Public Speech Essay

Argument and Rhetoric

Before looking at the construction of arguments, it is first necessary to look at their shape and form. To do this, we must recognize that arguments occur within a social context--they are the process/product of people interacting, and relating. Over the years, several scholars have mapped out these relations, much as you would a family tree. Aristotle was the first to notice the similarities of arguments and stories. For Aristotle, the act of storytelling consisted of three elements: a storyteller, a story, and an audience.

● Storyteller------>Story------>Audience

Similarly, arguments also required these three elements:

● Speaker/Writer------>Message------>Audience

Aristotle defined these three elements as ETHOS, LOGOS, and PATHOS. Since then, different scholars have conceived of different models of rhetoric, but the model we are concerned with comes from Robert Scholes (Writing Arguments). Realizing the three elements, Scholes examined the relationship between the speaker/message, speaker/audience, and message/audience. These three relations make up the three sides of the rhetorical triangle. You may use this triangle to map out the overall effectiveness of an argument.

Note how the equilateral triangle below would refelct an argument with a careful balance of ethos, logos, and pathos.

What if this were an isosceles or right triangle? What might it suggest about the effectiveness of its argument?

As we read the speech given by Queen Elizabeth in 1588 to the troops at Tilbury, think of this triangle and make notes accordingly. Be prepared to discuss the rhetorical devices in the speech as well as the purpose for each one (So What?). Specifically, discuss the audience and the author's manipulation of the audience.

Consider posing questions such as: 1. This is a successful speech. Why? 2. Elizabeth uses all of the appeals to convince all of her listeners to fight for her, from the loyal follower to the greedy mercenary. How? 3. The tone shifts throughout the selection. Where? And more importantly, why? ETHOS, or "character" in Greek, refers to the credibility of the writer/speaker. A writer can develop ethos in a number of ways:  Tone and Style  Evidence and Support  Treatment of Opposing Views Plato implicitly addresses the "ethical appeal" of a speaker in The Symposium by asking who would you trust more: a real doctor, or someone who seems like a doctor? If the real doctor doesn't act or behave in the ways we expect doctors to act/behave, how much do we believe him/her? Aren't we more likely to listen to the person who acts/behaves the way we want doctors to act/behave?

As such, the writer/speaker must always be conscious of the appearance/impression that he/she creates in the mind of the audience. Some questions that the writer/speaker must always consider when attempting to persuade: What is the rhetorical context? Who is my audience and what do they expect from me? How can I use this context and these expectations to present myself effectively ?

The best way to address these questions:  Be Knowledgeable--Know what you are talking about; present evidence and support for your position and reasons.  Be Fair--You must be a reasonable participant (no skeptics or fanatics); to avoid a pseudo-argument, be tolerant and understanding. Just because someone differs in opinion does not mean that they are stupid and wrong.  Build a Bridge to Your Audience--Use audience-based reasons; to avoid another pseudo-argument, build your reasoning around the shared assumptions of your audience. Show your audience that you care about the same things they do.

LOGOS, "word" in Greek, refers to the logical consistency of an argument. A writer develops logos by supplying two key ingedients:  A Claim  A Reason Anytime we support a claim to one or more reasons, we create what Aristotle referred to as an enthymeme, or an "incomplete logical structure." To complete the logical structure of the enthymeme, we must recognize one or more unstated assumptions. The classical enthymeme, "Socrates is mortal because he is human" supports the claim "Socrates is mortal" with the reason "because he is human." What unstated assumption does this create?

As such, the writer/speaker must always be conscious of the logic and reasoning of the enthymemes he/she provides the audience. Some questions that the writer/speaker must always consider when attempting to persuade: What is the rhetorical context? Who is my audience and what do they think logical? How can I use this context and these expectations to present myself effectively ? How can I make an argument that is internally consistent and logical? How can I find the best reasons and support them with the best evidence?

The best way to address these questions:  Have a Clear and Consistent Claim--Alwyas make it apparent and understandable to your audience what you are arguing.  Provide Logical Reasons--Always make sure that the unstated assumptions you create are not fallacious.  Use Effective Evidence--Always make sure that the evidence you provide adeequately supports both the stated reason and the unstated assumption.

PATHOS, "suffering" or "experience" in Greek, refers to the "emotional appeal" that the writer/speaker makes to the audience. The writer/speaker can develop pathos in a number of ways:  Tone and Style  Anecdotes and Analogies  Classical or Delayed Thesis Plato was against using the emotions of the audience to the speaker/writer's advantage, but Aristotle understood that as humans, we are not moved by the intellect alone; emotions can play a role in the effectiveness of arguments.

As such, the writer/speaker must always be conscious of the cares and concerns of the audience. Some questions that the writer/speaker must always consider when attempting to persuade: What is the rhetorical context? Who is my audience and what do they care about? How can I use this context and these concerns to present myself effectively ?

Some ways to address these questions:  Use Concrete Language--The use of vivid description allows the audience to imagine themselves in a certain situation and can increase their reaction to that situation.  Use Specific Examples and Illustrations--These have two purposes: they can serve as evidence and support; and they can provide presence and emotional resonance.  Use Narratives--Arguments can benefit from stories embedded within them. These stories appeal directly to the audience's sympathies and imagination. Like concrete language, stories allow the audience to envision themselves within the situation and their reaction to it.

Other concerns that can affect your pathos:  Diction--The choice of words, metaphors and analogies should be dependent on the writer/speaker's aim and agenda. The use of synonyms, antonyms, similes, and metaphors can reveal a writer/speaker's slant. When would you want to refer to someone as "homeless" as opposed to "displaced," or "meek?"  Classical vs. Delayed Thesis--Dependent upon the likelihood of your audience's acceptance or rejection of your message, you may want to consider either frontloading or delaying your thesis. If you believe your audience will generally accept your position, it might be best to explicitly state your thesis immediately. But if you suspect that your audience may be resistant to your message, you may want to imply your thesis and save it until after you have presented your evidence and reasoning.

Analyzing Famous Speeches as Arguments Essay Assignment Sheet Select a famous speech to analyze. Your choices are a compilation of several collections, including The American Rhetoric, The History Place, and Britain’s Guardian Unlimited. Please note that some famous but “overdone” speeches were deliberately not included on the list.

Analyze your chosen speech as an argument and write an essay about the writer’s effectiveness considering the context in which and audience to which they were delivered. Essays should identify and explain the rhetorical strategies that the author deliberately chose while crafting the text. What makes the speech so remarkable? How did the author's rhetoric evoke a response from the audience? Why are the words still venerated today?

Carefully consider the author’s deliberate manipulation of language. The thesis must be arguable and take language into account; it may not merely tout the general importance of the speech or the valiance of the speaker.

Stay focused on the speech as an argumentative text. There isn’t ample space in this essay to carefully detail every aspect of the historical context in which this speech falls. It’s critical to know about the events that led up to the speech, so it is probably necessary to include pertinent details. However, it is not useful to delineate, for example the specific events of the entire Revolutionary War that preceded George Washington’s Inaugural Speech.

Include content from multiple (2-3) secondary sources that effectively and actively support your thesis. You must have a Works Cited page in MLA format that includes the speech and additional sources.

Bring a copy of the speech to class on the days that are set aside for work days. The final essay must be turned in on turningitin.com. You should also post your essay on your wiki.

Guiding Questions for Speech Research  What was the speaker up against? What is the occasion for the speech?  What did the author have to keep in mind when composing the text?  What where his or her goals?  What was his or her ultimate purpose?  What was his or her intent?

Analyzing Famous Speeches as Arguments—Peer Response Guide

Writer’s Name ______Your Name ______

Your job is to help the writer think through the quality of the argument, support, and structure of his or her draft. Please do the best you can to help the writer by being supportive, critical, and (most of all) specific in your feedback.

You may write on the essay. Circle any words that you feel the writer should reconsider. The circle will indicate to the writer than you think there’s a better word out there that could be used. Underline any grammatical problems you observe. It’s the author’s job to find alternative diction and to investigate the grammatical question. Don’t spend time doing this for the writer. 1. Identify the thesis and write it below. If the essay does not have a thesis, what points does the author discuss that might be consolidated into a thesis? 2. A thesis must contain an assertion that argues a point. The thesis is a promise to the reader, an agreement to prove and support this claim. State what he/she is promising to support. 3. Is the thesis challenging and interesting? Explain why or why not. 4. What rhetorical devices are discussed? What “purpose” or “intent” is given for each one? ------5. Do the paragraphs have transitions that connect each paragraph together? Does each paragraph support and develop the thesis? 6. How could the introductory paragraph be improved? 7. How could the conclusion be improved? 8. Is there enough research to support the thesis? Does the research support the thesis, or does the research dominate the essay? (Make sure there’s more commentary than concrete details.) 9. What could the writer add to this essay? 10. What additional information could the writer eliminate from this essay? 11. Is the diction eloquent and sophisticated? Repetitive? Identify improvements that the author could make to improve the diction of this essay. 12. Did the author vary his/her syntax to keep the writing from being monotonous?

Finally, on a scale from 1-10, how much did you enjoy reading this essay? (A rating of 10 means it was very enjoyable and interesting with unique insights. A rating of 1 means it was uninteresting or a challenge to read due to grammar/mechanics, or unsound reasoning.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

What could make this a 10 (if it is not already)?

Now, write a graduation speech or a speech on another topic. You can peruse print or online news sources to select a current event that interests you. You must also choose an audience to whom you would deliver an argumentative speech. Please post your speech on your wiki under the heading “Speech.”