as economic conditions began to improve
Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) came about around this time as well, with its purpose being to develop industry so economies were not so dependent on primary products
Other economic activity at the time included the introduction of an income tax, the creation of a central bank, and the creation of juntas (organizations created to manage the production and marketing of specific products) The New Deal & First 100 Days
In the months between Roosevelt’s election in November, 1932, and his inauguration in March, 1933, the Depression worsened considerably
Two new things that Roosevelt became known for were his effective use of the media, and his appointment of personnel 20[Type text]
He used the media more than any president before him, and really worked it to his advantage by getting himself out into the public’s ear, especially through his “Fireside Chats”
In terms of appointments, he tended to look for the best people for the job regardless of political affiliations
This strategy inspired intense loyalty among government workers
In his First 100 days in office, Roosevelt used his power in a similar fashion used when at war
The most pressing concern at the time was the collapse of the banking system
To fix this, Roosevelt passed a number of Acts, including:
o Emergency Banking Relief Act: Banks across the country were closed for four days to give time for emergency legislation to be drafted
o Reconstruction Finance Corporation: This group was allowed to buy their stock to support banks, as well as taking on their debt
o Glass-Steagall Act: . Commercial banks that relied on small depositors were banned from investment in the type of banking that had fueled speculation . Bank officials were not allowed to take personal loans from their own banks . Authority over open-market operations such as the sale of government securities was centralized . Individual bank deposits were to be insured up to $2500 by the newly created FDIC
Roosevelt also tried to manipulate the value of the dollar by both taking America off of the gold standard, and by increasing the amount of money in circulation
By removing the gold standard, the value of the dollar decreased, allowing foreign countries to afford more American goods
By increasing the amount of money in circulation, the value of the dollar fell again, making it able to buy less, thus causing prices to rise, which would hopefully help revitalize American industry and agriculture
To regulate the stock market more than in the 1920s, the following actions were taken:
o The Truth-in-Securities Act, 1933, required brokers to offer clients realistic information about securities they were concerned with
o The Securities Act, 1934, set up a new agency, the SEC, to oversee stock market activities and prevent fraudulent activities such as insider trading
Agricultural recovery was given a higher priority than industrial recovery Groups and actions such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Farmers’ Holiday Association, the Agricultural Adjustment Act (1933), and the extension of farm credit all tried to restabilize agriculture by decreasing the overflow of production, and by increasing the income of farmers
Industrial recovery was a priority of the New Deal
Roosevelt wanted to put Americans back to work, and increase consumer demand
At the time, some businessmen supported the idea of a laissez-faire approach, while others pushed for large government intervention and regulation of business
Roosevelt passed the National Industry Recovery Act in 1933, which included:
o National Recovery Administration (NRA): . Set up to oversee industrial recovery . This gave employees the right to collective bargaining . Established codes for many industries at the time . Eventually favored big, rich companies . Was declared unconstitutional in 1935 by the Supreme Court
o Public Works Administration (PWA): . This administration tried to bring economic growth though government spending . Eventually put hundreds of thousands of people to work . Pumped billions into the economy, and was responsible for massive public work projects
The Federal Emergency Relief Act established the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) in 1933, to distribute money it was given by the federal government evenly among the 50 states for direct relief, and also as an incentive to put more into relief
FERA faced much opposition, and its effectiveness was therefore limited
It did however establish the idea of federal government giving direct relief funds- WPA (Works progress Administration) – biggest direct employment undertaking of the depression.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) started in 1933, and gave unemployed men between the ages of 17 and 28 a chance to work on government projects
Workers (mainly white males) were paid $30 per month, of which $25 had to be sent back to the boys’ families
The Civil Works Administration (CWA) was created in 1933, primarily to provide emergency relief during the winter of 1933-34
Native Americans at the time, and in the future often had it the worst of all, and lived in extreme poverty
The Home Owners Refinancing Corporation was created in 1933, and helped homeowners by offering new mortgages at lower rates over longer periods 22[Type text]
The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) was established in 1934 to offer federal insurance to protect the ability to repay low-interest long-term mortgages
This resulted in a massive shift to suburban life by many white, middle-class families, leaving foreigners living in squalid, inner-city properties New Deal Impacts
Both blacks and women did not enjoy the same advantages provided to white males by the programs of the New Deal
Often, blacks or women would be fired before and hired after white men
Jobs that were typically held by blacks and women at the time were also being turned over to men, as it was felt that men should provide the source of income in families
Women often received less pay than men did for performing the same job
Blacks however did benefit from many of the direct relief measure, and man y saw Roosevelt as a savior
As the country shifted from the boom of the 1920s into the Depression, people and states increasingly looked to the government for help with problems
The US was quickly becoming noticeably urbanized, and people in rural areas sometimes felt that New Deal actions benefitted cities more
Programs such as the TVA and REA however had helped rural areas to move into a modern era with provisions of facilities such as electric power
The Depression showed that the economy was not self-righting, and ultimately eroded much of the American dream, namely the sense of self-reliance
Thus, the New Deal served as a way to address this harsh reality
Literature pertaining to the Great Depression, from such authors as John Steinbeck, John Dos Passos, and William Faulkner focused on the tragedies of the time and the hopelessness of humans, and provided a generally pessimistic response
Some in the Communist Party supported such literature, however, the Communist’s main voice, the “New Masses”, insisted that writers toe the party line and stifled creativity
The Federal Writers Project was set up largely to provide employment to authors, and ended up compiling works of local and oral histories
The cinema was also important during the Depression, in that it gave Americans a short amount of time where they could escape from the Depression
Movies inspired hope in Americans, and characters such as John Wayne tried to show audiences that people could overcome their problems with determination and honesty
Some films though, such as the Grapes of Wrath (adapted from a John Steinbeck novel) did showcase the miseries of the Depression
Radio was also very popular at the time, and was listened to in many American homes every day Popular music was yet another way to inspire hope and happiness in Americans, such as through the song “We’re in the Money” by Al Dubin
Photography was used at the time to expose some of the truths of the Depression