Initially Increase Activity and Reduced Inhibition
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1.Abuse of Ethanol (Alcohol): Short-term -Initially increase activity and reduced inhibition -Slows central nervous system -Diuretic
Long-Term -Risk of CNS damage -Physical and psychological dependence -Liver disease -Family and relationship problems -Societal issues
2.Acetaminophen: Pros and Cons: Aka: Paracetamol or Tylenol Pros -Very safe in the correct dosage -Antipyretic (fever reducer) -Reduces mild pain -Does not cause stomach bleeding
Cons -Not a very effective anti-inflammatory drug -In rare cases, can cause blood disorders and kidney damage -Overdose can cause liver damage, brain damage and even death
3.Addiction: Problem with opiates, in which a dependency on a drug is created
4.Administration of Drugs:
Inhalations: -Rapid absorption rate -Drug produces systemic effect (brain and whole body – asthma Oral: -Convenient -Effect depends on the rate of absorption (based on drug concentration and stomach content) -Primary absorption site is the small intestines Parenteral (Injection): Subcutaneously (into skin), absorption is slower than intravenous -Ex. Dental injections, illegal drugs Intramuscular (into muscle) no immediate response necessary or large dose is needed -Ex. Vaccination injections Intravenous (into bloodstream) response almost immediate, precise amounts can be administered Rectal: -Effective when patients are nauseous -Effect depends on rate of absorption (based on drug concentration and stomach content) -Primary absorption site is the bloodstrea 10.adrenaline: - A naturally occuring hormone and stimulant released during stress -epinephrine -the hormone that is released in times of stress and enables the body to cope with sudden demands such as those imposed by pain, shock, fear or the cold 11.AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. develops from HIV 12.Aim of designing a drug (def): make structural modifications to a drug to improve its therapeutic effect(s) and minimalize adverse side effects 13.Alcoholism: Habitual intoxication. Prolonged and excessive intake of drinks leading to a breakdown in health and an addiction to such that abrupt deprivation leads to severe withdrawal symptoms. Can be psychological and physiological. 14.alcoholism: psychological and physical dependence on alcohol 15.Alginates: Often combined with antacids. Prevents acid in stomach from rising in to the esophagus and causing 'heart burn' 16.alginates: float to top of stomach creating a barrier preventing acid reflux into the esophagus 17.Alkaloid: drug that comes from plant. Examples. marijuana, cocaine, heroine, alcohol, tabbaco, and LSD 18.alkaloid: -nitrogenous organic compounds of plant origin that have pronounced physiological effects on humans
19.Alkaloids: Plant-Based: -Alkaloids: basic nitrogen-containing compound produced by plants -Opiates: the alkaloids found in the opium poppy. (Ex. morphine and codeine) -Heroin: Synthetically prepared by simply modifying the structure of morphine -Other familiar alkaloids: caffiene, cocaine, nicotine and strychnine 20.aluminum hydroxide: - Al(OH)3 + 3HCl -> AlCl3 + 3 H2O -dissolve more slowly and are longer lasting -aluminum salts cause constipation -often used with magnesium hydroxide 21.Amphetamine: Fat soluble molecule which mimics noradrenaline. Similarity is so strong that it can replace noradrenaline in its storage sites, resulting in a flood of displaced noradrenaline molecules that bind to the other neural proteins 22.amphetamines: -mimic and enhance effects of adrenaline and noradrenalin -they are chemically similar as they derive from the phenylethylamine structure 23.Amphetamines and Adrenaline: -Have similar chemical structures -Bath are derived from phenylethylamine (or phenethylamine) -Amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetic drugs -"Speed" methamphetamine has a more pronounced physiological effect than amphetamine
24.Analgesic: A drug whish relives pain without resulting in a loss of consciousness. either mild or strong 25.Analgesic (def): A drug that contains an active ingredient that helps to relieve or prevent pain 26.Analgesics: Constrict blood vessels. Increase body temp. 27.Analgesics - Mild Analgesics: Intercept the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances like prostaglandins which are produced by the body that can cause swelling, pain or fever 28.Analgesics - Pain Relief: -There are both prescription and OTC types Types: -Mild Analgesics: are considered non addictive (aspirin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen) -Strong Analgesics: are controlled substances and can be addictive (narcotics that include morphine, codeine and heroin) -Local Anesthetics: (Lidocaine and novocain) -General Anesthetics: (Nitrous oxide, chloroform and diethyl ether)
29.Analgesics - Strong Analgesics: Temporarily bond to receptor sites in the brain, blocking the transmission of pain impulses within the brain and spinal chord without depressing the central nervous system
30.Antivirals (blunting): preventing escape of new viruses by inhibiting neuraminidase enzyme which cuts open cell membrane 31.Antivirals (retrovirus inhibitor): inhibits RNA from acting as a template for DNA replication)
32.antacid: -drug to help combat gastric issues -weak basic compounds (metal oxids, metal hydroxides, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates) which neutralize the HCl by reacting to produce a salt and water -don't coat ulcers or induce healing but allows time to mend
33.Antacid (def): Drug that contains a base(s) that neutralize(s) the excess stomach acidity (HCl) and relieve the pain associated with heartburn and peptic ulcers 34.Antacid Reactions: Ex. Al(OH)3 + HCl -> AlCl3 + H2O MgCO3 + HCl -> MgCl2 + H2O + CO2 35.Antacid types (5): - metal carbonates require anti foaming agent (dimethicone) as CO2 is produced - group 1 metal hydroxides (NaOH/KOH) can't be used because they are corrosive to body tissue - Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide is faster acting - Al(OH)2 aluminium hydroxide lasts longer - Al2O3 aluminium oxide is most potent (neutalises 6 mols of HCl per mole/ basic stoichem)
36.Antacids: Bases that neutralize excess acid
37.Antacids: -Process of digestion involves the production of HCl in the stomach: sometimes the stomach produces too much. -The excess causes an upset stomach or heartburn. -Antacids are taken by mouth and work by neutralizing excess stomach acid. -They contain ingredients such as aluminium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and sodium bicarbonate, alone or in various concentrations. -Antacids differ in how quickly they will work and how long they provide relief. Those that dissolve rapidly in the stomach, such a magnesium hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate, bring the fastest relief. -The longer an antacid stays in the stomach, the longer it works 38.Antacids with Additives: -Antacids that contain calcium carbonate or aluminium dissolve more slowly and can take up to 30 minutes to begin working. -Antacid products may also contain other ingredients such as alginates and antifoaming agents 39.Antacids with Alginates: Alginates, such as sodium alginate, are another common ingredient of indigestion or heartburn remedies. Alginates float on the contents of the stomach to produce a neutralizing layer. This prevents heartburn, which is caused when the stomach acid rises up to the esophagus 40.Antacids with Antifoaming Agents: Antifoaming agents are added to reduce the amount of bubbles (CO2) in the Gl tract with in turn will prevent flatulence. The most common anti-foaming agent is dimethicone.
41.Anti-coagulant: has blood thinning properties
42.Anti-depressant: Are depressants as they relieve depression
43.Anti-inflammatory: a drug that reduces swelling, redness, and pain that promotes healing. Derivative of salicylic acid
44.Anti-platelet agent: reduces the tendency of platelets to stick together and form a clot. Derivative of salicylic acid
45.Anti-pyretic: Any medicine that lowers body temperature to prevent or alleviate fever. Derivative of salicylic acid
46.Antibacterials (def): chemicals which prevent the growth and multiplication of bacteria by stopping bacteria cell wall formation.(they do not therefore harm human cells as they don't have cell walls)
47.antibiotics: chemicals (usually produced by microorganisms which at against other microorganisms) that prevent the growth and multiplication of bacteria 48.Antibiotics (def): chemicals, usually produces by microorganisms, which act against other microorganisms
49.Antivirals: -Drugs used to treat infections caused by viruses -Influenza most widely known virus (HIV, STDs) -Antiviral drugs may work by altering the cell's genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to Multiply Alternatively, they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell 50.Antivirals (trojan horse): joins the replication process inhibiting replication of the virus, selectively toxic as it is activated by viral enzyme
51.Aspirin: derived from salicylic acid. the phenol group is substituted with an acetyl group, but is still acidic due to its alkanoic acid group. Has anti-coagulant properties, but there can be allergic reactions to it. can induce Reye's Syndrome in children
52.Aspirin production (2): - NaOH turns the acidic COOH into COO- - COOH (acetylsalicylic acid) + NaOH ==> (COO-) aspirin + H2O + Na+
53.Aspirin vs. paracetamol (acetaminophen) (3b,4a,3p):
Both
- prevent production of prostaglandins at source
- Antipyretic - overuse can result in liver/kidney damage
Aspirin
- anti-coagulant: minimizes blood clotting (no heart attacks, bad for hemophiliacs)
- anti-inflammatory (helpful for arthritis)
- can allergic reaction (is a salicylate)
- can cause deafness if overused
Paracetamol
- only inhibits prostaglandin biosynthesis in the central nervous system (CNS) with little or no effect on peripheral tissues.
- Doesn't irritate stomach
- cannot result in addiction
- "safest" of all analgesics 54.Aspirin: Pros and Cons: Aspirin is a derivative of salicylic acidPros-Mild analgesic-Antipyretic (fever reducer)-Anti-inflammatory-Anti-coagulantCons-Ulceration and stomach bleeding-Using alcohol can increase stomach bleeding-Allergic reactions-Reye's syndrome in children (potentially fatal liver and brain disorder) 55.Asprin: Mild Analgesic (A) 56.BAC: Blood Alcohol Conentrate, the % of alchol in you blood. 57.Bacteria: slightly different structures to mammalian cells: have a cell wall. Penicillin prevents this wal from being made, the internal pressures within the cell builds up and causes it to burst 58.Barbiturates: drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. 59.Benzodiazepenes: class of depressants including valium, prozac and magodan 60.Benzodiazepines: anti-anxiety drugs that depress the central nervous system, reduce activity, and induce relaxation and sleep; often prescribed to relieve tension, muscular strain, sleep problems, anxiety, and panic attacks (eg. valium). Phenyl (C6H5) group. 61.Blood-brian barrier: can only be passed by fat soluble molecules 62.Body's Natural Ability and The Placebo Effect: The body does have the ability to heal itself to some degree. Placebo effect: The measurable, observable or felt improvement in health not due to treatment. 63.Body's response to adrenaline: increased pulse, dilation of pupils, sweating, diversion of blood to muscles, increased blood clotting time 64.breathalyzer: -potassium dichromate (VI) crystals which are orange are reduced to Cr^3+ which are green-potassium dichromate oxidizes ethanol into ethanal and ethanoic acid-extent of color change is measured -not very accurate 65.Breathalyzer Test: -Blood Alcohol Concetration (BAC) is the mass in grams of ethanol per 100 cm^3 of blood-Breathalyzer test is a redox reaction using potassium (VI) dichrimate K2Cr2O7 as the oxidizing agent 66.Broad Spectrum Antibiotics: are effective against a wide range of basteria 67.Broad spectrum antibiotics (4): - effective against wide range of types and strains of bacteria- effect both harmful and beneficial bacteria (disadvantage)- blood/urine test not required- antibiotic can be bought OTC 68.Broad-Spectrum vs. Narrow-Spectrum Antibiotics: Broad-Spectrum-Activity against a wide range of disease-causing bacteriaNarrow-Spectrum-Effective against only specific families of bacteriaIt is preferable to use a narrow spectrum antibiotic to limit the development of antibiotic resistance. 69.Caffeine: -Respiratory stimulant-If consumed in large amounts, can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-Weak diuretic-Caffiene and nicotine have similar chemical structures (Both contain a 3° amine group) 70.caffeine: -found in coffee, tea, chocolate and cola-respiratory stimulant as it increases rate of energy release within cells-can help body absorb some analgesics included in headache pills 71.caffine: tertiary amine. known as a respiratory stimulant, as it increase rate of respiration, by blocking inhibition of ATP, through mimicking the shape of ATP and causing the inhibiting enzyme to bind to it instead 72.Categories of Drugs: Infection fighters-Antiseptics-Antibiotics-AntiviralsThose affecting body chemistry or metabolism-Hormones-Vitamins-AntacidsThose affecting the central nervous system- Stimulants-Depressants-Analgesics-Anesthetics 73.cephalosporins: variants of penicilin created to overcome the action of penicillinases 74.cis platin (4): - both Cl's are datively bonded to Pt2+- cis platin enters cancerous cell- both Cl's get replaced with bonds to the N of Guanines in same strand DNA, bending it, stopping replication of cancer cell- healthy cells are affected but can repair themselves 75.classification of amines: -primary: one R group attached to N atom and 2 H-secondary: two R groups attached to N atom and 1 H-tertiary: three R groups attached to N atom 76.CNS: central nervous system 77.Codeine: -Less potent form of morphine (6x less potent)-Upper hydroxyl group of morphine is converted to a methyl ether-Effective as a cough suppressant 78.Codeine: Strong Opiate 79.Codeine: derived from morphine by replacing H in one of alcohol groups with methyl group 80.Codeine (3): - one polar hydroxyl group and one ether-methyl group -O-CH3/ more soluble than heroin and less than morphine- more easily transported across lipid barrier membranes in brain & CNS/ more addictive than morphine and less than heroin- less effective than morphine as is not as readily transported or absorbed by blood stream (polarity) 81.Combinational vs parallel synthesis (3): C/P- larger, broader, more diverse, less focused / smaller more focused- mass production of all combinations in same reaction vessel/ many identical reactions in separate vessels at same time, automatic robotic syringes on small scale- uses mix and split technique, solid-phase resin beads/ solid-phase resin techniques 82.Common functions/structures of strong (narcotic) analgesics (4): - intercepts the pain stimulus at source by interfering with the pain causing chemicals, prostaglandins, preventing pain- antipyretic: aspirin, paracetamol (stops increase in body temp/fever)- anti-inflammatory: aspirin (constricts blood vessels near pain source- all have an aromatic (benzene) ring 83.Common functions/structures of strong (narcotic) analgesics (6): - prevent the transmission of the pain signal by binding to the pain receptors in the brain blocking the signal between brain cells, relieving pain- mimics the bodies own natural pain killers (endorphins and enkephalins) producing analgesia - aromatic (benzene) ring in the same place- alkene in the same place- tertiary amine in the same place- ether in the same place 84.Components of antacids (3): - Base (main ingredient) - Aliginate (floats on top of stomach contents/ neutralizing layer that acts as barrier for acid reflux, prevents heartburn)(-) Anti foaming agent: dimethicone (when base is a metal carbonate CO2 is produced. this causes many tiny bubbles that cause bloating, flatulence, and vomiting/ cause minibubbles to form one large bubble which can be burped) 85.Compound library (def): large database containing related compounds (similar structure/ known biological activity) which can be tested in parallel to desired drug compound (lead compound) for designing more efficient drugs (potency, side effects) 86.Continuum of effects of depressants with increased dosage (8): Normal--> Relief of anxiety----> Disinhibition------> Sedation------> Hypnosis------> General anesthesia------> Comatose------> Death 87.Cost of R&D: FDA estimates that, on average, it takes eight and a half years to study and test a new drug before the agency can approve it for the general public. Includes: Early laboratory and animal testing, and clinical trials using human subjects.Drug companies spend #359 million, on average, to develop a new drug, according to a 1993 report by the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment. 88.Depressant: Drugs which depress CNS by interfering with transmission of nerve tranquilising the impulses in the nerons. Effects depend on dosage 89.Depressant: tranquilizers, sedatives, hypnotics 90.Depressants: -Depressants are substances that depress the activity of the central nervous system- Depressants are often referred to as "downers" because of their seductive, hypnotic and tranquilizing effects-Low doses: it has little to no effect-Moderate Doses: may induce sedation-High Doses: will induce sleep-Extremely High Doses: Death can occur 91.Designer drugs: modifications to the structure of natural drugs 92.Detection of Alcohol: Each type has a mouthpiece - its the analysis that varies from type to type-Breathalyzer: uses a chemical reaction where ethanol is oxidized by dichromate ion and the Cr^6+ which is green is reduced to Cr^3+ which is orange-Intoxilyzer: detects a chemical reaction of alcohol in a fuel cell-Alcosensor III: Detects a chemical reaction of alcohol in a fuel cell 93.development of Penicillin: -1940's bacteriologist isolated and purified penicillin-1941 the first human trials during WWII and saved thousands of lives-Fleming Florey and Chain won Nobel Prize in medicine in 1945-mass produced in the USA by growing strains of Penicillin mold in tanks containing corn-steep liguor-1945- Dorothy Flodgkin determined the structur of penicillin y using x-ray crystallography 94.Development of penicillin (10): - 1940- Howard Florey & Ernst Chain- isolated penicillin produced by the mold- overcame the problems associated with isolating and concentrating penicillin - showed penicillin was harmless and effective on mice- developed techniques to purify penicillin (removing side effects)- prepared penicillin in crystal (solid) form- first to use penicillin on a policeman/human- grew penicillin in bulk- grew strains of penicillin in corn-steep liquor 95.Different structures in nicotine and caffeine: caffeine (6): - TWO AMIDE groups- has ONE alkene groups- the five and six member rings are FUSED- amine(2) on FIVE member ring- THREE tertiary amine groups- TWO amine(3) on SIX member ring 96.Different structures in nicotine and caffeine: nicotine (5): - has TWO alkene groups- SEPARATE 5 and 6 member rings- amine(2) on SIX member ring- ONE tertiary amine group- Amine(3) on FIVE member ring 97.Difficulties in treating HIV virus (5): - HIV virus mutates and reproduces quickly (overcoming 'immune memory')/ HIV surface proteins rapidly change so antibodies cant attach- HIV metabolism is depends on host cell, so antivirals also harm host cell - HIV can remain dormant and 'invisible' in host cells- antiviral drugs are expensive (unavailable to poor, who due to education/social/cultural issues are most susceptible)- lack of info regarding use of condoms/ lack of access to condoms, clean needles for intravenous injections, religions reasons for contraceptive use, social AID stigmas, HIV ability to be rapidly transferred between people 98.difficulties with HIV: -HIV attacks T-helper cells so that there is no immune response-virus tends to mutate very rapidly, even within a patient... escapes the immune system so patient has to keep making new responses-virus often lies dormant within cells so the immune system has nothing to respond to 99.dimethicone: anti-foaming agent often used with antacids. Allows gas bubbles to coalesce and be expelled 100.discovery of Penicillin: -Alexander Fleming (1928) a Scottish microbiologist noticed that Penicillum notatum fungus had contaminated on of his bacteria cultures-mold had generated a clear area around it where no bacteria was growing-concluded that the bacterium produced a compound (which he called Penicillin) that specifically inhibited bacterial growth 101.Discovery of penicillin (3): - 1928- Alexander Fleming...- discovers a mold which produced penicillin inhibited bacterial growth on a petri-dish 102.Downer: Another term for depressant 103.Drug design: Stage 1: Identification: of chemical from compound library. Chemical (Lead compound) with desired biological activity (structures with desirable functional groups that mimic desired biological molecules) 104.Drug design: Stage 2: Isolation and synthesis and modificationModifications: potency, ability to be absorbed by body, reduction of side effects 105.Drug design: Stage 3: Clinical pharmacological Studies:on plants and animals to establish: ED50, LD50, and therapeutic window 106.Drug design: Stage 4: Human testing: to identify side effects & effective dosagePhase 1: small sample of healthy peoplePhase 2: small sample of patientsPhase 3: larger sample of patients. where half are given a placebo 107.Drug design: Stage 5: Further Clinical testing 108.Drug design: Stage 6: Get the drug approved by the drug administration. either as OTC or prescription drug 109.Effect of depressent (def) by... (def): Dull emotional responses producing a calming effect to reduce anxiety and help people sleep (reduce a person's state of mental awareness)By...Changing the concentration of neurotransmitters in the CNS, causing a decrease in brain activity and breathing rate 110.Effects of depressants: Slow down activity in the brain and bodyReduce rate of breathing and dull emotional responces 111.effects of depressants: -act on the central nervous system (CNS)-alter concentration or activity of neurotransmitters (changes communication between brain cells)+decrease in brain activity+slow dow functions of the body 112.Effects of depressants extremely high doses (5): - Lethal:- decreased breathing and heart rates- loss of consciousness- coma- death 113.Effects of depressants in low to moderate doses (4): - Tranquilizer:- increased feeling of calm- reduction in anxiety/ tension- slower mental activity 114.Effects of depressants in moderate to high doses (6): - Sedative:- slurred speech- faltering movement- altered perception/ slower mental activity/ reduction of inhibition- further reduction in anxiety- drowsiness 115.effects of large amounts of caffeine: -anxiety-irritability-insomnia-dependence; withdrawal symptoms are headaches and nausea 116.Effects of LSD (6): - DEPRESSANT hallucinogen (changes visual perception) vivid DISTORTED bright appearance- destroyed sense of judgement (i can fly)- permanent personality change (strong conflicting emotions/ tense and relaxed ATS)- PHYSICAL EFFECTS- have bad trips and flashbacks without LSD in system- no physical dependence 117.Effects of medicine and drugs on the functioning of the human body (3): - alter incoming sensory sensations- alter mood or emotions- alter physiological state (consciousness, activity level, physical condition) 118.Effects of mescaline (3): - STIMULANT hallucinogen (vivid CLEAR bright appearance)- PHYSICAL EFFECTS- lack of appetite 119.Effects of narcotic analgesics (2): - effective at treating sever pain (analgesia)- euphoria 120.Effects of penicillin over-prescription (4): - makes penicillin less effective (tolerance), so larger doses are needed which may result in an allergic reaction- destroys useful/ beneficial bacteria in the gut allowing more harmful bacteria to replace them- allows more resistant strains of bacteria to build up in numbers that survive and pass on their genetic resistance down generations- antibiotics that are given to farmed animals to prevent risk of disease are passed on through meat and dairy products to humans causing the development of more resistant bacteria 121.effects of small amounts of caffeine: -enhancement of mental energy and the ability to concentrate- alertness-diuretic: increases volume of urine and therefore causes dehydration 122.Effects of Stimulants: Increased alertness and wakefulness, decreased appetite. 123.Endorphins: natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. 124.ethanol: C2 H5 OH 125.ethanol analysis of breath: -in lungs there is an equilibrium between dissolved ethanol in the blood and gaseous ethanol in the air spaces-the equilibrium constant has a fixed value at a particular temp. so measurement of ethanol in the breath can be used to assess the blood alcohol concentration 126.examples of benzodiaze: -diazepam (Valium)-nitrazepam (Mogadon)-fluoxetine hydrochloride (Prozac): anti-depressant, increases leves of serotonin, doesn't depress activity of CNS so not a depressant 127.Examples of mild (non-narcotic) analgesics (4): - salicylic acid- aspirin (a derivative of salicylic acid)- paracetamol (acetaminophen)- Ibuprofen 128.Examples of strong (narcotic) analgesics (3): - heroin (2 ester groups)- codeine (1 hydroxyl 1 ether -O- CH3)- morphine (2 hydroxyl groups) 129.extremely high dosage of depressants on the body: -respiratory depression-coma-death+hypnotic 130.Eye/ Ear drops as administration of drug (2): - specific- liquid delivered directly targets a single central area, usually infection 131.Features of bacteria (7): - living- single celled micro-organism- many (approx x10) times larger than viruses- more complex DNA than viruses- bacteria contain cell sub-units performing specific functions: single chromosome in the circular 'nucleoid'/ cell wall made of polysccharide murien/ cytoplasm/ cell membrane/ ribosomes and enzymes to break down food and build cell parts- bacteria exhibit life functions: growth/ feeding/ excretion/ asexual reproduction (binary fission)- bacteria mutate and multiply slower than viruses =e asier to destroy: more complex = more ways to attack sub-units with drugs/ can be killed by simple chemical agents/ different bacteria have similar metabolic processes and can be targeted by common antibacterials 132.Features of viruses (6): - non-living- non-cellular and sub-microscopic (much smaller)- simpler DNA than bacteria- viruses consist of: genetic material with enzymes needed to invade host cells and replicate their nucleic acid/ protective protein coat- viruses have no metabolic functions: growth/feed/excretion/reproduction - viruses require a host cell to reproduce (they use ribosomes of living cell they invade to reproduce)- mutate/multiply faster than bacteria: harder to destroy/ adapt to drugs/evade immune response/ lack cellular sub-units to be targeted by drugs/ must be targeted on a genetic level/ each kind of virus usually require specific drugs or treatment 133.Four examples of a stimulant (4): - amphetamines- epinephrine (adrenaline)- nicotine- caffeine 134.Function of lactam ring (3): - ring under stress, increasing chemical reactivity causing ring to open and expose the N atom- N bonds to bacterial enzyme transpeptidase (which builds the cross links in bacterial cell wall)- stops synthesis of cell walls hyper-hydrosis, cell burst, cell death 135.gas-liquid chromatography: -blood or urine is vaporized over a surface of a non-volatile liquid (stationary phase) and is injected into a stream of inert gas (mobile phase)- the components of the vapor move at different rates depending on boiling point and solubility in the two phases-the retention time (the amount of time taken for each gas to leave the column holding the liquid phase0the peak at retention time corresponding to ethanol can be used to confirm the presence in vapor-area under the peak is a measur of relative concentration relative to a known standard in the mixture e.g. propan-1-nol 136.gastric problems: -acid indigestion: feeling of discomfort from too much acid-heart burn (acid reflux): acid from stomach rises to the esophagus-ulcer: damage to the lining of the stomach wall causing loss of tissue and inflamation 137.General Anaesthetic: an anesthetic that anesthetizes entire body and causes loss of consciousness. Insensitive to pain 138.Heroin: narcotic drug derived from opium that is extrememly addictive 139.Heroin (3): - two ester groups/ insoluble- easiest to transport across lipid barrier membranes in brain & CNS/ most addictive- most potent (brain receives more heroine producing greatest analgesic effect) 140.Heroine (Diethanoylmorphine): -Synthetic compound: converting both hydroxyl groups on morphine to acetate groups-More effective pain killer but much more addictive then morphine, produces larger "high" 141.High dosage effects of psilocybin (2): - Stimulant hallucinogen (vivid CLEAR bright appearance)- Paranoid delusion 142.High dosage effects of THC (4): - DEPRESSANT hallucinogen (vivid DISTORTED bright appearance)- depression, irritability, insomnia- suppresses immune system- IS ADDICTIVE 143.high dosage of depressants on the body: -slurred speech-staggering-altered perception-loss of consciousness +sedative 144.High Intoxication: 200mg for 100 cm^3. Vision and movement are impaired 145.HIV virus treatment (5): - antiretrovirals prevent HIV interacting with human cells by:- altering receptive site on human cells so HIV cant attach- prevent the HIV from losing its protein coat- blocking the activity of reverse transcriptase enzyme stopping the production of new viral RNA and proteins for assembly of new virus- stopping the HIV from leaving the host cell 146.How a compound library works (3): -1 structures similar to that of the biological chemical the drug is to mimic, are identified-2 selected structures in the database (with the most similar structural features) are tested in the lab-3 structure from library are reacted with desired enzyme (biological chemical) using COMBINATIONAL or PARALLEL robotic synthesis 147.How antiviral drugs work (7): (work buy preventing replication in host cell)-1 block enzyme activity in host cell by inhibiting the synthesis of viral components -2 alter host cells genetic material so the virus cannot use it to multiply-3 mimics virus nucleosides, causing the virus to incorporate the antiviral nucleoside during replication altering the viral DNA/RNA halting the virus life cycle-4 chemically blocking the ribosomes in host cell preventing the virus from multiplying, as virus enzymes are not able to attach to ribosomes-5 binding to cellular receptors targeted by viruses on host cell, altering the shape of the bind site, viruses cant attach and enter-6 blocking revers transcriptase enzyme activity within host cell prevents the turning itself into a structure that can enter the nucleus of the host cell-7 preventing the virus leaving the cell 148.How chiral auxiliaries work (4): 1- chiral auxiliary enantiomer bonds to the starting molecule (nonchiral)2- reagents convert the starting molecule into only one type of enantiomer3- this gives the stereochemical conditions for only ONE enantiomer pathway (the auxiliary enantiomer interacts with the functional groups of future chiral to form only one enantiomer)4- chiral auxiliary is removed 149.How computerized drug design works: -1 combinational library to search for molecules with required functional groups or properties -2 computer makes 3d models that systematically change the structure to study the interaction between it an a known active receptor site-3 if a combination shows promise it is tested further in the lab 150.How computers are used in drug design (3): - 3d models are made to study the interaction between the computerized design and desired active site in a biological molecule- more target oriented drug production- more efficient evaluation of pharmacological effects. 151.how do antivirals work?: 1. alter the cell's genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiple2. block enzyme activity within the host cell which prevents the virus from reproducing+progression of disease will be halted and relief from symptoms, but the virus isn't eradicated from he body so this can cause flare-up at another occasion3. vaccine 152.how does Penicillin work?: -core structur is a four-membered ring (one N and three C) known as beta- lactam-Beta-lactam acts as an irreversible inhibitor of an enzyme and prevents the development of cross- links in bacterial cell walls which weakens the cell walls resulting in the death of bacteria during their reproductive stage-Narrow spectrum antibiotic: only effective against certain types of bacteria 153.How gas-liquid chromatography works (5): - most accurate, can only be done in labs- a reference sample of ethanol is run through the GLC to establish its retention time- the drivers blood/urine is run through the same machine to measure its retention time- a peak with the same retention time as the reference sample corresponds to the ethanol in the blood- the area under the peak gives the amount of alcohol present 154.How intoximeter works (6): - more accurate than breathalyzer, used at police station: uses infrared spectroscopy- person breathes into IR spectrometer- absorption of IR radiation of the specific wavelengths from O-H and C-H bonds in the ethanol produces two characteristic peaks on spectrum- alcohol concentrations use C-H vibrations (as water in breath and atmosphere displays O-H vibrations)- % transmission of C-H bond is a measure of concentration of ethanol in breath- the 'client's' sample is tested against a reference sample to determine if the person is over the legal amount 155.how is Penicillin administered?: -is broken down by the stomach's acidic environment so needs to be injected into the bloodstream-modifying the side chain (R group) allows the drug to maintain its activity in pill form 156.How penicillin destroys bacteria (4): - prevents bacterial cell wall formation by bonding to the bacterial enzyme responsible for forming the cross links in the cell wall- the bacterium can not longer maintain its shape- causes water to enter the bacterium - the cells burst and the bacterium dies stopping it from being able to reproduce 157.How polarity of molecule can be modified for solubility (1): turning the functional groups (COOH and NH2) into their corresponding ionic conjugate forms (COO- NH3+) so they can be turned into organic salts and dissolved in water 158.How stimulants effect the body (def): They change the concentration of neurotransmitters in the CNS, causing a increase in brain activity and breathing rate 159.How the mix and split method works (combinational synthesis/solid phase synthesis) (5): -1 all starting materials are covalently bonded to small polystyrene beads)-2 beads are all mixed to all react-3 beads are split into equal portions (often 3) and mixed again to react-4 process is repeated until all combinations are made-5 products are purified by washing and filtering the beads leaving only the products on the beads 160.How the roadside breathalyzer works (7): - portable, quick- person blows into a photocell device with orange potassium dichromate (VI) crystals (K2Cr2O7) which is reduced by ethanol to green Chromium (III) ions - ethanol is oxidized to ethanoic acid- the larger the concentration of ethanol, the more potassium dichromate (VI) is reduced and the greener the crystals become-the degree of colour changes is measured by measure the current generate by the flow of electrons from the ethanol to the dichromate- the current is measured and used as an indication of colour change/ethanol level- not very accurate, so not used in court to convict someone. 161.Hypnotics: Chloral hydrate. Produces sleep 162.Ibuprofen: Mild analgesic (I) 163.Ibuprofen: Pros and Cons: Aka: Motrin and AdvilPros-Many of the same effects as aspirin-Anti- inflammatory Cons -Causes fewer stomach problems then aspirins-In rare cases and large doses, can cause kidney problems 164.Implantation as administration of drugs (2): - long lasting- absorption from skin into the blood 165.Importance of geometrical isomerism in drugs (def): one geometric isomer is able to show sterio specific biological properties, treating a specific biological disorder, while the other is not. 166.Importance of optical isomerism in drugs (def): one enantiomer is able to show sterio specific biological properties, treating a specific biological disorder, while the other is not. 167.Importance of patient compliance (2): - by taking the full course of antibiotic prescribed by a doctor you drastically reduce the number of harmful bacteria in the infection from reproducing and mutating- preventing the development of bacterial resistance to antibiotic drugs and the formation of superbugs 168.Inhalation as administration of drugs (3): - fast- directly into blood via lungs- correct amount must be administered ED50 may not or LD50 may occur 169.intoximeter (fuel cell): -fuel cell: the presence of a catalyst, ethanol is oxidized in the air first to ethanoic acid and then to water and carbon dioxide-fuel cell converts energy released when oxidation occurs into a detectable chemical voltage that can be used to measure ethanol concentration accurately- ethanol + catalyst -> CH3COOH -> H2O + CO2 170.intoximeter (infrared spectroscopy): -infrared spectroscopy: different molecules cause different absorption bands in the infrared part of the spectrum+ethanol- band at 2950 per cm due to C-H bond-the size of the peak can be used to measure ethanol concentration when compared to an ambient air sample 171.Intramuscular injections (2): - slowest- relatively safe/ larger amounts can be administered 172.Intravenous injections (2): - fastest- precise amounts can be administered 173.Issues with drug design (2): - time- money (cost of: manufacturers, chemists, volunteers) 174.Leukotrienes: Chemical released by injured tissues (L) 175.Lidocaine: a local anesthetic used topically on the skin and mucous membranes 176.Local Anaesthetics: Blocks pain in a specific area when injected under the skin or applied topically. Does not effect overall consciousness. Lidocaine and procaine 177.Long term effects: problems which last for several months or years 178.Long term effects (Alcohol): Cirrhosis (Due to scar tissue) and cancer of the liver, CHD, HBP, Strokes, gastritis (inflammation of the stomach), peptic ulcers. Physical dependence and tolerance, Anxiety and depression and poor eating habits. In pregnant women it can lead to a miscarriage, low birth mass, and fetal abnormalities including poor development in infants. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. 179.Long term effects (large doses) of Caffeine (3): - caffeine constricts the cerebral blood vessels/ withdrawal headaches from dilation of these constricted vessels- sleepiness- irritability 180.Long term effects (large doses) of Nicotine (6): - increased risk of cancer- increased risk of heart disease/ stroke- increased risk of emphysema and bronchitis- withdrawal symptoms/ wait gain upon quitting- develop tolerance quickly- addiction occurs quickly (cigarettes = expensive/ financial strain) 181.Long term effects (narcotics): Loss of appetite; malnutrition, constipationRisk of dangerous infections (hepatitis, AIDS) due to shared needleswithdrawal illness, loss of job, crimeSterilityDiversion of energy and money 182.long term effects of alcohol abuse: -alcoholism-delirious tremens (severe shaking that can last up to four days) when alcoholics discontinue alcohol intake-coronary heart disease-high blood pressure- miscarriage or fetal alcohol syndrom-permanent brain damage 183.Long term effects of amphetamine and epinephrine (adrenaline) (6): - depression- reduced resistance to infection- restlessness- sleeplessness- delusions and hallucinations- blackouts or collapses from exhaustion/use of body's reserve energy bank 184.long term effects of nicotine: -high blood pressure-increases risk of heart disease including angina- coronary thrombosis-increases levels of fatty acids in the blood which can lead to increase risk of peptic ulcers-dependence-addiction 185.long term effects of sympathetic drugs: -constipation-weight loss-reduced resistance to infection- severe depression-dependence-tolerance 186.Long term physiological effects of ethanol abuse (8): - alcoholism (dependence/withdrawal)- liver disease (cancer, cirrhosis)- coronary heart disease- permanent brain damage- poor eating habits/ malnutrition (alcohol = high energy and low nutrients)- high blood pressure (strokes)- fetal alcohol syndrome- alcoholic hepatitis 187.Long term side effects of Morphine (5): - depression- slows or stops digestive system- mental impairment- chronic constipation- sleepiness or slurred speech 188.Long term social effects of ethanol abuse (3): - deterioration of relationships as financial situation becomes difficult- job loss due to performance- becoming anti-social/ all time spent drinking/ alone due to inability to control alcohol consumption 189.Low dosage effects of psilocybin (2): - feelings of relaxation- PHYSICAL EFFECTS 190.Low dosage effects of THC (6): - feeling relaxed (silly and excited)/ talkative- appetite stimulation- loss of concentration- confidence- loss of balance and coordination- PHYSICAL EFFECTS 191.low dosage of depressants on body: -calmness-relieve anxiety-relaxed muscles+tranquilizer 192.magnesium hydroxide: - Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl -> MgCl2 + 2 H2O-fast acting-magnesium salts act as laxatives 193.Means of detecting ethanol levels (3): - roadside breathalyzer (breath)- intoximeter (breath)- gas- liquid chromatography (blood and urine) 194.Medium dosage effects of THC (1): - STIMULANT hallucinogen (vivid CLEAR bright appearance) 195.Medium Intoxication: 100mg for 100 cm^3. Slurred speech and staggering. Aggressive and dangerous behaviour is also experienced. 196.metabolism of ethanol: -polar -OH group makes hydrogen bonds with water making it readily solubel- soluble in lipids and can therefore pass membranes easily-after ingestion goes to the gut and passes through the stomach walls into the blood-90% broken down in liver-10% broken down in the kidneys and lungs-can cross the placenta and is also found in breast milk 197.metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates: -react to produce CO2 + salt+ water so an antifoaming agent such as dimethicone are often added-NaHCO3 (sodium hydrocarbonate)-CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) 198.methamphetamine: -designer drugs such as "speed," "crystal meth," ecstacy "E"-very dangerous and addictive-E relieves symptoms of Parkinsons but is abused 199.methamphetamine effects: -mental relaxation-increased sensitivity to stimuli-hallucinations-death (even after single dose) 200.Methods for administering drugs (7): - oral (tablets/pills/liquids)- inhalation (respiratory/anesthesia eg lol gas)- suppository (digestive illness/hemorrhoids)- transdermal (hormone/infection/nicotine)- eye/ ear drops- implantation (hormone/birth control)- parenteral/injection (local anesthetics/vaccines/anaphylactic treatment) 201.Mild Analgesics: Asprin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, NSAIDS (Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) 202.Mild Intoxication: 30-50 milligrams per 100 cm^3. Sense of euphoria. 203.Morphine: -Active ingredient in opium-1850's: invention of hypodermic needle allowed for it to be injected into the bloodstream-Used during the Civil War (many soldiers became addicted) 204.Morphine: an alkaloid narcotic drug extracted from opium 205.Morphine (4): - two polar hydroxyl groups/ soluble in water/ hydrogen bond- not as easily transported across lipid barrier membranes in brain & CNS/ least addictive narcotic- morphine + ethanoic acid --> heroin// esterfication of OH groups- more effective than codeine as is more readily absorbed and capable of transport in blood stream 206.Morphine and Strong Analgesic Derivatives: Advantages-often used for acute, short-term pain (after surgery)-Effective for severe pain-Does not cause bleeding in the stomach or elsewhereDisadvantages- Risk of addiction-Nausea-Constipation-Drowsiness 207.Narrow spectrum antibiotics: effective only against certain types of basteria 208.Narrow spectrum antibiotics (4): - effective against certain types/strains of bacteria leaving others unharmed- does not affect other harmful or beneficial bacteria- the specific bacteria is identified with a blood or urine test- a specific antibiotic is identified and prescribed by a doctor 209.Nicotine: -Tobacco is a source of nicotine; a mild stimulant-Initial response is followed by depression, which encourages frequent use 210.nicotine: -soluble lipid that crosses blood-brain barrier and so has rapid effects-increases levels of adrenaline-alter concentrations of neurotransmitters
211.Nitrazepam: a hypnotic and sedative drug of the benzodiazepine type. (Mogadon) sleeping drug and control of seizures and infantile spasms. 212.Non-ethanol commonly used depressants (3): - Valium (diazepam)- Mogadon (nitrazepan)- Prozac (fluoxetine Hydrochloride) 213.noradrenaline: -norepinepherine-communicates in sympathetic nervous system of the CNS 214.NSAIDS: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs 215.Opium poppy: southwestern Asian herb with grayish leaves and white or reddish flowers 216.Oral administration of drugs (3): - slow- rate of absorption into bloodstream from stomach is low. most of the absorption occurs in small intestine-convenient (children who cannot take tablets may take liquids/portable) 217.Other Common Depressants: -Valium: tranquilizer-sedative used to treat anxiety and tension- Nitrazepan: Hypnotic drug that induces sleep (control seizures)-Prozac: treats mental depression; believed to increase levels of serotonin 218.Pain Receptors: Nerves which transmit pain 219.Pain tolerance: amount of time or intensity of pain that an individual will endure before initiating overt pain responses 220.Parenteral (injection) administration of drugs (3): - intravenous (local anesthetics)- intramuscular (vaccines and anaphylactic treatment)- subcutaneous (fat under skin) (dental injections) 221.Penicillin: -Over prescription of penicillin can lead to antibiotic resistance-Antibiotics are fed to farm animals to promote faster growth-Humans ingest these antibiotics when ingesting the food and start developing a resistance-Results in prescription antibiotics being less effective 222.physiological effects of adrenaline: -"fight or flight" reaction stimulates pathways that+increase heart rate and blood pressure+increase blood flow to the brain and muscles+increase air flow to the lungs+increase mental awareness 223.physiological effects of excess stimulants: -extreme restlessness-sleeplessness-fits-delusions- hallucinations 224.physiological effects of stimulants: -prevent excessive drowsiness and allow greater concentration- facilitate breathing by relaxing air passages-reduce appetite and so can be a treatment for obesity- may cause palpitations or tremors to occur 225.Placebo & Placebo effect (2): - Inert drug that contains no medicine- psychosomatic, therapeutic response to a substance with no medicine/ displays ability of brain to temporarily control well being without drugs 226.Primary Amine: one R group attached to N atom 227.Procaine: a white crystalline powder (trade name Ethocaine) administered near nerves as a local anesthetic in dentistry and medicine 228.Production of aspirin (5): - Salicylic acid is reacted with acetic anyhydride to produce acetyl salicylic acid (aspirin) and ethanoic acid- C7H6O3 + C4H6O3 --> C9H8O4 + C2H4O2- where acetic anyhydride is CH3-CO-O-CO-CH3- Salicylic acid and aspirin function the same but salicylic acid leaves an unpleasant taste- essentially what's is occurring is an esterfication (OH on salicylic reacting to from an ester 229.properties of Adrenaline: Fat insoluble, based on the framework of the benzene ring with two carbon chain and an amine group at the end
230.properties of Benzodiazapenes: work on chemical receptors in the brain by binding to a special protien at the synapse of nerve junctions, causing the gap between nerves to widen and preventing the nerve cell from producing a signal 231.Properties of Caffine: promote mild dependence, act as a mild diuretic, increase anxiety, cause insomnia. 232.Prostaglandins: Chemical released by injured tissues (P) 233.Prozac: a selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitor commonly prescribed as an antidepressant (trade name Prozac). Increasing activity of serotonin. (Fluexetine hydrochloride) 234.Prozac production (2): - HCl turns the NH from amine (2) to NH2+- NH + HCl ==> NH2+ + H2O + Cl- 235.Racemic mixture (2): - 50/50 mixture of L and R enantiomers (no net rotation of light)- cannot be chemically or physically separated 236.Racemic mixtures and side effects (4): thalidomide - treat morning sickness/sedative; deformities in fetus limb developmentL-DOPA - treat parkinson's tremors; no side effect 237.Rectal administration of drugs (3): - moderately fast- large intestine absorption into blood- useful in cases of nausea, vomiting or post surgery when patient cant swallow 238.Research and Development Process: R&D of a new drug is a very long and expensive process. The drug must go through laboratory and clinical studies before it will be approved.1. Test on animals to determine LD50 (the lethal dose that would kill 50% of the animal population)2. Determine the ED50 (The effective dose required to bring about a noticeable effect in 50% of the population)3. The therapeutic index is determined by dividing the LD50 by the ED50. If the therapeutic index is 100 then LD50/ED50 is 100/1. This means that a hundredfold increase in the dose corresponding to the ED50 would result in a 50% death rate.Once the therapeutic index has been established, the drug can then be used on humans in an initial clinical trial. This is usually done on volunteers as well as on patients whom half is given a placebo.If the drug passes the initial clinical trial it will be used in further studies where it is gradually widened in a variety of clinical situations.If all of the clinical trials produce favorable results, the drug will eventually be approved by the drug administration of a particular country as either an OTC (Over The Counter) drug or for use only through prescription by a doctor 239.Research, Development and Testing of New Drugs: -Research process is a complicated, time- consuming and costly one whose end result is never known at the outset-Literally hundreds and sometimes thousands of chemical compounds must be made and tested to find one that can achieve the desirable result without too serious side 240.response to antibiotic resistance: -patient compliance to complete a treatment regime-developing different forms of Penicillin-Controlling and restriction the use of antibiotics through legislation and encouraging doctors not to overprescribe 241.Reye's Syndrome: potentially fatal liver and brain disorder 242.risks of smoking tobacco: -tar and carbon monoxide-risk of chronic lung disease-adverse effects on pregnancy-cancer in lungs, mouth, and throat 243.Secondary amine: two R groups on at least one N atom 244.Sedatives: Barbiturates. Soothing of distress. Generally do not cause sleep at normal drug levels. Less mild then tranquilizers. 245.Severe Intoxication: 400mg for 100 cm^3. High chance of coma and death. 246.Short and Long Term Effects of Nicotine Use: Short-term Effects-Increased heart rate and blood pressure-Constricts blood vessels-Mild stimulating effects-Reduces urine outputLong-term Effects- Increased risk of heart disease and coronary thrombosis(clots)-Can cause peptic ulcers due to increased acip production-Addictive 247.Short term effects: problems that last for a few weeks or months 248.Short term effects (Alcohol): Reduces tension, anxiety and inhibitions. Euphoria, sociability, talkativeness, feeling of relaxation, self confidence, warmth due to dilation of blood vessels. Loss of judgment, impairment of perception, memory, and comprehension. Increased chance of traffic accidents, partially due to increased reaction time. Violent behavior, dizziness, double vision, loss of balance, nausea and vomiting, loss of consciousness and death due to respiratory arrest 249.Short term effects (narcotics): Sedation and stupor; relief from painEuphoria; impaired functioning and coordination, and temporary impotenceReduced tension, worry and fearReduced coughing reflexOccasional death from overdose 250.Short term effects (small doses) of Caffeine (7): - increased alertness and "energy" (from)- increased rate of metabolic reactions- increased blood pressure (from)- constricts blood vessels- increased urination- increased gastric acid secretion- reduction of anxiety and tension 251.Short term effects (small doses) of Nicotine (7): - increased the release of adrenaline- increased heart rate/ blood pressure (risk of heart attacks or stroke)- REDUCED urine output- constricts blood vessels, putting stress on heart- increased alertness- reduction of anxiety and tension- induced nausea, vomiting in first time users 252.short term effects and side effects of sympathetic drugs: -increase mental alertness-increase physical energySide effects-dilation of pupils-decreased appetite and fatigue-dizziness 253.short term effects of alcohol abuse: -loss of self-restraint-memory, concentration and insight are impaired-loss of balance or judgment-violent behavior (domestic abuse + family breakdown)-taking dangerous risks (e.g. drinking and driving)-dehydration due to increased urine output which leads to hangover and loss of productivity-vomiting, loss of consciousness, coma, and death 254.short term effects of moderate alcohol use: -relaxation-confidence and increased sociability-beneficial effect on circulation and cardio-vascular disease due to mild anti-clotting effects 255.short term effects of nicotine: -increases concentration-relieves stress and boredom-helps to counter fatigue-increases heart rate and blood pressure-decreases urine output-stimulating effects (sympathomimetic) 256.Short term physiological effects of ethanol abuse from change in concentration of neurotransmitters in CNS (7): - impaired brain concentration- impaired balance and judgement- dangerous risk taking behaviors- loss of self-restraint- heart rate speeds up causing blood vessels to expand (lowering pressure)- blurred vision- slurred speech 257.Short term physiological effects of ethanol abuse not from neurotransmitter concentrations (4): - Dehydration from increased urine output- Hangover (from too much alcohol in liver and dehydration)- vomiting- loss of consciousness/life 258.Short term side effects of Morphine (6): - constipation, nausea and vomiting- watery eye sand sweating- sedation - insomnia, restlessness- loss of appetite and severe abdominal pain- short term withdrawals, blood pressure increases --> heart attacks 259.Short term social effects of ethanol abuse (6): - increased aggressiveness and hostility- pregnancy- STDs- decrease in performance in activities/ loss of work/ financial loss- road accidents causing injury or death- police having to deal with drunks instead of other crimes 260.Short-term VS. Long-term Use of Opiates: Usual Short-term Effects-Sedation and stupor, relief from pain-Euphoria, impaired functioning and coordination-Reduced tension, worry and fear-Reduced coughing reflex-Occasional death from OCDTypical Long Term Effects-Loss of appetite, malnutrition, constipation-Sterility-Withdrawal illness, loss of job, crime-Diversion of energy and money-Risk of dangerous infections due to shared needles (hepatitis, aids) 261.Side Effect: A negative consequence of using a drug or medicine. Risk to benefit ratio must be considered 262.Side effect (def): Unintended physiological affect occurring from taking a drug (positive or negative) 263.side effects of antacids: -alter pH so they can alter the absorption of other drugs-they should not be taken for a long period without medical supervision 264.Side effects of Aspirin (2): Main = pain relief- anti-coagulant: lowers risk of heart disease by stopping blood clotting- liver damage (Reye's syndrome in under 12s 265.Side effects of Codeine (5): - less short term side effects than morphine- not addictive unless taken in large doses for long period of time- can be taken as solid by mouth (convenience)- approx. 10% as effective as morphine- same long term physiological effects as morphine but far less severe 266.Side effects of Heroin (4): - collapsed veins from injecting constantly- increased risk of catching infectious diseases like AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) , Hepatitis- narrow therapeutic window = risk of fatal overdose- quick tolerance build up / higher risk of addiction 267.Side effects of Morphine (2): Main = pain blocking- causes constipation - nausea and vomiting 268.Side effects of Thalidomide (racemic) (1): Main = cure morning sickness- caused babies to be born deformed or missing limbs 269.Similarities in physiological effects of amphetamine and epinephrine (adrenaline) (9): - increases physical "energy" by:-- increasing heart rate and blood pressure-- increasing blood flow to brain and muscles-- increasing air flow to lungs- increased mental awareness to trigger "fight or flight"- dilation of pupils- reduced appetite- induced euphoria- rapid development of tolerance and dependence (addiction) 270.Similarities structures of between Nicotine and Caffeine (4): - tertiary amine group on 5 member ring- five member ring made of 4 carbon and 1 nitrogen atom- six member ring made of 5 carbon and 1 nitrogen atom- alkene groups present 271.sleeping pills: -benzodiazepines-depress activity in the part of the brain that cause emotion- tranquilizes in anxiety disorders and insomnia-can cause dependence 272.Smoking...: Causes-Lung cancer-Cancers of the larynx and mouth-Heart and blood vessel disease- Emphysema-Chronic bronchitis-Air pollution 273.social effects of alcohol: -part of many cultures-road accidents and death-violent behavior-family breakdowns 274.Stages of drug design (6): -1 Identification of chemical from compound library-2 Synthesis and Isolation/ isolation (from plant, animal)-3 Lab and clinical pharmacological studies (animal and plants) to find therapeutic window-4 Human testing (small healthy / small patients / larger patients 50% placebo)-5 Other tests elaborating on the clinical pharmacological studies-6 Get drug approved by drug administration as OTC or prescription 275.Stimulant: -A drug which increases the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and produces a sense of euphoria or awakeness-Also used and sometimes abused to boost endurance and productivity as wall as to suppress appetite-Stimulant abuse can impair mental function and lead to psychotic symptoms- Examples: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, Ritalin(paradoxical effect) 276.Stimulants: drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Opposites to depressants 277.stimulants: affect the CNS by increasing brain activity and altering levels of neurotransmitters 278.stomach and acidity: -PH in stomach 1-2 by the production of HCl from gastric glands-kills bacteria in ingested food-provides optimum temperature for digestive enzymes-alcohol, smoking, stress, and some anti-inflamatory drugs may cause excess gastric juice production 279.Strong Opiate: Morphine, Heroin, Codeine 280.Structure of amphetamine (4): - primary amine in the hydrocarbon chain- no hydroxyl groups- synthetic drug - sympathomimetic/ mimes effect of naturally occurring substance 281.structure of coffee and nicotine: -contain tertiary amine group-contain heterocyclic rings (carbon and nitrogen)-they are alkaloids 282.Structure of epinephrine (adrenaline) (3): - secondary amine in hydrocarbon chain- three hydroxyl groups- It is produced in some neurons of the CNS, and in the adrenal medulla 283.Structure of lactam ring (3): - 1N 3C 3H- angles of 90 (instead of theoretical 109)- ring is under stress which increases chemical reactivity 284.Structure of penicillin and function: lactam ring (4): - actual part that stops bacteria cell wall formation by opening up and bonding to bacteria enzymes for wall formation-square-ring consists of: 1N 3C 5H atoms- bond angles of 90 (instead of theoretical 109)- the ring is under stress from its penicillin's chemical structure, this increases its chemical re-activity 285.Structure of penicillin and function: side chain (R) (4): - modifying this changes penicillin's bacteria destroying ability and effectiveness- increase resistance to breakdown by stomach acid or other chemicals- increase resistance/ tolerance to breakdown by enzyme penicillinase (produced by bacteria)- stop bacteria developing a resistance to penicillin 286.Structures common to mind altering drugs (3): - benzene ring- amine- disrupt the transmission of nerve impulses to brain (mimic serotonin) SYMPATHOMIMETIC 287.Structures commonly found in the 3 alternative depressants (2 rings, 3 branch, 1 link, 3 nitrogenous): - aromatic ring- 7 member ring- chloro- nitro- carbontrifluoride - ether- amine (2) (remember: named from numb of C atoms attached to N)- amide (2)- amide (3) 288.Structures of amphetamine and epinephrine (adrenaline) (2): - benzene ring with a hydrocarbon attached- amine group on hydrocarbon chain 289.Structures of LSD (5): - benzene ring- 4 cyclic rings- amine (3)- amide (2)- alkene 290.Structures of mescaline (3): - benzene ring- ethers- amine (1) 291.Structures of psilocybin (4): - benzene ring- amine (3) x2- phosphate- two cyclic rings 292.Subcutaneous injections (2): - medium speed- work best when administered in constant area (thing, upper arm, waist) 293.sympathetic drugs: stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and cause increased HR 294.synergetic effects of ethanol: -ethanol increases the activity of other drugs when taken at the same time-asprin+ethanol= bleeding of stomach lining +ulcers-depressants + ethanol = heavy sedation or coma-tobacco + ethanol = cancers in the intestine and liver-others + ethanol = interference with metabolism in the liver which is grater and has prolonged effects-benzodiazepines, narcotics, barbiturates, or solvents + ethanol can be fatal 295.Synergistic effects: combined effects of two drugs are greater than the sum of their separate effects 296.Synergistic effects (Alcohol and Aspirin): Increases chance of stomach bleeding 297.Synergistic effects (Alcohol and Cocaine): Creates substance cocaethylene. Can extend and enhance the high. More toxic then separate drugs and can cause severe vasoconstriction and arythmogenecity. 298.Synergistic effects (Alcohol and Sedatives): Increase risk of heavy sedation which can lead to coma and death. 299.Synergistic effects (Alcohol and Valium): Suppresses the actions of the nervous system. Can be fatal. 300.Synergistic Effects of Alcohol: -There is an increased effect when alcohol is consumed with other rugs- Many drugs have increased solubilities in alcohol-Additionally, alcohol slows down the body's ability to metabolize the drug 301.Synergistic effects of alcohol with other drugs (3): - aspirin with alcohol = increased stomach bleeding- alcohol with other depressants (eg sleeping pills) = heavy sedation/ coma- alcohol and tobacco = increase the incidence of cancers, especially in intestines and liver 302.Synergistic effects of alcohol with other drugs (def): when ethanol interacts with and increases the activity of other drugs when taken at the same time as alcohol, depressing the CNS 303.Tertiary amine: three R groups on at least one N atom 304.The "Physical effects" (LSD, mescalin, psilocybin, THC) (6): - increased heart rate- dilation of pupil- increased blood pressure- increased body temp- sweating- tremors 305.The effects of stimulants (7): - cause an increased state of mental awareness and alertness (increased concentrations)- increase heart rate and blood pressure (risk of heart attacks or stroke)- constriction of arteries- relaxation of air passage/ increase in breathing rates (can be used to treat respiratory infections eg bronchitis) - dilation of pupils- increased sweating- reduces appetite (treatment for obesity) 306.Therapeutic window (4): - Measure of safety range of drug- ratio of LD50:ED50- ED50 = Effective dose: amount that would produce therapeutic response to 50% of population- LD50 = Lethal dose: amount that would be lethal to 50% of population 307.Therapeutic window size (2): - Wide window = minor ailments/OTC/safer/enables range (age, weight, sex, weight)- Narrow window = serious ailments/prescription/more precise/enables more potent drug specific to patients needs 308.Tolerance: Requiring a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect of originality obtained by a smaller dose 309.Tolerance (2): - body becomes increasingly able to absorb drug without effect as brain turns off receptors and body compensates (less similar molecules/more enzymes to break down drug)- problem: results in possibly dangerous amount of drug being consumed, addiction 310.Tolerance (def): The user requires more and more of the drug in order to experience its intended therapeutic effects at the lower dosage 311.Tranquilizers: Alcohol, Valium and librium. Reduces nerve tension and anxiety. Generally do not cause sleep at normal drug levels. Milder then sedatives 312.trans platin (2): - no biological effect- Cl atoms are two far apart to allow bonds to the N of guanine on the same DNA strand 313.Transdermal administration of drugs (2): - long lasting- absorption through skin into blood 314.treatment of AIDS: -antiretroviral drugs affect different stages of the HIV cycle1. binding site could be altered to prevent attachment to host cell2. cell wall could be altered to prevent virus from entering cell3. drugs may be developed to prevent virus from losing protective coat4. blocking the action of revers transcriptase (ATZ)5. inhibit production of new RNA and proteins by changing genetic material of the virus6. developing drugs which prevent the virus from leaving the cell 315.Types of Antacids: -Brands: Alka-Seltzer, Maalox, Mylanta, Tums and Rolaids. -Generic forms are also available and can be bought with a prescription. -Come in tablet (regular and chewable), lozenge and liquid forms 316.Types of Researchers: Biochemists: Study the chemistry of life processes 317.Types of Researchers: Computer Scientists: Apply the power of their sophisticated machines to analyze and assess new chemicals. 318.Types of Researchers: Molecular biologists: Study the molecules that make up living matter 319.Types of Researchers: Organic Chemists, Physiologists and Statisticians: Helps with the research-Have been joined in recent years by new kinds of specials 320.Types of Researchers: Pharmacologists: Look at how drugs work 321.Types of Researchers: Toxicologists: Investigate chemicals' potential for harm 322.Uppers: Alternative name of stimulants 323.use of antibiotics in animal feedstocks: -used to lower the incidence of disease-antibiotics have passed into humans increasing the number of antibiotic resistant drugs 324.Uses of Amphetamines: -Sympathomimetic drugs constrict the arteries, increasing sweat production (much like adrenaline)-Strong stimulants and act on the central nervous system-Medical uses: treatment of mild depression, narcolepsy and asthma-May experience a "down" period after use 325.uses of ethanol: -antiseptic: on skin before an injection or to clean small wound-used to harden skin: on feet to prevent blisters-in alcoholic drinks 326.Valium: a tranquilizer (trade name Valium) used to relieve anxiety and relax muscles. acts by enhancing the inhibitory actions of the neurotransmitter GABA; can also be used as an anticonvulsant drug in cases of nerve agent poisoning. 327.Viruses vs. Bacteria: Virus-Very small-May or may not have an outer layer-Have a protein core and a core of genetic material-Can not reproduce on their own (invade cells and inject their genes)Bacteria- Large-Have a rigid cell wall-Contains all genetic info needed to make copies of itself (DNA and ribosomes)-Can reproduce on their own and they are alive 328.Ways to Administer Drugs: -Oral-Rectal-Inhalation-Parenteral (Injection) : Intravenous, Intramuscular, subcutaneous 329.What chiral auxiliaries do (3): - is a chiral molecule that temporarily attached to a nonchiral molecule- direct the synthesis of only on enantiomer preventing racemix mixture- avoids need to separate enationmers 330.What is a drug?: A drug or medicine is any chemical that does one or more of the following-Alters incoming sensory sensations-Alters mood or emotions-Alters physiological state (includes consciousness, activity level or coordination) 331.Why alcohol breath tests work (3): - ethanol is volatile, some passes from the blood into the lungs- ethanol establishes an equilibrium between being dissolved in blood and being in breath- the equilibrium constant Kc does not change with temperature 332.Why compound libraries are useful (3): - reduces time and cost associated with drug development- large number of related compounds can be created quickly speeding up development process- produces large number of related compounds which can be tested in parallel to lead compound using robotic analysis (faster and cheaper than human analysis) 333.Why gas-liquid chromatography works (4): - vaporized blood or urine is injected into stream of an inert gas over the surface of an non-volatile liquid- due to their different solubilities and BP the molecules injected travel at different speeds- the time taken to move along the liquid is called the retention time- each chemical moves through the stream at a different rate/different retention time/functions as fingerprint for chemical 334.withdrawal symptoms of nicotine: -nausea-weight gain-drowsiness-inability to concentrate-depression -craving for cigarettes
335.Worst-Case Senario: Thalidomide: -Was used by some pregnant women in Europe and China to treat morning sickness
-Was under multiple names
-Women who took the drug in early pregnancy gave birth to children with severe birth defects such as missing or shortened limbs
-Later found to be a teratogenic (a drug or other substance capable of interfering with the development of a fetus, causing birth defects) in fetal development, especially if taken during the first 25 to 50 days of pregnancy.
-12,000 babies with defects were born, only 8,000 survived past the first year. Most of the survivors are still alive but are living with disabilities.
-Shortly after the birth defects were observed thalidomide was banned worldwide.