Chapter Seven: France 1814-1848

CHAPTER SEVEN: FRANCE 1814-1848

Framework of Events:

1814 1827

 March – Fall of Paris, Napoleon exiled to Elba  The National Guard is disbanded

 April – Louis XVIII accepts the Charter 1830  May-June – First Peace of Paris returns France to frontiers of 1792  July 9 – French army under Bourmont captures Algiers 1815  July 25 – Ordinances of St. Cloud (July Ordinances); Fighting in the streets of Paris;  March – Napoleon lands in southern France. Charles X abdicates; Louis-Philippe becomes Louis flees, as Napoleon begins his “100 days” as “King of the French” Emperor 1831  June – Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena; Louis XVIII returns as King.  The National Guard is reconstituted; Revolt of Lyons silk weavers  November – Second Peace of Paris 1834 1816  Further rioting in Lyons crushed by the army;  The White Terror of Revenge on Napoleonic revolt in Paris crushed by the army supporters  1818 Quadruple Alliance – France, Britain, Spain, and Portugal – in favour of liberal governments in the Iberian Peninsula  Indemnity is paid off, army of occupation leaves 1836 and France is readmitted to the Concert of Europe  Louis Napoleon attempts a coup d’état 1820 1840  Murder of the duc de Berri  Louis Napoleon’s second attempt at a coup 1823 d’état  Thiers brings country to brink of war over second  French intervention in Spain restores Ferdinand Mehetmet Ali Affair (1839-40), but is dismissed VII to his throne 1846

1824  Louis-Philippe forces through his own candidates for the Spanish marriages, despite Britain’s  Death of Louis XVIII; accession of Charles X hostility

1825 1847

 Law provides compensation to former émigrés  Reform banquets held throughout France

 Revolution in Paris; Louis-Philippe abdicates Overview:

 Before 1798: France was a leading power of Europe under a powerful, unrestricted monarchy. It had the largest population in the western world (2nd to Russia), a rapid rate of economic growth, stable and prosperous.

 1789: The Revolution transformed France, as well as the rest of Europe.

 By 1814: The revolutionary ideas of Liberty and Equality1 had changed the French political and social system. King Louis XVI was executed and the nobility fled, was guillotined or lost their land. The Catholic Church was undermined. Its property was taken away, new law code were produced and new systems of government-such as Republicanism2- were tried out.

 Between 1792-1814: was a period of war

 1804: Emperor Napoleon took over rule of France. He achieved glory, only to be followed by defeat.

Such changes in France (like the ones listed above) created uncertainty and instability in France. The French government could no longer ignore the bourgeoisie and peasantry, who both benefited from the revolutionary changes. The government had a problem in meeting the demands of the bourgeoisie and peasantry, while not angering the propertied interests3 on which the rulers relied on.

 Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy did not suit everyone. Their reigns were troubled (by assassinations, riots etc). However, they did provide relative peace for 15 years:

 Émigrés and the clergy, who were forced to flee during the Revolution, were natural supported of the return to a traditional style of government

 The peasants were fairly supportive

 The bourgeoisie, who had recently gained status, was willing to accept any form of government which upheld law and order

 The Bourbon Monarchy was a constitutional monarchy. However throughout Louis XVIII and Charles X rule, it became clear that the King’s priority was to the ‘propertied’ classes.

 In a 1830 revolution: The dynasty was changed. Louis-Philippe of the House of Orléans was brought to the throne in an attempt to create a ‘bourgeois’ monarchy.

1 Liberty and Equality: themes of the French Revolution. ‘Liberty’ implies personal freedom and ‘Equality’ implies the rights of all to be the same.

2 Republicanism: The belief that a state should be ruled without a king.

3 Propertied interests: Those whose wealth derived from land. Mainly of noble birth, aristocrats; but also those who had made money elsewhere (ex: trade) and invested it in land.  The franchise4 was widened

 The king’s powers were slightly restricted

 Louis-Philippe tried to rule in a moderate way, but it was never enough. People were driven to the old methods of revolutionaries – secret plots and societies etc.

 Louis-Philippe reign ended in revolution

7.1 What was France like in 1814- 1815?

Why was Louis XVIII made King?

 The Republican government was deemed responsible for provoking the war (which started with Napoleon).

 The question was not whether France should have a king, but who that king should be.

 Louis XVIII, brother to the guillotined Louis XVI, was the only legitimate heir – but he was NOT popular:

 He was 59, fat and suffered from gout5

 He was regarded as sensible and easy-going

 Was in exile for 20 years

 Charles Talleyrand-Périgord took up Louis’ claim because he would divide France the least

 Used the principle of legitimacy

 March 22, 1814: The British freed the city of Paris and the citizens declared themselves in favour of a Bourbon restoration.

 Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia returned France to its pre-revolutionary state

What were the conditions of Louis XVIII’s return in 1814?

4 Franchise: The right to vote in an election

5 Gout: A disease causing inflammation of the joints  Louis XVIII was asked to sign a charter, which was drawn up by a committee consisting of his own advisiors, Talleyrand-Périgord and others. This charter contained 74 articles and was designed to ensure that the new King would obey some of the fundamental changes of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic period:

1. Equality before law

2. Fair taxation

3. Careers open to all

4. Freedom of the individual

5. Religious toleration, Catholicism was the State Religion

6. Freedom of the press ‘as long as they conform to the laws which must check the abuse of this liberty’

7. Protection for property owners

8. A pardon to former revolutionaries

9. The abolition of conscription

 The charter enforced Louis XVIII’s position as a constitutional monarchy

 France would have a parliamentary system (based on the British)

 There would be 2 Houses or Chambers What was the effect of the Charter?

 The charter made Louis XVIII more popular.

 It prevented the return of an absolute monarchy and guaranteed the basic liberties and property rights.

 The charter was undemocratic.

 Only 88 000 citizens had the right to vote (out of 29 million). And from that number, only 15 000 could be deputies.

 Louis had to make sure that the charter did not undermine his royal status. He insisted that the charter come with an introduction that said that the freedoms granted by the Charter were a gift from him, and not a basic right.

 Louis XVIII believed in divine right

 He accepted no responsibility to Parliament

 Louis had to rely on others to put him on the throne.

What were the consequences of Napoleon’s ‘100 Days’? March-June 1815

Review: March 1814, Napoleon I departed into exile on Elba. Everyone though that they saw the last of their former emperor. However, Napoleon I escaped in April and accepted lenient peace terms on behalf of the French.

 Louis XVIII tried to rule with the Charter in mind, and avoided taking revenge on those he replaced.

 Louis XVIII’s years in exile put him and his fellow royalists behind the changed ways of France. He made mistakes:  Replaced the Tricolor (The French national flag-a revolutionary symbol) with a white flag with the Bourbon family emblem on it. This seemed provocative.

Review: When Napoleon returned from exile, there were many who were prepared to accept him back. As he advanced northward, Louis XVIII fled to Ghent (Belgium) and put himself under the protection of Britain and Austria.

 Marshal Ney promised Louis XVIII that we would bring the Emperor back in a cage. However, after an emotional reconciliation in Lyons, he rejoined his old master (Napoleon)

 Before the end of April, Napoleon was carried up the steps of the Tuileries Palace by a vast cheering crowd.

Review: Napoleon`s `100 days` ended with a defeat at Waterloo on June 18, 1815. The Duke of Wellington (British) defeated Napoleon along with the Prussian army, commanded by Gebhrad Blűcher. Napoleon returned to exile on St Helena.

Napoleon’s final bid for power was a severe blow to the success of Louis XVIII’s reign. The King had fled, his reign was ruined, and he was considered an enemy of France.

Review: A Second Peace of Paris was drawn up in November to punish France for further disturbance of the peace. This made France return to its 1789 borders, imposed a 700 million francs indemnity and put an army of occupation in France.

What was the economic and social conditions of France in 1815?

 1815: France had a population of 29 million (75% of which lived in the countryside).

 There was lots of productive land, and agriculture and small-scale domestic industry was thriving (there was little large-scale industries).

 France’s strong economic growth halted and war widened the gap, removing France’s colonial markets and encouraging the production of industry.

 Poor transportation links

 Coalmining was growing, but France still had to import (same with iron and textiles)

 Towns remained small (only 7 had a population greater than 50 000)

 Paris was large:

 There was a recognisable working class, who relied on wages for their livelihood

 A ‘bourgeois’ middle class of industrialist was developing

 France was slowly changing; industry had made little impact on society outside Paris.  The social elite (rich landowners, bankers, merchants and lawyers) received political influence in the new constitutional regime of Louis XVIII. They were known as Pays Légal6

What was the attitude to the Church in France 1815?

 Before the revolution, the Catholic Church had great influence and wealth.

 Anti-clericalism7 increased after 1789.

 Napoleon confiscated church lands, disbanded monasteries and made priest became officials of the state.

 1815: many claimed to be Catholic, but the more educated practiced no religion.

7.2 How successful was Louis XVIII as King of France 1815-1824?

What were Louis XVIII’s successes?

 Louis XVIII pursued fairly moderate politics and was helped by reasonable and reliable ministers (who we wisely chose). He worked with the Parliament, tired to resist the demands of his extreme supporters, and was supported by the Pays Légal.

 1815: the French industry prospered (and France’s economic recovery began)

 1818: Foreign troops left franc because Louis XVIII accepted tighter controls on governmental spending and paid off the indemnity.

 Louis had France re-admitted to the Concert of Europe8 and France won back some of its former prestige. Also, the French army was reformed.

 France originally viewed Spain was ‘within its influence’. Therefore, when King Ferdinand VII requested help, France was eager to contribute soldiers. France, with the excuse that the danger might threaten them, refused to cooperate with other European powers at the Congress of Verona in May 1822.

 100 000 men marched under duc d’Angoulême

6 Pays Légal: The group that had the franchise (right to vote)

7 Anti-clericalism: Hostility to the clergy

8 Concert of Europe: The great powers of Europe working together to try to settle international problems  They were successful, and Louis XVIII bragged that he was able to achieve was Napoleon failed to do: establish control in Spain

 This showed France’s growing confidence and recovery

Who were the Ultras and what problems did they pose for Louis XVIII?

Louis’ reign was unsettling because of the Ultras (former émigrés). They:

 Used their power to gain positions in the Chamber of Deputies.

 In 1815: they came to dominate the newly elected chamber

 Louis called the chamber ‘La Chambre introuvable’ because it was more Royalist than he was

 Were led by Comte d’Artois, the King’s younger brother

 Wanted to get rid of the Charter and Parliament

 Wanted to return the land to the aristocrats and the Church

 Constantly tried to push Louis XVIII farther than he was willing to go

 For example: they encourage the ‘White Terror’ because it punished supporters of Napoleon. Louis XVIII saw how the Ultra’s were taking revenge, but he couldn’t do anything about it since they had great strength in the Chamber. The executions created a public outcry and provided the Bourbon’s enemies with a future martyr9.

 They also pressured Louis XVIII to replace Napoleonic officials with their own nominees.

 They insisted on censorship, even though Louis XVIII promised ‘freedom of the press’ in the Charter

 Wanted their estates returned, which brought horror to those who bought them

How did Louis XVIII deal with the threat of the Ultras?

 Louis was upset with his ‘Ultra’ Chamber and felt that Talleyrand and Joseph Fouché were responsible by not controlling the elections. So, they were both dismissed. Duc de Richelieu was made President of the Council of Ministers.

 Richelieu change the electoral system in order to create a chamber that would be more satisfactory for Louis XVIII

9 Martyr: A person who suffers of is killed because of their religious beliefs and gives strength to people who share their beliefs  Annual elections would be held and 1/5 of the Chamber would be replaced

 Hopefully, this would increase the number of independents who could be influenced by ministerial pressure and reduce the number of Ultras.

 Dec 1818: Elie duc de Decazes (who had more reformist views) was able to take control. He pursued a moderately liberal policy.

 1819-1820: he tried to do away with press censorship

What was the effect of the duc de Berri’s murder is 1820?

 Louis’ nephew and the male heir to the throne, the duc de Berri, was murdered. The Ultras took advantage of the opportunity and forced a shift in government policy was able to dismiss the moderate Decazes.

 Richelieu returned to office and carried out the Ultras’ demands for electoral change in favour of the wealthy.

 Chamber seats were increased to 430 seats (the additional seats were elected by the highest taxpayers)

 More censorship was introduced

 Clergy influenced education

 Plans were composed to compensate those who lost land during the Revolution

 Louis XVIII lacked the strength to resist Comte d’Artois and the Ultras, and people questioned their support for the Bourbon monarchy

 Step 1820: duc de Berri’s wife gave birth to a son, an heir was born. This scared those who now questioned the direction that the government was heading in.

 Richelieu resigned (1822)

 The Pro-Ultra Chamber was lead by Comte de Villèle. Who remained Chief Minister from 1822- 1827.

 He carried through financial reforms which helped him to balance budgets

 His support for the Ultras made him unpopular. There was an outcry when he forced Louis XVIII to dismiss the Vicomte de Chateaubriand.

 When Louis XVIII died in 1824, he left an established Pro-Ultra parliament and a good deal of underlying discontent in the country.

How widespread was opposition to the Monarchy by 1824?  While there was tension between the Ultras and moderates, they both agreed on a monarchy. However, some extremist would like to see the monarchy disappear all together. Some of these were members of secret societies, based on the Italitan Carbonari10.

 They favoured a republican government with a wide franchise.

 The French Carbonarist movement developed under the guidance of exiles fleeing persecution in Italy, who made contact with students. At its height, it had 40 000 members and attracted dissatisfied upper class followers (ex: marquis de Lafayette). Numbers fell after government spys uncovered them.

 By 1824: ‘radical’ opposition became less organised, but did not disappear. With the collapse of the Carbonarist movement, students began to follow the writing of socialists, such as Claude de Saint-Simon. Socialism11 encouraged supported to challenge traditional style government and favour a working class.

Opposition to the Constitutional Monarchy (established in 1814-15) was still limited in 1824. But Socialism was spreading (from left-wing intellectuals to the working men).

7.3 Why did the reign of Charles X (1824-1830) end in revolution?

What sort of King was Charles X (formally known as Comte d’Artois)?

 Ultra-royalist leader since 1814

 In 1824: he was an energetic 67 years old with firm convictions.

 ‘I had rather crop wood than reign after the fashion of the King of England,’ he declared. He wanted to play an active role in government

 He was confident that he would be able to carry out his policies because of his chief minister, Villèle, and his Ultra in attitude Chamber.

 Members of the Pays Légal viewed him suspiciously.

 His stubbornness and determination not to show weakness made him appeared aloof and disinterested in the affairs of the citizens of France

 Deeply religious

 Wanted a pomous coronation at Rheims

10 Carbonari: This began as an Italian movement that wanted reform. They met in secret and had rituals, handshakes, passwords etc.

11 Socialism: Political beliefs whose aim is to create a system in which everyone had an equal opportunitiy to benefit from the country’s wealth.  His revival of old customs frightened the anti-clerical Pays Légal

 For example: Charles X would visit hospitals to cure people with scrofula12 by his Holy Touch.

How did Charles X’s policies increase opposition to the Bourbon Monarchy?

 Charles X enforced his own political opinion with his policies:

 1st- He abolished annual elections (which were just introduced in 1818)

 2nd- He increased the term deputies were elected for from 5 to 7 years (this would maintain Ultras control)

 1825: Charles passed a law which confirmed the present ownership of land (which made landowners more secure), while providing an annual grant of money as compensation to the former holders.

 Its goal was to provide financial security for ex-émigrés (a reward for their loyalty)

 Opposition was centered on the way compensation was paid: interest payable on national debt was reduced. Which meant that the value government bonds fell (this effected the Pays Légals)

 The funds that the émigrés received did not satisfy them

 Charles X association with the Catholic Church also caused resentment (he promoted Catholicism).

 For example: Religious orders were encouragd to return. The influence of the Jesuit order13 was resented. People were concerned with the rumour that Charles X and the Jesuits planned to undermine the provisions of the Charter.

 He also continued to expend the control of the Church over education. In 1821, bishops were responsible for secondary education. In 1824, bishops could nominate primary school teachers. By 1827, 66 out of 80 philosophy teachers in colleges were priests.

 Charles X tired to stop the press, and even went against the Charter.

This was important because the Pays Légals read the paper.

12 Scrofula/Holy Touch: It was a medieval practice whereby it was believed that the French Kings could cure scrofula, a disease which caused the glands to swell, sometimes known as ‘the King’s Evil’

13 Jesuit Order: The members of the Society of Jesus, a powerful Catholic order which concentrated on education and the conversion to the faith.  Therefore, Charles attempted to buy up opposition news. When that didn’t work, he increased the price of postage rates and the stamp duty on paper, in order to try to ‘price newspapers out.’

 Threatened printers.

 By 1827: censorship was applied to all books and journals.

 Charles X got rid of the army of 56 Bonapartist officers.

 In 1830: he planned an expedition against a group of superb seamen, called the Barbary pirates, and captured their base. However, by this time, the hostility towards Charles X policies overshadowed any pride that the people of France may have towards this mission.

 Charles refused political reform and ignored orders from his deputies.

Charles X policies split the Chamber of Deputies. Moderate men, who believed in the Charter, were place up against the ‘liberal’ Ultras, who the King identified with.

Why was there a revolution in France in 1830? What were the short term causes?

In 1827, there were many sign of DISCONTENT in France:

 The Parisian National Guard14 was disbanded after they shouted ‘à bas les ministre’ during a review by the King

 There was criticism of Villèle’s unpopular ministry.

 A liberal political society, Aide toi, le ciel t’aidera, founded by François Guizot, helped to increase opposition to the type of government that Charles X had created.

 After Charles X tried to alter the Chambers, again, to increase his support, he failed to gain more influence. This was because Guizot’s society had convinced must of the eligible population to vote, which increased the liberal opposition in the Chamber of Deputies. Even Ultras were becoming dissatisfied with Charles X’s leadership. Therefore, Villèle was forced to resign (1828).

 Martignac became Charles X’s first minister. Although he was more moderate, the liberals still increased their demands.

 Aug. 1829, Charles created his own ministry that was built up with close friends. Prince Jules de Polignac became his first minister. Charles X now aimed to ‘reorganise society, to give back the clergy their weight it state affairs, to create a powerful aristocracy and surround it with priviledges’. When election came in 1829, there was a large liberal majority.

14 National Guard: A military forced set up by middle-class citizens  On Jan 3, 1830: Le National, a liberal middle-class newspaper was founded (by Jacques Laffitte). It constantly attacked the government and its ministers.

 March 1830: the Chamber passed a vote of ‘no confidence,’ which forced Charles X to dissolve the Chamber and call elections. The liberal opposition grew stronger and they wanted the King’s unpopular ministers dismissed (and NOT Charles X himself).

 Polignac tired to change the franchise. Charles X could change the voting system by royal edict, without going through the Chambers.

 July 25, 1830: The four Ordinances of St Cloud (the new edicts) were published. New elections were called, and the electorate was reduced from 100 000 men to 25 000 richest members of the Pays Légal. Unauthorized newspapers were forbidden. All this was legal within the Charter, but to opposition members, this felt like Charles X was trying to over throw the Charter and give the monarchy more power.

What were the results of Charles X’s actions?

Charles X over-estimated the loyalty of his citizens. The best of his troops were in Algiers, Bourmont (the Minister of War) was absent, Jean-Baptiste de Champagny (the deputy minister) was not informed, and Auguste Marmont (in charge of the Parisian garrison) was not up to date with the affairs of France.

 Republicans and Marquis de Lafayette began mobilising support (which was in the form of printers, students, discontent working men).

 July 28-29: there was rioting and barricades starting to go up in the streets of Paris

 The troops were forced out of Paris

 Charles X decided to abdicate the throne. On Aug 1, 1830, he announced his departure and still had hope that his grandson would take the throne (the assassinated duc de Berri’s son)

 Aug 17: Charles fled to England to avoid arrest.

What were the long-term causes of the revolution?  The Bourbon’s brought back émigrés & reasserted the influence of the Catholic Church

 Which was a threat to the changes achieved in the revolution and was resented by those who benefited from the Revolution (property owners and office holders)

 The Bourbon’s increased opposition to the crown:

 Louis XVIII: allowed the ‘White Terror’ and gave in to the Ultras demands

 Charles X: pursued his own interests, disbanded the National Guard, and announced the July Ordinances with minimal thought to the consequences

 Both of their policies offended the group that they needed support from: The Pays Légal. They failed to listen to the public opinion in the Chambers.

 However, the circumstances in which they took to the throne were not ideal. They were forced to the throne, even with the difficult changes that France was going through.

 The Bourbon’s could be seen as unlucky because certain events impacted their reign:

 Napoleon’s ‘100 Days’

 The assassination of Berri

 Louis XVIII’s poor health

 An eager opposition (of the Carbonarist secret society and the influence of socialists) was ready to seize power and impose their views.

 The spread of industrialisation. After 1826: slumps, unemployment, high food prices and an economic depression hit France, and made the people of France follow any leader who promised a better future. It was the people who experienced a fall in their wage or a poor harvest who migrated to Paris and manned the barricades and supplied the forced that frightened Charles X.

7.4: How successful was Louis Phillipe? -Why did Louis Phillipe become King? • By the year 1830, the opposition of Charles X were divided about who or what should be his replacement. • The popular Parisian leaders, supported by the laborers and scholars adored a Republic under Lafayette. • The bankers, lawyers and bourgeoisie, feared revolutionary activity more than the Bourbon Monarchy, and would avoid a government which would jeopardize their newfound power and status. -While the liberals were debating what to do, the republicans and working class took control, and by July 28-29 the tri-colour had claimed Notre Dame • .If the bourgeoisie were to benefit at all, they would have to act quickly. Adolfe Thiers took the initiative to plaster the walls of Paris with pro- Louis Phillipe posters. • Louis Phillipe could maintain the monarchy and win the support of the lower and middle class. • He was also supported through Thiers' newspaper "Le National." • Charles X abdicated in favour of nine year old Henry V, ruled for only one week. • Lafitte, favoured a constitutional monarchy and persuaded the deputies to offer Louis Phillipe the position of "Lieutenant General of the Kingdom."

-What kind of person was Louis Phillipe? • Eldest son of the duc d'Orleans, a supporter of the Revolution. • Next in line to the throne after the family of Charles X, and held claim to inheritance. • He served as a military commander during the Revolution in 1792, and fled to Austria in 1793. • He was exile to Switzerland, USA and England, returning during the restoration. • The Palais Royal became a hub for the middle class opposition to the monarchy. • It was the bourgeoisie who were determined to see him as king. • He was a middle class king. His years of exile humbled him, as he chose too light his own fires, shave his own face, and leave the palace without his guards. • Those who brought him to power found him dull, and order to rid France of him, portrayed him as a "pear-shaped, uninspiring man." • One of the most capable men to entertain the throne, he was educated, open-minded, had a pleasant demeanor and enjoyed the company of others. His downfall was that he wanted to please everyone, and was often over talkative. Making what he said, and what he did two different things.

-How bourgeois was Louis Phillipe's monarchy? • Laffitte: "From now on the bankers will rule." • The changes of 1830 and Louis Phillipe personally gave off the impression that his reign was a bourgeois monarchy favouring the middle class. • Membership of the National Guard was restricted to members of the middle class. • The qualification to vote was extended to include wealthy middle classmen . The age for election fell from 40 to 30, and was widened to those who paid 200 francs or more in direct taxation.. • Marxist historians believe the the 1830 revolution was successful for the financial bourgeoisie, those who made money off of trade and industry. • They consolidated their control in 1830 at the expense of the labourers • Other influential groups were the journalists like Thiers, who worked with business classes and spoke up their interest in the Chamber of Deputies. • University professor Francis Guizot was a prominent figure. • Old aristocracy was barred from the Chamber of Peers in December 1831. • In 1827 44% of deputies were nobles, in 1836 it was 14%.

-The case against the bourgeois monarchy. • Less wealthy industrialists and students who considered themselves bourgeois, failed to have the income in order to qualify them to vote. • Even though the numbers of eligible voters rose, this was not enough to extend the vote to the lower middle class. • The regime never lived up to the expectations of the bourgeois. Government paid little attention to the problems of the lesser bourgeois. • When over production occurred due to the mismanagement of railway expansion, much of the lower class went bankrupt, and the government did little to help.

- In what respects did Louis Phillipe's position differ from that of his predecessors? • He accepted the tri-colour, symbolic of the revolution , instead of the white Bourbon flag. • He was deemed "roi de Francais" , King of the French, rather than : roi de France", King of the French. This title was his acceptance of the crown from his people, the latter implied a divine right. • The Catholic Church was disestablished. It became the 'majority religion of the French", rather than the state religion. • Press censorship relaxed. • Right to vote was still restricted, 97% of men over 21 were still excluded from the vote. • 1832 Reform Act- Give the middle class, and not the working class the vote. • The Chamber of Peers was still nominated by the King, but hereditary titles were excluded. • Mayor was chosen by government, maintaining central influence locally. • Those who served under Charles X, stayed on under Louis Phillipe. • The regime opposed the demands of the working class, the National Guard became a security force against workers in towns . The army was used to break up strikes. • No interest in social reform.

- How extensive was the opposition to the new regime? • Most monarchist supported the new King, though Royalist we displeased with his way of life. • The clergy was disappointed with Louis Phillipe after Charles X. He was working against the Catholic Church, reducing his status and undermining education. • In 1833 when a law set up a secular training academy for teachers, the newspaper "L'Univers," began to campaign for church education. • Bonapartists disliked the King, thy felt they needed a strong leader like Napoleon. • Louis Napoleon attempted a coup d'etat in 1836, but failed. Attempted an uprising at Boulonge but also failed. • The completion of the Arc de Triomphe and the burial of Napoleons remains were reminders of the Napoleonic era, and helped in the growth of appeal. • Louis Phillipes largest opponents came from the left, it included working class radicals, middle and upper class socialists. • T this time to appeal of republicism began to rise, as few could remember the revolution and a republic lost its horror

-How did Louis Phillipe govern France? • Louis Phillipe was drawn to be moderate, and he relied on ministers of a similar view . • He used his influence to ensure that the Chamber of Deputies supported his chosen leaders. • Perier took control of the ministerial team, and took complete control, demanding obedience from his colleagues. During the year he was in charge he eased the unrest and set a firm foundation for the regime. • Francois Guizot- A Protestant, he became a professor in history and did not enter politic until he was 43. He became a minister in 1832, and Foreign Minister in 1840-1847. The King liked his conservative attitude. He became Prime Minister in 1847, but could not respond to the demands . • Adolf Thiers- One of many who persuaded Louis Phillipe to take the throne. He was Minister of the Interior and briefly, the Prime Minister but was dismissed due to the Kings dislike of being kept out of politics.

-How did Louis Phillipe deal with unrest between 1830 and 1847? • Louis Phillipe realized the tension that existed during his reign, but he accepted it as something out of his control. • He spent a great deal of time reviving the morale of the National Guard, which was responsible for maintaining order. • Survived six assassination attempts. • Casimir Perier used the army in 1831 to quell the riot of Lyon's silk weavers. • In June 1832 the army was used against rioters at Lamarque's funeral. • Students and workers were dealt with savagely in "the massacre of Transnonain," while the leaders were arrested. • Blanqui and Barbes arrested and imprisoned for life only after attempting a coup d'etat.

• Louis Phillipe believed that the political system was working well and that the poor were poor for reasons out of his control, and interfering would make things worse.

- How successful was the July Monarchy in foreign affairs? • Louis Phillipes policies abroad were moderate and realistic, but the people thought they were cowardly. They contrasted against what France was supposed to be, daring, and powerful. • He feared for his throne if he chose to antagonize the other great powers. • Since Britain opposed the Troppau Agreement, France felt that they were allies. • The people of France wanted to expand their borders to the Rhine, but Louis Phillipe did not take action as he favoured Belgian independence, and he was not ready for annexation or the Russians and Austrians crushing the revolt. • Louis Phillipe instead chose to co-operate with the British, chose not to use his son the duc de Nemours as a candidate for the Belgian throne. • He also used caution in Spain where a crisis was brewing over who would take over the throne. The British were determined to keep the French out, and denied the possibility of an alliance between France, England and the constitutional monarchies of Spain and Portugal. • This prevented the French from acting independently in Spain while the English could act independently in Portugal. • Louis Phillipe did eventually act against the British by allowing one of his younger sons to marry Queen Isabella's sister, much to the displeasure of the English. • Another occasion that led to the unpopularity of Louis Phillipe was the association in the Mehemet Ali affair. When Ali declared the independence • of Egypt from the Turks, Thiers said that the Pasha should be left to his own affairs and even threatening to partake in war if the other powers acted against him. • The ultimatum drawn up at the Treaty of London, threatened Ali with force if their terms were not accepted and the French were furious, Thiers threatened an invasion of the Rhine, which Louis Phillipe dismissed. • To the displeasure of the ''lefts'' Louis Phillipe showed no interest in supporting the other revolutionaries. The Poles were unable to recruit the French in their rebellion against the Russians, While with the new Foreign Minister in Italy, Louis Phillipe promised to oppose any intervention from Austria, but privately told Matternich no such thing would happen. • Louis Phillipe did have one successful military campaign, the conquest of Algeria, started by Charles X in 1830, was completed in 1847, but did not honour the King, only draw him more criticism.

7.5 Why did revolution break out in France in 1848?

Terms:

Anti-Corn Law League - A middle class organization set up in Great Britain by a campaign for the repeal of the Corn Laws. By a combination of public meetings and parliamentary pressure, it was successful in 1846.

Manhood suffrage - The right of males over the age of consent to vote for a government or a national leader.

Ideological - Believing in a particular set of ideals. Socialism was an ideology, which said that the State, not private individuals, should control enterprises such as big industry, railways and banks.

Real Wages - What can be bought with money taking into account inflation.

Anti-establishment propaganda - The “establishment” refers to the group of people in a country who have power and influence, especially politicians, civil servants and businessmen. It is generally opposed to making changes to the existing political and social order to influence general opinion. Propaganda is information, often exaggerated or false, which is spread in order to influence general opinion. In this instance, the false information was against the “establishment”.

What where the short-term causes?

 By 1848 Alphonse de Lamartine, who was an aristocrat, poet and politician, noted that France was bored, and no change looked possible with Louis-Philippe and Guizot in power.  Widening of the franchise was necessary to allow for the true wishes of the people to be heard.  Since campaigns were not succeeding within the government, pressure for reform moved outside.  It was Laurent-Antoine Paguerre, who first suggested that the people became opposition candidates to Guizot. The idea of banquets in favour of electoral reform. Organizers used methods from the successful Anti-Corn Law that was used in Britain, and hoped to demonstrate support for their cause through local meetings.  Paguerre led the first meeting on July 9, 1847, even though Thiers disapproved.  Thiers originally predicted that the inclusion of the lower classes in the meetings would prove unwise. He was correct after all because after the Lille banquet of November 1847 the meetings became increasingly radical. Leadership fell into the hands of the more extreme republicans who demanded manhood suffrage but the popular idea was in opposition.  The banquet campaign was supposed to end in a mass banquet, but government feared the meeting and it was banned. Moderate and liberal politicians accepted the ban, whereas the more radical politicians and republicans called for a protest demonstration, and a demonstration occurred on February 22, 1848 including workers and students. There were minor occurrences of violence but most were broken up.  The following day Louis-Philippe called the National Guard, who had not met since 1840, to intimidate the protesters, but this did not work and many of the National Guard provided weaponry to the rioters.  The demonstraters demanded that Guizot be fired and on February 23 Louis-Philippe agreed and the more liberal Louis Mathieu Molé was appointed.  Guizot’s dismissal made the public believe that Louis-Philippe was on the offensive, and when troops began to fire upon an obedient crowd Republicans mobilized support. A mob seized the Hôtel de Ville and fighting broke out in the streets. The army remained loyal to the crown.  Amazed by the lack of support he received from the National Guard, Louis-Philippe abdicated, and brought his nine-year-old son into power on February 24. He then exiled himself to England and the mob broke into the Chamber and declared a Republican government.

What were the long-term causes?

 Many ideas have come about as to why revolution broke out in 1848.  Marxist historians emphasize the economic factors. They believe that the revolution was the result of a changing economy in France and the clash between the working and middle classes.  Others produce an ideological explanation, linking the revolution to the growth of socialism and republicanism.  Some historians view the events as a simple reaction to the incompetent rule of Louis-Philippe and his ministers.

Marxist Interpretation In Favour Against  Argue that industrialization helped  The Marxist explanation seems too create an awareness of class simple due to the fact that France’s differences. industry was so underdeveloped.  The middle class owned the mines  Economic crises do not always cause and factories and became rich while political revolution. the workers class relied on inadequate wages.  There was a direct link between the  Many of the food riots were localized effect of industrialization and and far away from political powers. revolutionary activity There was also a better harvest in 1847, which caused a decrease of food prices in 1848, when these political troubles began.

 Once workers realized the wages the  There is a lot of evidence to prove that middle class was receiving, they is was the discontent of the revolted to destroy this class. bourgeoisie that led to revolution.  The growth of industrialization and  There was growing disappointment urbanization changed the position for with the bourgeois monarch. the working classes.  Most workers in France in 1848 were  The frustration of the lower men with little to no education and bourgeoisie who did not qualify to accepted revolutionary actions easily. vote and the economic problems in the 1840’s caused the lower middle classes to criticize the regime.  Real wages seemed to have dropped  The collapse of the stock exchange, between 1817 and 1848, which made following Guizot’s attempt to back the people do anything they could to railways, a banking crisis, and tax improve their situation. revenue failure all combined for a reason to revolt.  Their position became worse with  It was the middle class that filled the food shortages and financial crises of ranks of the National Guard. 1846-1847. This decreased confidence, raised unemployment, and raised the prices of necessary food.  Rural distress brought about more  Readers of the popular press were migration to towns, particularly Paris, leaders in the banquet campaign, whose population increased from being well placed to voice their 70000 in 1817 to over a million in discontent. 1846.  It is argued that there was a rising of the working class against the bourgeois middle class, which held the power.

Ideological Interpretations In Favour Against  It was claimed, “ The 1848 revolutions  It is also claimed, “never was an event were not revolutions of the masses; more unavoidable nor yet more their leaders and instigators were accidental”. intellectuals.”  Although the masses did not fight in  This claim challenges the idea of a the streets of Paris, they wouldn’t regime that depended on limited have without intellectual leadership. support.  Marxist views ignore the ideological  Revolution was accidental. Those who forces, which had already forced led the protests within the Chamber, people to question the traditional and those who organized the reform government before 1848. banquets, were only working for change and not the overthrowing of the monarchy.  The government’s attempts at  Socialism may have been present in creating a government, which the 1848 but it was not a driving force to majority people favoured, failed and revolution and not all socialist leaders these events happened because of wanted the same thing. the spread of developing political ideals. By 1846-1847 certain positive ideas of reform had replaced the violence that occurred in the earlier years. They offered an attractive alternative to the reign of Louis- Philippe.  The part of educated students in the  There might be evidence to prove that revolution adds to this theory. socialism attracted the interests of educated artisans, but the lack of education in the matter limited its spread.  The views of a socialist and  Ideas of Socialism and Republicanism republican government would prove were not new. They had been debated acceptable to those treated unfairly for years without the effect of causing under Louis-Philippe’s regime. revolution.  Socialism included many extremist  The socialist theory is also challenged theories and ideals but there is no by the idea that 1848 France was not question as to whether these ideals industrialized. had demonstrated themselves in society  Supporters for the socialist system  Those who protested, the working claim that, as confidence in the King class, were the least likely group to lessened and liberal moderates understand abstract socialist ideas. disappeared, that it was inevitable for socialism to infiltrate the minds of revolutionaries.

Reaction Interpretation In Favour Against  By 1848 Louis-Philippe had few  Many ask the question, why did the supporters left as his government had regime fall if many others like it done nothing for the working class, survived. failed to live up to the expectations of the middle class, and had turned its back on the upper class.  Louis-Philippe appeared to be happy  Boredom alone cannot create a with second place to Great Britain in revolution. foreign relations, and his relations at home with Guizot had proven to be a liability.  Thiers and Barrot maintained a  It does not matter what Louis-Philippe tireless campaign for reform, and Guizot did while in power, other although they never sought to forces were necessary to start a remove the monarchy. revolution.  Other leaders were not afraid to voice  It was not the people actually in their objective of removing the power, it was the seats they sat in, monarchy. because the roles were not defined clearly enough.  A lot of anti-establishment  Believe that Louis-Philippe’s regime propaganda particularly in the form lacked any type of system. of newspapers and journals.  There was not a single leader who  Revolution can only be explained by a would be responsible for the large number of factors. revolution.  Louis-Philippe had all the advantages  Believe that the government was not on his side but did not use them overthrown, but let to fall. correctly.  Louis-Philippe was the object of  Perhaps the feelings of defeat brought ridicule due to his age and inability to about from the agricultural, industrial react to problems he was blind to and intellectual crises caused the what he was doing to the French revolution. society.  Guizot was unpopular and yet Louis-  There was a sense of fear felt by those Philippe continued to support him. in a position of power. Fear of industrial changes and the new ideologies caused Louis-Philippe to give in to the pressures with little to no fight.  Louis-Philippe could not see any  “Allowed the scepter to fall from his warning signs and did not prepare hand.” himself for the July Ordinances.

The French economy 1815-1850

France Great Britain Population 1815: 29 million 1815: 18 million 1850: 35.8 million 1850: 27.6 million Output of Coal (metric tonnes) 1815: 882 000 1815: 16 200 000 1850: 4 434 000 1850: 50 200 000 Output of Pig Iron (metric 1815: Negligible 1815: 310 000 tonnes) 1850: 406 000 1850: 2 285 000 Railways (km) 1835: 141 1835: 544 1855: 5 037 1855: 11 744 Numbers employed in 1840: 6 940 000 1840: 3 400 000 agriculture Value of output in agriculture 1840: £ 269 000 000 1840: £ 218 000 000

Important People

Marshal Ney Michel (1769-1815) – a man from the worker class who worked his way up to being a commander under Napoleon. Fought in many battles. Executed in Paris on December 7.

François René Vicomte de Chateaubriand (1768-1848) – From an old aristocratic family. He was a great speaker and well-respected literary figure. He fled to the USA in 1791 and remained in exile, both in America and fighting in the counter-revolutionary armies until 1799. He returned to France to serve under Napoleon, but resigned in 1804. He supported the Bourbon Restoration and became Ambassador and Foreign Minister to Louis XVIII, but he was regarded as too moderate by the ultra-royalists who forced him out of office. Nevertheless, he refused to serve Louis-Philippe in 1830 and spent his later years writing.

Claude Henri, Comte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) – An aristocrat who developed a clear socialist programme. He had fought in the American War of Independence and became enormously rich, buying land during the French Revolutionary period. However, he was later to lose much of this, suffer imprisonment, and be forced to live off his friends. He had little influence in his own lifetime, but his writings were a great inspiration to later socialists. He argued that the army, Church, Kings and Princes were all out of date. THe men that mattered were bankers, industrialists, scientists and engineers. Scientists were to be the new priests. He believed that, in a successful state, poverty would disappear, there would be no more war and there would just be justice and equality. 7.3

Marquis de Lafayette, Marie Joseph Motier (1757-1834) – An aristocrat who became attracted by the idea of “liberty” while fighting as a volunteer in the American War of Independence in 1776. He returned to France determined to spread his views and he helped draft the “Declaration of the Rights of Man” (August 1789) – a statement of people’s basic rights and freedom. Lafayette was made the first commander of the new National Guard, but events turned against him and he was forced to flee from France (1792-1799). By 1815 he was highly regarded as a symbol of liberty. He helped to overthrow Napoleon’s government and was later involved in a military conspiracy against the Bourbons in 1821. Lafayette attached himself to the Orleanist opposition and was one of Louis-Philippe’s supporters in 1830. He was keen to extend the principles of 1830 abroad, but died before he could do this.

François Guizot (1787-1874) – A protestant (Huguenot) from Nimes in southern France. He became Professor of History in Paris in 1812 and did not enter politics until he was 43, in 1830. He became a minister (1832) and Foreign Minister (1840-1847). He was the most influential figure in Louis-Philippe’s government during this time. The King liked his conservative attitude and relied on him. As Prime Minister from 1847 to February 1848, his failure to respond to demands for the extension of the franchise helped cause the 1848 revolution. Guizot fled into exile and his last years were spent writing history books.

Adolphe Thiers (1797-1877) – Thiers was a lawyer, journalist, writer, and politician. In 1830 he was among those who persuaded Louis-Philippe to accept the throne. Became Minister of the Interior in 1834, and was responsible for the repression of the riots in Lyons and Paris in 1834. He became Prime Minister, briefly (1836 and 1840), but Louis-Philippe did not like Thiers’ attitude, which was to keep the King out of politics as much as possible. When he nearly brought France to war in 1840, Louis-Philippe was pleased to have an excuse to dismiss him. Thiers became a focus for opposition to Guizot in the Chamber of Deputies in the 1840’s, and constantly pressed for an extension of the franchise. However, when trouble broke out in 1848, he tried to persuade Louis-Philippe to leave Paris and repress the revolution with support from the provinces. Thiers’ advice went unheeded. Nevertheless, he survived to enjoy a long political career under Napoleon III and the Republic of 1871.

Louis Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881) – A professional revolutionary who spent 33 years in prison for his part in conspiracies and unrest. He joined a Cabonari society at 17 and fought against the Bourbon monarchy in 1830. However, after the failure of the Lyons silk weavers’ riots in 1834, he rejected the old ways. He believed in the power of the workers, who would eventually overthrow the other classes. He set up the “Society of the Seasons” to train a professional minority of working men who would seize power directly. He tried to put his ideas into practice in 1848.

Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869) – An aristocrat who became a poet and a politician. He was regarded as the most outstanding French romantic poet of the 1820’s. He became a deputy in 1833 and was an opposition figure during the Orleans monarchy. He supported the 1848 revolutions, but was discredited after June 1848 and devoted the rest of his life to his literary work.

Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin (1807-1874) – A radical and a contributor to the socialist journal, La Réforme. He believed in Republican government and manhood suffrage, and he soon became a prominent speaker at the political banquets of 1847, He helped to create the Revolution on 1848 and became Minister of Home Affairs in the provisional government of 1848.

Louis Blanc (1811-1882) – Developed his socialist ideas as a law student in Paris. In 1839 he published L’Organisation du travail (“The Organization of Work”), in which he explained his theories. This was followed in 1841 by Histoire des dix Ans (“History of the Last 10 Years”) in which he criticized the monarchy of Louis-Philippe. He provided leadership in the troubles of 1848 and was a member of the French Provisional Government that took control after the revolution. During this time he tried to put some of his theories into practice and established National Workshops to relieve unemployment. With the collapse of the revolution in June 1848 he was forced to flee to England, where he remained until 1871.

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) – Historian and politician, he entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1839, supported the 1848 revolution and became Foreign Minister for a brief period in 1849. He is best known for his writings, in which he examined the cause and effect of the French Revolution.