The Ten Parts of Speech with Clear Examples

English Tip Sheet

1. A common noun is a person, place, idea, or thing. It is capitalized only at the start of a sentence. It can be a single word, a group of words, or a hyphenated word.

Examples:

The girl was learning to drive person (girl) next to the ocean; place (ocean) it takes self-control idea (self-control) to earn a driver's license. thing (license)

2. A proper noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. It is always capitalized. It may be a single word, a group of words (with or without abbreviations), or a hyphenated word.

Examples:

Josh was honored person (Josh) at U.S. Memorial Auditorium place (U.S. Memorial Auditorium) with the Smith-Lee Award. thing (Smith-Lee Award)

3. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun(s). It can be in the subject case, acting as a "do-er" of the action in the subject case, or acting as a "receiver" of the action in the object case. Pronouns can also serve as singular or plural possessives to show ownership.

Examples:

She walked to town. subject case (She) I gave her a basket. object case (her) It was his wallet. possessive (his)

1 4. An adjective describes a proper noun, a common noun, or a pronoun by describing how many, what kind, or which one.

Examples:

The five teammates How Many? (five) took the tiring trip What Kind? (tiring) to that arena across town. Which One? (that)

5. A verb shows a physical or mental action or it describes a state of being.

Examples:

She works long hours, physical action (works) but knows that mental action (knows) there is more to life than work. state of being (is)

6. An adverb describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by describing how, when, where, or what degree.

Examples:

Trey walked slowly How? (slowly) because he had arrived early When? (early) to the place where Where? (where) he knew very well. What Degree? (very well)

7. A preposition is a word that has a relationship with a common noun, a proper noun, or a pronoun. The preposition is always part of a phrase comes and comes before its object. The preposition asks "What?" and the object provides the answer.

Examples:

The politician voted against the law (against) what?...the law through the secret ballot. (through) what?...the secret ballot

2 8. A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses together. There are three kinds:

-Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses used in the same way. Example: The student tries, but does not always succeed. (but) -Correlative conjunctions are paired conjunctions that connect words, phrases, or clauses used in the same way. Example: Either you must tell the police, or I will. (either, or) -Subordinating conjunctions come at the beginning of adverb clauses. These clauses restrict the meaning of the rest of the sentence. Example: Although he is often late, Ryan shows up to work every day. (Although)

9. An article determines number or identification of a noun and always precedes a noun. The "a" article signals a singular noun beginning with a consonant. The "an" article signals a plural noun beginning with a vowel.

Examples: A lion and an elephant are considered the "kings of the jungle." (a, an, the)

10. An interjection is a word or phrase that shows surprise or emotion. It is usually followed by an exclamation point. Example: Hey! Stop that. (Hey!)

COMMA USAGE – 9 Key Tips

1. Use a comma or commas to set off the abbreviations Jr., Sr., and Esq. Example: Carl Harris, Jr., is here now.

2. Use commas to separate parts of geographical places. Example: Have you visited St. Louis, Missouri?

3. Use a comma to separate introductory words yes and no and mild interjections from the sentence that follows them. Examples: Oh, I heard that before. Yes, I will be here.

4. Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase. Example: Feeling hot, the boy ran to the refrigerator for a drink.

5. Use a comma to set off a short clause at the end of the sentence to change a statement into a question or an exclamatory sentence. Example: You are going to town, aren't you?

6. Use a comma before the coordinate conjunctions that join independent clauses in a compound sentence. Example: Harry will leave on the next flight, but you will join him in a week.

3 7. Items in a date are set off by commas. Example: They were married on Saturday, June 5, 1996.

8. A series of adjectives of the same rank modifying the same noun are separated by commas unless they are joined by conjunctions. Example: We saw the tall, slender, graceful trees.

9. Use a Comma after introductory subordinate phrases. A subordinate phrase is a phrase that begins with a subordinating conjunction (e.g., since, when, although, as). These phrases are not independent clauses (a complete sentence) because of that subordinating conjunction. They must be attached to an independent clause. Subordinate phrases tell when the main action occurred, provide a condition for it to occur, give opposing information about the action, or show cause and effect. Examples:

As he ran away from Mary, Tom fell and skinned his knee.

Although his knee hurt, the pain in his heart consumed his attention.

SEMICOLON USAGE

1. Use a semicolon between two independent clauses of a compound sentence when they are not joined by a coordinate conjunction. Example: There was a sudden silence; everyone was stunned by the outcome.

2. Use a semicolon between clauses which are joined by conjunctions if the clauses are long, or when the clause have internal commas. Example: John arrived last night, I am told; but because his plane was late, he could not come to the party.

3. Use a semicolon between clauses of a compound sentence which are joined by conjuctive adverbs, such as therefore, hence, however, nevertheless, accordingly, thus, then. Example: The day was very cold; therefore, we did not go for a ride.

COLON USAGE

1. Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter. Example: Dear Sir:

2. Use a colon before listed items that are introduced by such words as the following, as follows, thus, and these; by a number; or by any other expression that "points-out." Example: In high school he played the following sports: baseball, basketball, football and tennis.

*Use no colon before a list of predicate nominatives, direct objects, or objects of the preposition. A colon should not hinder the natural flow of the sentence. Example: We will need flour, milk, and sugar. (direct objects)

4 25 Common Grammatical Errors to Avoid

1. Dangling Modifiers

Incorrect - Tossed high into the sky, the dog caught the Frisbee.

Correct - The dog caught the Frisbee, which had been tossed high into the sky.

Tip: Keep modifiers close to the words that they describe to avoid dangling modifiers.

2. Modifiers

Incorrect - That student is not feeling good.

Correct - That student is not feeling well.

Tip: Don't use adjectives, e.g., good, in place of adverbs, e.g., well. Usually follow "_ing" with well, not good.

3. Comparative Modifiers (one or two syllables)

Incorrect - I picked the smallest piece of the two to be graciouser and because it was more easy to reach.

Correct - I picked the smaller piece of the two to be more gracious and because it was easier to reach.

Tip: Use "_er" for one or two syllable modifiers or more for two syllable modifiers, if more sounds better.

4. Comparative Modifiers (three or more syllables)

Incorrect - Each new song was wonderfuller than the old ones.

Correct - Each new song was more wonderful than the old ones.

Tip: Use more (less) for a three - syllable or longer modifier to compare two things.

5. Superlative Modifiers

Incorrect - Oswald is the more hyperactive of the three boys, but runs least quicker.

Correct - Oswald is the most hyperactive of the three boys, but runs least quickly.

Tip: Use most (least) for a three - syllable or longer modifier to compare three or more things. Always use most or least for adverbs ending in "_ly."

5 6. Preposition Placement

Incorrect - Prepositions are not good to end sentences with.

Correct - Do not end sentences with prepositions.

Tip: A preposition is a word that shows some relationship or position between a common noun, a proper noun, or a pronoun and its object. The preposition is always part of a phrase and comes before its object. The preposition asks "What?" and the object provides the answer. Ending sentences with prepositions eliminates their objects, so avoid these constructions whenever possible.

7. Parallel Structure

Incorrect - Swimming, to play tennis, and basketball are popular sports at the high school.

Correct - Swimming, tennis, and basketball are popular sports at the high school.

Tip: The term parallelism refers to a repeated grammatical construction of a word, a phrase, or a clause. Especially keep verb forms parallel within the same sentence.

8. Split Infinitives

Incorrect - It is a mistake to ever split an infinitive.

Correct - It is always a mistake to split an infinitive.

Tip: An infinitive has a to + the base form of a verb. Placing a word between the to and the base form of the verb can create confusion. If tempted to split the infinitive, brainstorm for better verbs.

9. Noun - Verb Agreements (numbers)

Incorrect - The calculations indicates that there will be an economic downturn soon.

Correct - The calculations indicate that there will be an economic downturn soon.

Tip: If the noun is plural (ends in an s, the verb that acts upon that noun usually does not end in an s.

10. Subject Case Pronouns (compound subjects)

Incorrect - Her and Muffy play video games.

Correct - She and Muffy play video games.

Tip: Drop other nouns or pronouns when there is a compound subject (two or more subjects), and check if the remaining pronoun sounds right, e.g., "Her plays video games" sounds bad while "She plays video games" sounds good.

11. Subject Case Pronouns (pronoun order)

6 Incorrect - I and Zelda enjoy the beach.

Correct - Zelda and I enjoy the beach.

Tip: Remember that English is a polite language; the first person pronouns (I, me, ours, mine) are always placed last when combined with other nouns or pronouns.

12. Object Case Pronouns (serving as direct objects)

Incorrect - The challenge excited we.

Correct - The challenge excited us.

Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is the direct object. The direct object receives the action of the verb and answers "What?" or "Who?"

13. Object Case Pronouns (serving as indirect objects)

Incorrect - Robert gave they a king - size candy bar.

Correct - Robert gave them a king - size candy bar.

Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is an indirect object of a verb. The indirect object is placed between a verb and its direct object. It answers "To What?" "To Whom," " For What?" or "For Whom?"

14. Gender Pronouns

Incorrect - Everyone has their own problems or Everyone has his/her own problems.

Correct - Everyone has his own problems (Yes, English is a masculine - based language) or better... All people have their own problems.

Tip: To be inclusive (and politically correct), make pronoun references plural. Avoid the wordy and confusing "his or hers for him and her."

15. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to ambiguous references)

Incorrect - When Bobby asked for help, they asked why.

Problem - Who are the they?

Correct - When Bobby asked for help, his friends asked why.

Tip: An antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers.Make sure antecedents are specific. Otherwise, the pronoun reference may be confusing.

7 16. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to the objects of prepositions)

Incorrect - In Twain's The Celebrated Frog of Calaveras County, he uses political humor.

Problem - Who, or what, is he?

Correct - In Twain's The Celebrated Frog of Calaveras County, the author uses political humor.

Tip: Don't have a pronoun refer to the object of a prepositional phrase, e.g., "of Calaveras County."

17. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to this, that, these, those, it, its)

Incorrect - He made an egg, put the dog food in its bowl, and put this on his toast to eat.

Problem - What is this? Whose is his?

Correct - He made an egg and put it on his toast. Then, he put the dog food in its bowl.

Tip: Make sure that the singular pronouns this and that and the plural pronouns these and those specifically refer to what is intended. Keep these pronouns close to their references.

18. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to possessives)

Incorrect - In San Diego's famous zoo, they treat their zoo - keepers well.

Problem - Who are the they and their?

Correct - In San Diego's famous zoo, the animals treat their zoo - keepers well.

Tip: Don't have a pronoun refer to a possessive antecedent. A possessive is a common noun, proper noun, or pronoun that shows ownership.

19. The This, That, These, Those Pronouns (serving as demonstrative adjectives)

Incorrect - I like these over there.

Correct - I like those over there.

Tip: Use this and these for objects within reach; use that and those for objects not within reach.

20. The Who Pronoun

Incorrect - Whom did it, and why?

Correct - Who did it, and why? 8 Tip: The pronoun who is in the subject (nominative) case. The who takes the role of the subject. Try substituting he for who and rephrase, if necessary. If it sounds right, use the who, e.g. "Him did it" sounds bad while "He did it" sounds good.

21. The Whom Pronoun

Incorrect - I like who you gave the award, but to who does this letter concern?

Correct - I like whom you gave the award, but to whom does this letter concern?

Tip: The pronoun whom is in the objective case. In other words, it is takes the place of the direct object, the indirect object of the verb, or the object of the preposition. Try substituting him for whom and rephrase, if necessary. If it sounds right, use whom. "I like he" and "to he does this letter concern" sound bad while "I like him" and "to him does this letter concern" sound good.

22.The That Pronoun (serving at the start of relative clauses)

Incorrect - The movie which we watched was entertaining.

Correct - The movie that we watched was entertaining.

Tip: The pronoun that can refer to unspecific, or general, people or things. Use the pronoun that when the clause is needed to understand or restrict the meaning of the rest of the sentence.

23. The Which Pronoun (serving at the start of relative clauses)

Incorrect - A dog, which is compliant, is easy to train.

Correct - A Golden Retriever, which is compliant, is easy to train.

Tip: The pronoun which can only refer to specific things. Use the pronoun which in clauses that provide additional, but not necessary information to the rest of the sentence.

24. Possessive Pronouns

Incorrect - Bilbo's faking won't help his success as much as him planning.

Correct - Bilbo's faking won't help his success as much as his planning.

Tip: A possessive pronoun (my, your, his, her, its, their, our), not a subject or object case pronoun, must be connected to a gerund. A gerund is the "_ing" form of a noun.

25. Punctuating Dialogue

When writing dialogue, all punctuation goes inside the quotation marks. When a word or phrase is used to set apart text in scare quotes, the first example below is correct; the second is incorrect:

Every day we hear that the price of gas has hit an "all time high." Every day we hear that the price of gas has hit an "all time high". 9 Common English Idioms

An idiom is “a set expression of two or more words that means something other than the literal meanings of its individual words.” Idioms add color to our language. Below are some examples:

“A short fuse”: A quick temper Example: Jamie is known for his short fuse; just a few days ago he screamed at his coach for not letting him play.

“A taste of your own medicine”: Bad treatment deservedly received for treating other people badly. Example: After constantly being prank-called, Bob decided to give Steve a taste of his own medicine and ordered twenty-seven pizzas to be delivered to Steve’s house.

“Butterflies in my stomach”: To be nervous. Example: Jacob had butterflies in his stomach before he went on stage to play the violin.

“Fish out of water”: To be out of place. Example: Tom felt like a fish out of water at the Star Trek convention his new girlfriend begged him to attend.

“Once in a blue moon”: Rarely. Example: In Florida, the temperature drops below freezing only once in a blue moon.

“Play second fiddle”: To be less important. Example: I hate playing second fiddle to my sister; she always does things better than I do!

MORE HELP: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

When speaking or writing English, it is important to make the subjects and the verb agree. Below are some rules using basic sentences. These rules will help you choose the correct verb based on the subject.

10 Rule #1: Subject Usually Left Of Verb

Before you know which verb to use, first you need to know what the subject is! As a general rule, the subject is usually immediately to the left of the verb.

Example: That tree grows fast.

Here, the subject is immediately to the left of the verb. The verb is "grows", making the subject "tree".

Example: Sometimes dogs bark for fun.

The verb here is "bark". As you can see, the subject, "dogs", is immediately to the left.

There are exceptions to this rule. One big signal of a sentence where the verb comes before the subject is when the sentence starts with "There".

Example: There are apples everywhere.

"Apples" is the subject. The verb, "are", comes before the subject.

Rule #2: "Or" Use Singular, "And" Use Plural

This is for sentences with two or more subjects. If the subjects are connected with the word "or", you want to use a singular verb. If they are connected with the word "and", use a plural verb.

Example: Tom or Sally is picking it up at noon.

Our two subjects, "Tom" and "Sally", are connected by the word "or". Because of this, our verb needs to be singular (is).

Example: Tom and Sally are picking it up at noon.

By connecting our two subjects with "and", we now use a plural verb (are).

In these examples, the subjects were singular. What happens if one of the subjects is plural?

Rule #3: When In Doubt, Verb Agrees With Nearest Subject

When a singular and a plural noun are connected by the word "or", the verb should agree with the nearest subject. Remember, "are" is used with plural while "is" is used with singular.

Example: The players or the coach is in the gym.

Example: The coach or the players are in the gym.

11 Let's look at two examples that use verbs different than "is" and "are".

Example: Tom or the cats run for dear life.

Example: The cats or Tom runs for dear life.

Rule #4: Don't Become Confused Of The Subject

This can be a tricky thing to remember. Some sentences have a phrase after the subject but before the verb. These phrases can make identifying the subject an adventure. In the below examples, the subject and the verb are in italics. Notice how the words in between could change the verb usage if they were falsely identified as the subject.

Example: The quarterback, not to mention the rest of his teammates, is worried about tonight's game.

Example: My neighbor with all the birds is running for Sheriff.

Example: The dogs who watch the cat are getting tired.

Example: That girl who likes the flowers jogs twice per day.

Example: One of the trees is dying.

Rule #5: Everybody Is Singular

Although they sound plural, subjects such as everybody, anybody, no one, somebody, nobody, each, either, and neither are singular and use singular verbs.

Example: Everybody who came tonight is to be commended.

Example: Anybody is welcome to attend.

THE APOSTROPHE

The apostrophe may be the simplest and yet most frequently misused mark of punctuation in English. Here we'll review six guidelines for using the mark correctly.

1. Use an Apostrophe to Show the Omission of Letters in a Contraction Use the apostrophe to form contractions:

 I'm (I am)  you're (you are)  he's (he is) 12  she's (she is)  it's* (it is)  we're (we are)  they're (they are)  isn't (is not)  aren't (are not)  can't (cannot)  don't (do not)  who's (who is)  won't (will not)

Be careful to place the apostrophe where the letter or letters have been omitted, which is not always the same place where the two words have been joined. * Don't confuse the contraction it's (meaning, "it is") with the possessive pronoun its:

 It's the first day of spring.  Our bird has escaped from its cage.

2. Use an Apostrophe with -s for Possessives of Singular Nouns Use an apostrophe plus -s to show the possessive form of a singular noun, even if that singular noun already ends in -s:

 Harold's crayon  my daughter's First Communion  Sylvia Plath's poetry  Dylan Thomas's poetry  today's weather report  the boss's problem  Star Jones's talk show  Victoria Beckham's husband

3. Use an Apostrophe Without -s for Possessives of Most Plural Nouns To form the possessive of a plural noun that already ends in -s, add an apostrophe:

 the girls' swing set (the swing set belonging to the girls)  the students' projects (the projects belonging to the students)  the Johnsons' house (the house belonging to the Johnsons)

If the plural noun does not end in -s, add an apostrophe plus -s:

 the women's conference (the conference belonging to the women)  the children's toys (the toys belonging to the children)  the men's training camp (the training camp belonging to the men)

4. Use an Apostrophe with -s When Two or More Nouns Possess the Same Thing When two or more nouns possess the same thing, add an apostrophe plus -s to the last noun listed:

 Ben and Jerry's Cherry Garcia Ice Cream  Emma and Nicole's school project (Emma and Nicole worked together on the same project)

13 When two or more nouns separately possess something, add an apostrophe to each noun listed:

 Tim's and Marty's ice cream (Each boy has his own ice cream.)  Emma's and Nicole's school projects (Each girl has her own project.)

5. Do Not Use an Apostrophe with Possessive Pronouns Because possessive pronouns already show ownership, it's* not necessary to add an apostrophe:

 yours  his  hers  its*  ours  theirs

However, we do add an apostrophe plus -s to form the possessive of some indefinite pronouns:

 anybody's guess  one's personal responsibility  somebody's wallet

* Don't confuse the contraction it's (meaning, "it is") with the possessive pronoun its:

 It's the first day of spring.  Our bird has escaped from its cage.

6. Generally, Do Not Use an Apostrophe to Form a Plural As a general rule, use only an -s (or an -es) without an apostrophe to form the plurals of nouns--including dates, acronyms, and family names:

 Markets were booming in the 1990s.  The tax advantages offered by IRAs make them attractive investments.  The Johnsons have sold all of their CDs.

To avoid confusion, we may occasionally need to use apostrophes to indicate the plural forms of certain letters and expressions that are not commonly found in the plural:

 Mind your p's and q's.  Let's accept the proposal without any if's, and's, or but's.