Using Sources 3 and 4 an D Your Own Knowledge of Other Sources Describe What the Evidence

The syllabus

Using sources 3 and 4 an d your own knowledge of other sources describe what the evidence shows about religion in P and H

Using sources five and six and your own knowledge, asses the different methods used by archaeologists over time to investigate the sites of P and H

Using sources D E and F and your own knowledge, outline religious practices at Pompeii and Herculaneum (6 marker)

What do sources D, E and other sources reveal about social class in Pompeii and Herculaneum? (7 marker)

Using source c and your own knowledge, asses the importance of politics in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Using sources 5 and six and other sources evaluate the ethical issues arising from the study and display of human remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum

Using source a and b and your own knowledge, explain the changing attitudes to the excavation and conservation of Pompeii and Herculaneum form the mid 19th century until today.

To what extent has research since the end of the 1960s changed our understanding of the evidence from the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum? In your answer, refer to Sources F and G and your own knowledge.

To what extent has tourism influenced the way the sites of Pompeii and/or Herculaneum have been managed since the 1800s? In your answer, refer to Source 5 and your own knowledge

What do Sources 3 and 4 and other sources reveal about industries in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Using Sources 4 and 5 and your own knowledge, assess methods used by archaeologists and/or other specialists to reconstruct the past at Pompeii and/or Herculaneum. Using sources D E and F and your own knowledge, outline religious practices at Pompeii and Herculaneum (6 marker)

Religious practices in Pompeii and Herculaneum consisted of daily ritual observation, rather than personal relationships with deities. Religious practices did differ; in that some were conducted publicly, and others privately. Private practices were centred around the lararium, as depicted in source D, a niche dedicated to the household gods, called the lares. The family would offer prayers of thanksgiving or protection to the lares, and offerings of food have been discovered in larariums. Some lares have been found in different sections of the house, suggesting that they were placed to ensure prosperity or protection of the inhabitants. Source F describes the hearth and the domestic gods as the “centre of domestic ritual.”

Public religious practices focused on the worship of a variety of cults and deities. Source E reveals the forum as having no less than five temples to various deities and cults such as the temple of Jupiter and the Genius of Augustus, reflecting the importance of religion and religious worship. As such various cults and organisations had established priesthoods and others offered daily public sacrifices of animals. Games and festivals were also public affair often put on by religious groups to honour the gods.

What do sources D, E and other sources reveal about social class in Pompeii and Herculaneum? (7 marker)

Pompeii and Herculaneum had a distinct hierarchy of social classes, divided into the upper and lower strata. The upper strata consisted of the senatorial elite; the town official’s such as the duumviri’s as mentioned in source E, the wealthy and powerful, and the rich freedmen. The other class was the lower strata, consisting of the poor free-born citizens, Freedmen, and slaves.

The upper strata were the wealthy and powerful of roman society. Source E reveals aulus veius’ political stature in during his lifetime, a decorated politician and evidence of being in the upper strata. Other sources such as inscriptions on temples and theatres reveal the people who donated were probably of the upper classes. Epitaphs, statues, and houses themselves reveal a plethora of information on the both upper and lower classes, and easily denotes peoples place in society. The statue of eumachia in source D reveals that women could rise to prominence in society, despite not being able to vote or participate in political life. Women’s place in society was seen to be tied with domestic duties, and as such been pictorially represented throughout Pompeii and Herculaneum. Along with women were slaves, who could not vote, and who were owned by citizens of Pompeii. Slaves could be freed and could conduct in business and finance once done so. Freed people could even own their own slaves, although could not become roman citizens.

Using source c and your own knowledge, asses the importance of politics in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Source C is a picture of Marcus balbus, patron of Herculaneum

Politics was a very important and essential aspect of life in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Not only were politics responsible for running the town, it was also followed widely in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Politics was a very important as it enabled the town to operate smoothly and successfully. The election of politicians, especially the Aediles and Duumviris; ensured the towns prosperity through their role as politicians of their respective towns. The comitium, composed of all roman males over 25, voted for the election of the aedilies and duumviri. The political process seems to be followed actively due to discovery of over 2000 political messages found in Pompeii alone, from the streets of the basilica and the forum. Once elected, the aediles and duumviris managed the town for one year, collaboratively, although they had spate roles. The duumviri presided over and carried out the decrees of the town council (curia). The curia was the town council, comprised of about 80-100 wealthy and influential men who organised such things as the city finances. The aediles, the lower magistrates ran only the day to day administration of the town and looked over the markets and religious and public buildings. The political system was essential as it ensured the running of the town. This is reflected in source C, the statue of balbus. The statue is a gift commerating his donation of the Herculaneum baths to the people. This suggests that the people were supportive of good politicians. Politics also provided entertainment to the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum another important pastime of roman life. The patron client system extended to the public and their support was garnered through these activities. The elaborate political system of Pompeii and Herculaneum would suggest that people took an active interest and support for politics. The comitia, the curia and multiple political roles reflect the Romans respect the significance of politics and politicians. Politics was important as it contained the operational framework of the city supplying entertainment and administrative support.

Explain the importance of the forum

The forum was the central hub of all religious, commercial, legal political and administrative activities in Pompeii. The people of Pompeii would go to the forum to hire a doctor, read the latest edict from Rome or even trade goods in the market.

The forum, as seen in source five, hosted a multitude of functions. Religion and religious buildings such as temples and altars were placed in the forum, as the forum was the central gathering place and important location. This is attested to by the fact that religious buildings such as the tmeples of Augustus Jupiter and the public lares account for more than any other type of building in the forum.

The forum was the commercial centre of Pompeii. It was were trade was carried out, business deals conducted and men went to be seen with their entourage. Source three details the macellum, the meat and fish market, in the northeast corner of the forum, and the building of eumachia in the southeast. The building of eumachia is important as has been suggested as the location of fullers guild headquarters, although such suggestions are unlikely. Hte forum alos contained the mensa pondaria, the table of weights nad measures, essential for trade ot run legally and smoothly.

The forum served the legal, adminsitratie and politcals centre of Pompeii. Hte forum was the location fo such important builiind such sa hte mes pondaria

Using sources 3 and 4 an d your own knowledge of other sources describe what the evidence shows about religion in P and H

Evidence shows that Religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum was an important part in life. Citizens expected religious observation and religious festivals, games and sacrifices occurred often. Religion was divided into private and public worship, each with their own different set of norms. Public worship in Pompeii and Herculaneum was daily observation of ritual rather than a relationship with a deity. Paintings, statues and temples dedicated to, or depicting the gods or cult like figures are found extensively throughout Pompeii such as the statues depicting cult figure of Augustus on the eastern side of the forum. The picture in source 3 shows the temple of Isis, a popular cult in Pompeii, indicating the polytheistic nature of religion. Its grandiose design displays the significance of religion in people lives, yet the small building would not have held many people, instead historians believe that people would go once daily rather than congregate regularly. The altars found within temples suggest that sacrifices occurred often. There has not been as much evidence for religion in Herculaneum, but we do know that they did have the same cults and religions due to the proximity and same cultures. Graffiti, inscriptions and epitaphs also divulge the nature of religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Tombs and inscriptions such as that of Eumachia and Mamia show the cults people belonged to and that women played a role in religion. Religion and politics in roman society were greatly intertwined. Letters and inscriptions such as Marcus Rufus detail important political titles along with the his religious affiliations, evidencing that the occupation of religious positions was part of the cursus honorum.

Private religion mirrored public religion, albeit on a smaller scale. Private religion centred on the lararium, the household shrine, and it was the central area for private worship within the house. It was here that members of the family worshipped the lares, the household gods, as pictured in source four. The discoveries of food at the lararium suggest that the families made offerings to the gods. We also know that the numerous statuettes in source 4 indicate polytheism, and this is corroborated in the variety of different temples and cults found in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Discoveries of lares in other areas of the house such as cupboards indicate that different lares had different purposes. 3 Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past

• changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum

• changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies

• issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism

• ethical issues: study and display of human remains

changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum

Using sources five and six and your own knowledge, asses the different methods used by archaeologists over time to investigate the sites of P and H

The investigation of Pompeii and Herculaneum has been undertaken by numerously different methods by archaeologists over the years. Initial “investigation” and inquiry into these sites consisted of looting valuable objects for personal gain. The appointment of Giuseppe Fiorelli as the first superintendant of Pompeii was extremely beneficial as he stopped looting, started documenting and introduced a plethora of new methods and techniques, some of which are still used today. He introduced a systematic excavation of Pompeii, including recording and documenting his excavations, and numbering the excavated houses. He employed plaster casts to fill cavities in the ash throughout Pompeii, in order to see what these cavities contained. His new method revealed diverse objects such as skeletons and jewellery. His new methods avoided a lot of damage dealt by previous methods, such as “top down” excavation as seen in source 5, which probably depicts Fiorelli’s men. “Top down” excavation avoided dealing structural damage to the walls or valuable objects. This differs to previous excavations and tunnel excavations as seen in source 6. Due to the town above it, tunnelling is the main source of excavation in Herculaneum, although it still presents issues such as structural damage and measures to prevent this are seen in source 6. Photography and reconstruction have also been employed as a way of studying the sites and extrapolating what buildings may have looked like. As the sites decay, photography becomes one of the most important tools for investigation and documentation. “Reconstruction” such as protective barriers, scaffolding and roofs help preserve the site, although they in themselves still cause damage.

As the years progressed, methodology evolved to reflect the changing nature of investigation into Pompeii and Herculaneum, that from excavation to conservation. This has helped the sites majorly, as these new techniques are much less intrusive and much less likely to cause damage than previous techniques. Archaeologists such as Estelle Lazer and Sarah Bisel have changed the face of methodology in Pompeii and Herculaneum, employing modern techniques such as bone analysis, MRI, x-ray scans and carbon dating. These new techniques have yielded accurate and precise information such as the age, sex and various ailments these people experienced while limiting any damage done towards them.

Using source a nad b and your own knowledge, explain the changing attitudes to the excavation and conservation of Pompeii and Herculaneum form the mid 19th century until today.

Over the centuries the nature of investigation into Pompeii and Herculaneum has changed dramatically. Over time the methodology of investigation has changed to reflect the changing attitudes excavation and conservation. Initial investigation in the 18th and 19th centuries comprised of looting as much as possible, especially as their little supervision of these sites. Under archaeologists such as fiorelli however, looting gave way to proper archaeological investigation such as systematic documentation and recording of discoveries. As archaeologists came and went throughput the years, they fulfilled the primary objective of the day, excavating as much as possible. Preservation slowly crept into the investigation of these sites, yet excavation was the main goal, not preservation. Slowly it became apparent that these sites would waste away unless serious efforts were made to preserve Pompeii and Herculaneum. As we became more aware of the gradual degradation of these sites, archaeologists and the wider community shifted the focus to preservation. New modern techniques such as DNA bone, dental and forensic analysis are now used more than ever before, as they are less intrusive and cause less damage to valuable objects than previous methods. New archaeologists such as superintendant Giovanni guzzo came along who attracted international teams of experts to conduct investigations and conservation projects. Source B mentions that guzoo has been “incredibly diligent in focusing on preservation.” The gradual degradation of these sites has attracted international support to try and preserve Pompeii and Herculaneum. Donations and funds are given to the sites and international cooperation has occurred to improve the situation. Source A mentions that the Kress foundation and world monuments’ conference which goal it is for future management will be ideally based on the philosophy that conservation of the site is more important than the interest of tourist and commercial development. This reflects the ever growing need and urgency focused on modern preservation. changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies

issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism Italian and international contributions to conservation and reconstruction have been both damaging and beneficial to the preservation of these sites. Archaeologist in a bid to help the remains of these sites are now using less intrusive methods such as photography and bone analysis to limit the impact of human intervention. International researchers such as the Australian Estelle Lazer and American Sarah bisel have used new techniques to study remains and dealt substantially less damage to them. As a result investigation has shifted from further excavation to the study of objects that have already been removed from their original locations such as bisels study of the skeletons in the Herculaneum boatsheds. Other beneficial technologies such as holographic displays are now used and copies of skeletons as seen in source F are used to help preserve the remains of these sites Under the past superintendent Giovanni guzzo, significant progress has been made into the reconstruction and preservation of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Guzzo has invited international teams of the world’s best archaeologists and experts to help, which has been very beneficial. International and regional interventions to preserve and restore the sites such as in source G have not always been successful, as in the collapse of the gladiatorial barracks in 2010. International organisations play a beneficial, yet indirect role damaging Pompeii and Herculaneum. Organisation such as the kress foundation have played an enormous impact in raising awareness and investment into these sites, yet they also contribute to the influx of 2 million visitors who damage Pompeii and Herculaneum irreversibly

Impact of tourism

To what extent has tourism influenced the way the sites of Pompeii and/or Herculaneum has been managed since the 1800s? In your answer, refer to Source 5 and your own knowledge

Tourism has played and will continue to play a significant role in shaping Pompeii and Herculaneum. Initially excavation was the main objective of investigation into these sites, partly to raise more tourists, and therefore dollars coming into the sites. The excavation of the past has now put Pompeii and Herculaneum on the map as major tourism destinations. More and more tourists come each year; Pompeii receives 2.5 million visitors a year, while Herculaneum receives 500,000. With such large and ever increasing numbers, these are now very seriously threatened by tourism, pollution and vandalism. Simple acts such as walking destroy ancient pavements and pipes, and damage is dealt to buildings through graffiti and poor security management. To solve the problems affecting P+H, money needs to be poured into protecting them. 3 organisations have been founded; the Pompeii Trust, World Monuments Watch and the Kress Foundation. These organisations aim to raise awareness of the continual degradation of the sites and the ever increasing need for sponsorship to help with their preservation.

Human activity, both deliberate and accidental, has been the main factor in the gradual decline of both sites since their excavations. Past mistakes are only now being corrected by archaeologists, and this is a slow process. Many actions, particularly very early on in the sites' histories, cannot be fixed, e.g. the placement of bodies was changed to increase funding in the beginning. Apart from deliberate damage, there is unintentional damage as well, such as the erosion of footpaths. Also, tourists wearing large backpacks bump against masonry and scrape against plaster walls. Early excavations Particularly in Herculaneum, the earliest excavations revolved around collecting valuable artifacts and antiquities rather than systematic excavation. By merely digging for objects with aesthetic and commercial value, they were taken from being in situ to private collections, and thus much of the information on them was lost. Additionally, other objects not considered worthy by pursuers of Antiquarianism were destroyed, or damaged in the process of retrieving other items. These valuable objects, once discovered, were also disorganised and lost all historical meaning: a collection of bronze letters originally fixed on a wall in Herculaneum, once removed by the Bourbon kings, were taken out of order without recording the original placement or meaning. Visitors were invited to re-arrange them to form their own messages. A similar usage was made of bones: they would often be arranged together as composites of bones of several individuals, even combining those of children with adults and giving some literally two left feet. These would then be displayed for dramatic effect. Some of these remain today, but there is little hope of re-forming the original skeletons or using them to discover information on the inhabitants of Pompeii or Herculaneum. Tourism has been a mixed blessing for the site. As there are 2.5 million visitors to both cities every year, their presence allows for education on the conservation issues on the site. Additionally, a law was passed in Italy in 1997, which allowed for all money raised from these tourists to be directly channelled to helping with the conservation of the site. However, the massive number of tourists also causes many problems. The general movement of them causes the gradual wearing down of the roads and pavements, particularly in the more frequented areas like the Pompeiian Forum complex. Tourists also might take chips of rock or stone from the site, as well as accidentally brushing against the walls and frescoes, further increasing their rate of deterioration. The open nature of both sites to tourists is also a leading cause in vandalism and theft. Vandalism Vandalism, particularly graffiti, is a problematic issue for Pompeii and Herculaneum. Tourists and others often break off parts of the city's structures to take home as mementos or souvenirs. Graffiti appears inscribed in the walls (often alongside their ancient counterparts) as well as on paintings and frescoes, particularly the less damaged or unsullied works of art. Theft While both sites are guarded, many artifacts still find their way to the illicit antiquities market. Often these acts of theft also cause accidental damage to surrounding objects, and the thieved antiquities are no longer in situ and lose their context and cultural associations. In 2003, two frescoes were hacked off a wall in the House of the Chaste Lovers in Pompeii. This act of theft also damaged several other frescoes in the house, and, though a camera system exists in Pompeii, it had been out of operation for several months when the event took place. These frescoes were recovered some months later, but many others have disappeared from the site, never to be returned.

ethical issues: study and display of human remains

Using sources 5 and six and other sources evaluate the ethical issues arising from the study and display of human remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum

There is much debate over the whether it is ethical to collect, study and display human remains form Pompeii and Herculaneum. One argument proposes that new discoveries and information can be obtained from continued study, while another believes that the remains should be reburied as it disrespectful to have the bodies on display. There has been a long tradition of collecting human remains for study and display in the second half of the 20th century, but there has been increasing pressure for these bones to be reburied. Preservation techniques such as resin casts enable people to see the actual remains through the cast, as in the lady of oplonits. Archaeologists such as Sarah bisel raised a number of ethical issues with her study of bones in Herculaneum. She had various photos taken which were unethical and made conclusions about bones (e.g. the soldier, slave girl) which were unsubstantiated and had no real basis in evidence. As such arrange of different methods have used to overcome the issue of directly displaying the remains. Replica Plaster casts have been made from the originals and are displayed at various points in P+H, instead of the actual remains. New technology had been incorporated holographic displays of bodies; may mean that bodies would not be directly displayed, with a likeness presented instead.