List of Abbreviations

Proceedings of a Conference for Agricultural Research and Development in Botswana

May 24 – 26th, 2005,

National Veterinary Laboratory, Sebele, Botswana,

Theme: Agricultural Information for Productivity, Competitiveness and Diversification of the Agricultural Sector.

Organized by Botswana Agricultural Research Information Network (BARIN)

Edited by

E.Z. Mushi and V. Emong’or

Compiled by RMC Marketing

All rights reserved. The copyright of all materials in this publication, except where otherwise stated, remains the property of the author and publisher. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by means, electronic or mechanical, for any purpose, without the express Written permission of the publishers or in accordance with the provision of the copyright.

ii Volume 1, 2005

Organizing Committee

J. Macala – Department of Agricultural Research O.R Madibela – Botswana College of Agriculture C.Kerapeletswe – Botswana Institute of Development and Policy Analysis B. Sekhute-Batungamile – BOCOBONET M. Samson – Rural Innovation Promotions Company E. Thibedi - Department of Agricultural Research

Reviewers of Conference Proceedings

Dr. B. K. Acquah, Dr. S. J. Nsoso, Dr. J. M. Kamau and Dr. V. Emong’or

iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFC Age at First Calving AI Artificial Insemination AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ALDEP Arable Lands and Development Program ARAP Accelerated Rain-fed Arable Program ARC Agricultural Research Council ARD Agricultural Research for Development ADG Average Daily gain BAMB Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board BCA Botswana College of Agriculture BGN Bambara Groundnut Network BIB Beef Improvement Botswana BIDPA Botswana Institute of Development and Policy Analysis BM Body Mass BMC Botswana Meat Commission BNRST Botswana National Research Science and Technology Plan BRSTFA Botswana Science and Technology Agenda- science and technology investment BORIIC Botswana Rural Industries Innovation Centre BOTEC Botswana Technology Centre BTC Botswana Telecommunication Corporation CBD Convention of Bio-Diversity CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia CEDA Citizen Entrepreneurship Development Agency CDM Cold Dress Mass CI Calving Interval DABS Department of Architectural and Building Services DFD Dark Firm Dry DSWM Department of Sanitation and Waste Management DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid DRC Domestic Resource Costs FMDU Farm Machinery Development Unit FC Feed Conversion FCE Feed Conversion Efficiency FI Feed Intake FEWS Famine Early Warning System Networks FSS Food Self Sufficiency FWS Free Water Surface Wetland GDP Gross Domestic Product GOB Government of Botswana HIV Human Immune Deficiency Virus ICT Information Communication Technology IDRC International Development and Research Centre IPR Intellectual Property Rights INCI-DC International Corporation with Developing Countries IITA International Institute for Tropical Agriculture IVDMD In Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility KCS Kalahari Conservation Society MCST Ministry of Communication, Science and Technology MFDP Ministry of Finance and Development Planning MLGL Ministry of Lands and Local Government MOA Ministry of Agriculture MNC Multi National Corporation NAMPAADD National Master Plan for Arable Agricultural and Dairy Development NAMPAD National Master Plan for Agricultural Development

iv NFTRC National Food Technology and Research Centre NMC National Maize Corporation NAMBOARD Namibian Marketing Board NWMP National Water Master Plan NGO Non Governmental Organizations PSE Pale Soft Exudative PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction UPA Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture PCR Price Cost Ratio QTL Quantitative Trait Loci RH Relative Humidity R&D Research and Development RIPCO Rural Industries Promotions Company RIIC Rural Industries Innovation Centre SACU Southern African Customs Union SADC Southern African Development Community SLOCA Service for Livestock Owners in Communal Areas SMMEs Small Medium and micro Enterprises SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SF Subsurface Wetland/ Reed Bed THIs Temperature Humidity Indices TGLP Tribal Grazing Land Policy TRIPS Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights UB University of Botswana UHT Ultra Heat Treatment UN United Nations USA United States of America UM Utility Models WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization WTO World Trade Organizations

v Preface

Proceedings of the First Biennial Conference for Agricultural Research and Development in Botswana, Volume 1, 2005

Agricultural scientists in Botswana in the past have been working in isolation from each other and from users of research technologies. Poor integration among scientists and other key stakeholders involved in the development of the agricultural industry in Botswana has lead to generation of technologies that either are sitting on the shelves unknown to users or cannot be adopted. As a result, this has delayed progress in developing the sector to a dynamic and competitive industry. Building strong linkages amongst agricultural scientists and users of research technologies improves communication and technology adoption and encourages teamwork.

In recognition of benefits for strengthening linkages, stakeholders proposed the need for a network (Botswana Agricultural Research Information Network – BARIN), during the Agricultural Research Seminar, 2002. The network’s committee is mandated to coordinate the dissemination of information on science and technology development in agriculture. This kind of arrangement will benefit Botswana in a number of ways, which include among others improving dialogue and communication among stakeholders.

To initiate this process, BARIN found it essential to organize the first Bi-ennial conference in Agricultural Research and Development in Botswana. The main objective of the conference was to bring together researchers and other stakeholders involved in agricultural and development to discuss challenges of agricultural sector and develop strategies for identified challenges.

The presented papers covered all aspects of agriculture ranging from, climate change and its implication for agriculture in Botswana, crop and livestock production technologies including biotechnology, sustainable utilization of natural resources and farm mechanization. Other topics also covered included agro- processing and commercialization, urban agriculture, use of indigenous knowledge, intellectual property rights and patents of indigenous knowledge and scientific innovations. Agricultural policy issues were also discussed including challenges in funding agricultural development projects by CEDA.

The organizers of the conference would like to thank the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture, Mr. Mathias Chakalisa for supporting them in their endeavor in organizing the conference and for presenting welcome remarks at the conference. Dr. E.K. Baipoledi, the head of the National Veterinary Laboratory is thanked for availing the venue for the conference.

Our special thanks go to the Honourable Minister of Agriculture, Mr. Johnnie Swartz for finding time in his busy schedule to attend the conference and for extending an invitation to the Honourable Minister of Finance Development and Planning, Mr. Baledzi Gaolathe to present the official opening speech at the conference. Our gratitude is extended to the South African High Commissioner, resident in Botswana, Mr. Eric Mamuremi for assisting the organizers in identifying a key-note speaker at the conference. Dr. B. M. Molope, Group Executive Director of the Support Division of the Agricultural Research Council, South Africa is particularly thanked for preparing and presenting a well-balanced and very provocative keynote address. We also extended our thanks to the Honourable Assistant Minister of Agriculture, Mr. Peter Siele for officially closing the conference.

We recognize the contribution of scientists who presented high quality papers in different fields of agriculture. The conference would not have been held if scientists did not respond to the call for papers. The participation of scientists from the region is commendable as it opens avenue for collaboration and sharing of information.

Our gratitude is also extended to farmers and stakeholders from government, non-governmental, parastatal institutions and the private sector for their active participation at the conference by sharing their experiences on agricultural development. Contributions from stakeholders were overwhelming and

vi emphasized the importance of teamwork and communication among all parties involved in the development of the agricultural sector in Botswana.

As is the case with organizing any conference or publishing any collection of scientific papers, there is a tremendous amount of work and there are significant costs. The organizers are grateful for the generous sponsorship received from institutions and industries highlighted on the first page of this document. It is our hope that they will continue to support this event in the future, which provides a forum for exchange of agricultural information among stakeholders involved in the development of the agricultural sector in Botswana. Last but not least, the organizers would like to thank the Editors, Professor E.Z. Mushi and V. Emong’or for editing the document. The role of Editors is central to the success of the scientific program.

May 2005 Joyce Phumzile Macala For the Organizing Committee

Correct Citation: O. P. Dube (2005). Climate change in Southern Africa: Implication for agricultural systems in Botswana. In: E.Z. Mushi and V. Emong’or (Editors). Proceedings of a Conference for Agricultural Research and Development in Botswana. Volume 1 [page numbers]

vii WELCOME REMARKS

MR MATHIAS CHAKALISA

THE PERMANENT SECRETARY OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

Director of Ceremonies Minister of Agriculture, Honourable Mr. J.K. Swartz Minister of Finance, Development and Planning, Honourable Mr. B. Gaolathe His Excellency the Ambassador of the United States of America, Mr. J. Huggins The representative of the South African High Commissioner Mr. E. Mamuremi The representative of the Nigerian High Commissioner, Mr. I. Zanna Group Executive: Public Support Services Business Division of the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) of South Africa---- Dr. B.M. Molope Distinguished guests from governmental, parastatals and non- governmental organizations here present Senior government officials Representatives of farmer’s organisations Ladies and gentlemen It is a great honour and pleasure for me to be given this opportunity to welcome you to this first biennial conference in agricultural research and development, organized by the Botswana Agricultural Research Information Network (BARIN). I am told that BARIN consist of a team of scientists drawn from governmental, parastatals and non governmental organizations. BARIN’s tasks among others include facilitate dissemination of agricultural information emanating from research to stakeholders in order to improve productivity and thus contribute to food security and generation of income at both household and national level. Ladies and gentlemen, I note that this conference has brought together participants from Botswana and South Africa to share information and exchange experiences on agricultural research. This conference came at the right time when the agricultural sector in this country is faced with a number of challenges, one being to produce food to feed the nation especially the rural dwellers who depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Distinguished guests, my job is to welcome you to this occasion, which marks the commencement of an event that will now be taking place biennially. Let me take this opportunity to thank scientists from South Africa for showing interest in participating in the deliberations of this conference in agricultural research and development. This occasion provides the scientists from Botswana and South Africa an opportunity to establish linkages, which will be beneficial for collaboration in regional research programmes. To the South African scientists present here, may I encourage you to visit us again. Distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen let me end by wishing you successful deliberations and implementable resolutions at the end of the conference.

THANK YOU

viii OFFICIAL OPENING

HON. MR BALEDZI GAOLATHE

THE MINISTER OF FINANCE & DEVELOPMENT PLANNING,

Director of Ceremonies My colleague the Minister of Agriculture Hon. Mr Johnie Swartz Your Excellencies Members of the Diplomatic Corps and Heads of International Organisations Permanent Secretaries here present Distinguished Participants Ladies & Gentlemen

It is a great honour and privilege for me to be accorded this opportunity to officiate in the opening of the conference on agricultural research and development organised by Botswana Agricultural Research Information Network or BARIN for short. The objective of the conference is to share research information with stakeholders with a view to developing the agricultural sector into a diversified, competitive and sustainable industry.

I am informed that this is the first agricultural research conference organized by BARIN at national level and I am therefore grateful to know that the event will be held on a biennial basis in the future.

Distinguished Participants, as you are all aware, the importance of the agricultural sector cannot be overemphasized, particularly as a source of food for the majority of the population living in the rural area. The sector also provides raw material for the development of agro-based processing industries. Beef and other animal products contribute to the country’s foreign exchange earnings which are necessary as an impetus to development. In addition, agriculture as a primary industry contributes to the growth of service sectors such as transportation, inputs provision as well as other secondary economic activities.

Taking this into account, it is apparent that agriculture’s real contribution is more than it is perceived to be.

Director of Ceremonies, despite this positive contribution, the sector is faced with numerous challenges such as low productivity as a result of drought, inadequate physical infrastructure, diseases and pests, inappropriate technologies and management practices, as well as the HIV/AIDS pandemic. As a result of these challenges coupled with development of other sectors, especially diamonds in the mining industry, the contribution of agriculture to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has dropped from 40% in 1966 to the current level of 2.6%, more than 80% of which is derived from the livestock sub-sector.

Ladies and Gentlemen, in recognition of the actual and potential contribution of the agricultural sector to the national economy, Government has over the years supported the development of the sector through, among other measures, research. Research in agriculture goes a long way in supporting government development strategies to achieve the agricultural policy objectives of national and household food security and employment creation.

These policy objectives are pronounced in NDP 9 and it is stated that, and I quote “The role of agricultural research is to develop appropriate technologies that reduce production constraints and increase productivity”, end of quote.

The National Vision 2016, under the Pillar “A Prosperous, Productive and Innovative Nation”, calls for improvement in food security by being more innovative in using modern techniques like improved animal husbandry to raise productivity in the agricultural sector. In my 2005/2006 Budget Speech, I pointed out that innovation by taking advantage of science and technology is one way of improving productivity. I

ix hope that this conference will take stock of what has been achieved to-date in agricultural research, as we reach the mid-term of NDP 9.

Director of Ceremonies, agricultural research in Botswana started in 1947 at Mahalapye with the main focus on cereal crop variety selection trials in order to improve productivity. This was later followed by a focus on soil fertility, crop rotation, tillage systems including research on horticultural crops in the early 1970s. It was also during this time period that research on large and small ruminants particularly beef and dairy cattle, sheep and goats was commenced. All these research efforts were geared to improving production and incomes from the agricultural sector.

In recognition of the limited outputs from research, Government commissioned a consultancy to review the agricultural research system with a view to enabling the Department of Agricultural Research to define its strategic role in the organization, management and coordination of agricultural research and in the development of sustainable systems to serve Botswana’s agricultural industry. This new approach to agricultural research was in line with the National Agricultural Policy of 1991, which aimed at, I quote “improving agricultural productivity and food security, diversification of the agricultural sector, increasing farm income and sustainable management of natural resources” end of quote.

Ladies and gentlemen, the introduction of the Performance Management Systems (PMS) by Government is also a deliberate decision to address, among others, the issue of productivity in terms of accountability, result oriented and customer driven processes within the public service. This management tool has enabled the Department of Agricultural Research to develop a strategic plan, which drives its research programmes during NDP 9. In order to achieve the national aspirations in the agricultural sector for NDP 9, the Plan has identified a number of key result areas, namely:  customer and stakeholder satisfaction  diversification of the agricultural sector  improvement of agricultural productivity  organizational effectiveness  exchange of technological information  conservation of genetic resources and  development of appropriate technology

In this regard, it is my hope that the new research initiative will enhance the sector’s contribution to the national economy through improved productivity, increased diversification and employment creation opportunities based on environmental sustainability.

As part of the effort of the Department to develop customer driven agricultural research technologies a stakeholder workshop was held in 2002 where a decision was made to establish a forum for dissemination of agricultural research information from governmental, parastatal, non-governmental and private organizations. To this end, the BARIN was formed to undertake this task.

Ladies and gentlemen, it is against this background that BARIN has invited all key stakeholders to discuss research outputs that are available for adoption by farmers and thus assist the country in developing a dynamic and competitive agricultural industry. It is also anticipated that during the deliberations of research papers at this conference, missing gaps in knowledge will be identified to form a research agenda for the future. This occasion underscores Government’s commitment in strengthening collaboration among all key stakeholders involved in the agricultural sector. It should be noted that active participation of key stakeholders improves communication and sharing of ideas, as well as encouraging teamwork as stakeholders develop strategies and policies for improving the agricultural sector.

Involvement of producers, in particular, in the development and implementation of new interventions, is a paramount importance in guiding the direction of the research agenda. However, this research will not be useful if it is not production-oriented, that is, the knowledge gathered should be brought to the market to realize its commercial value. This will go a long way in ensuring that government programmes, like the

x National Master-Plan on Arable Agriculture and Dairy Development (NAMPAADD), are successfully implemented.

In conclusion, I would like to commend BARIN for organizing this conference. I would also like to extend my appreciation to all the participants for having found time to attend this important conference. I hope in future you will note this important event in your annual calendars.

Director of Ceremonies, Your Excellencies, Distinguished Participants, It is now my pleasure and singular honour to declare the 2005 Conference on Agricultural Research and Development officially open.

Pula! Pula!

xi CLOSING REMARKS

HON. PETER LETLHOGONOLO SIELE

THE ASSISTANT MINISTER OF AGRICUTURE

Directors of Ceremonies Distinguished guests Ladies and Gentlemen

It is an honour and a privilege for me to have been accorded this opportunity to perform the official closing of your important Conference on Dissemination of Information to Improve the Productivity, Competitiveness and Diversification of the Agricultural Sector.

I want to start by identifying with the theme of your conference of Disseminating Information to Improve Agricultural Productivity. Agriculture in our country is faced with various challenges such as erratic weather, poor soils, pests and others. Whereas solutions to all these challenges may not be available, there is considerable good work that has been done through research that if disseminated to the farmers can mitigate the challenges and improve productivity. I trust this conference has highlighted credible information from research, which can contribute towards increasing agricultural productivity when disseminated to farmers. It is important that we align ourselves and adopt a practical approach. Once information from research has been made available, it has to be disseminated to users. I am informed this conference has emphasized the importance for adopting a collaborative approach from all key stakeholders involved in the development of the agricultural sector.

We need to set ourselves practical targets that we will monitor to see if we are making impact. We need to take stock and ask ourselves if the research work which has been done so far has resulted in practical impact on the farmers.

I am a farmer and I want to confess to you that I cannot confirm that our research has had impact. The weak link is information dissemination and I trust this conference has equipped us to meet the challenge.

Let me take this opportunity, on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture and my own self, to thank participants who have taken part in this conference. Particularly, my thanks to those who have expressed their opinions in an open manner and provided many constructive suggestions for addressing the challenges of the agricultural sector. May I also take this opportunity to congratulate and appreciate the Botswana Agricultural Research Information Network (BARIN) Coordinating Committee for this initiative, which we all have to support positively.

I would also like to thank the sponsors for their generous contribution. This has assisted the organizers to accomplish their goal.

May I also take this opportunity to wish the scientists traveling back to South Africa and those coming from outside Gaborone a safe journey. With these remarks, Ladies and Gentlemen, I declare this conference officially closed.

Pula! Pula!

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………...... iv

Preface……………………………………………………………………………………………… vi

Welcome Remarks………………………………………………………………………………… viii

Official Opening…………………………………………………………………………………… ix

Closing Remarks………………………………………………………………………………….. xii

KEYNOTE SPEAKER The role of research and technology in agricultural development, associated industries and rural areas Dr B. M. Molope………………………………………………………………………...... 1

INVITED PAPERS Moving the Botswana science and technology agenda forward - A prerequisite for global competitiveness E. T. Selaolo, L. M. Motoma, S. D. Williams and E.K. Senyatso……………………….. 12

Agricultural research information network in partnership with libraries A. Lekau and B. Ketlhoilwe………………………………………………………………. 19

Climate change in Southern Africa: Implication for agricultural systems in Botswana O. P. Dube………………………………………………………………………………… 26

SUB THEME 1: AGRICULTURAL POLICY ANALYSIS Impact of market liberalization on grain pricing in Botswana T. B. Seleka, O. Galebotswe, and P. Malope…………………………………………….. 33

Institutional and regional context of small farmer development: towards a comparative analysis of agricultural trade patterns in Southern Africa and implications for Botswana H. van Schalkwyk, T. B. Seleka, A. Obi and N. Mashinini…………………………….. 48

Making agricultural research and technology development relevant to the small farmer: Lessons from international experience and implications for Botswana A. Obi and H. van Schalkwyk...... 61

Privatizing agricultural and natural resource management extension- concepts, reasons and assumptions C. K. Kerapeletswe and N.H. Fidzani…………………………………………………… 75

Policy processes in Botswana agriculture: a retrospective and perspective N.H Fidzani and C. K. Kerapeletswe……………………………………………………. 82

How trade liberalisation can help to revitalise Botswana’s beef cattle sector K. Jefferis………………………………………………………………………………… 98

SUB THEME 2: LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY Production performance and temperature-humidity index of Cobb 500 broilers reared in open-sided naturally ventilated houses in Botswana H. J. Chepete, E. Chimbombi R. Tsheko………………………………………………... 118

xiii Effect of stocking rate on herbage yield, steers livemass gain and carcass price in an arid sweet Bushveld and mixed Mopane Bushveld in Botswana W. N. Mphinyane, G. Tacheba, S. Mangope and J. Makore……………………………. 122

Reproductive efficiency of Tswana and Tuli crosses under free grazing conditions in Botswana M. G. Jeyaruban………………………………………………………………………….. 135

Effects of breed and diet on performance of beef cattle under feedlot management in Botswana: A review O. I. Raditedu, O. R. Madibela and J. P. Macala………………………………………... 141

Napier grass: A potential basal feed for dairy cattle in South-Eastern Botswana F. P. Wandera and Z. Madzonga………………………………………………………… 153

The effect of age and live weight at first calving on the shape of the lactation curve of dairy heifers evaluated for milk production in Botswana T. Bagwasi and J.P. Macala……………………………………………………………… 159

Application of modeling to predict live weight of grazing steers under different stocking rates in semi-arid conditions of Botswana J. Macala, J.B. Rowe and J.V. Nolan……………………………………………………. 165

Subsequent performance of Holstein-Friesian heifer calves weaned at different ages of their development W. Mahabile and H.O. de Waal…………………………………………………. ………. 171

SUB THEME 3: AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY Mapping Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) in Arabidopsis Thaliana S. Ngwako and H. S. Pooni……………………………………………………………….. 177

Genetic diversity and relationships of Tswana cattle populations B. Podisi and A. Kotze…………………………………………………………………….. 185

SUB THEME 4: CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY Variation in seed yield among Bambara groundnut (Vigna Subterranea L.) Verdic) Landraces grown in Swaziland, Namibia and Botswana E. B. Khonga, A. Sesay, S. K. Karikari, T. V. Balole, B. C. Kwerepe, G. Ramolemana, D. C. Munthali, S. Machacha and G. M. Legwaila……………………………………… 189

Alectra Vogelii (L.) Benth: A parasitic weed threatening cowpea production in Botswana G. N. Mashungwa, S. Ngwako, A. Abdullahi and G. S. Maphanyane………………….. 191

Time of sowing – A major factor influencing yields of Bambara groundnut Vigna Subterranean (L.) Verdc) in Swaziland A. Sesay……………………………………………………………………………………. 193

A review of research on African Bollworm (Helicoverpa Armigera (Hubner) Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Botswana K. T. Mosinkie and M. Obopile………………………………………………………..….. 204

Release of a new food sorghum variety based on on-station and on-farm evaluation in Botswana S. M. Chite and S. S. Nkhori……………………………………………………………… 210

SUB THEME 5: FARM MECHANIZATION Planter development at the Rural Industries Innovation Centre, Kanye

xiv B. Tagwa……………………………………………………………………………..……. 223 SUB THEME 6: AGRO-PROCESSING & COMMERCIALIZATION Effects of pre-slaughter stress on carcass/meat quality: implications for Botswana M. H.D. Mareko…………………………………………………………………………. 224

Development of functional and nutraceutical foods using natural raw materials indigenous to Botswana S. M Mpotokwane., A. N Nkwe-Mosele. , D Thamage………………………………….. 233

The development of a dehuller: A case of Rural Industries Promotion Company S. F. Pelotona……………………………………………………………………………. 241.

SUB THEME 7: SCIENCE & INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE Prospects of ethnomedicine research in animal science in Botswana O. R. Madibela……………………………………………………………………………. 251

SUB THEME 8: URBAN AGRICULTURE The use of constructed wetland to support urban agriculture M. Sekwati………………………………………………………………………………… 261

The potential and challenges of urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture (UPA) in Botswana M. E. Madisa and D. Keboneilwe………………………………………………………… 274

SUB THEME 9: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS & PATENTS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE & SCIENTIFIC INNOVATIONS Intellectual Property Laws and Agriculture…………………………………………………….…… 284 K. K. Monyatsi

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS……………………………………………………………………….. 285

xv xvi