Draft Policy Brief

ACP Fisheries Policy Brief Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources – Role of Science, Technology & Innovation

Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources

Role of Science, Technology & Innovation

Written by: Sloans Chimatiro1, Milton Haughton2, Mariama Barry3, Martha Byanyima4, Augustine Mobiha5, Francis Nunoo6, edited by J.A. Francis6, [email protected]

This policy brief aims at mobilizing the ACP scientific community to provide knowledge-based leadership to safeguard and rebuild this vital resource for food and nutrition security and economic growth. ACP policy makers and regional and international donors are encouraged to increase investment to build the requisite S,T&I capacity in ACP States.

1.0 Introduction

Fisheries play an important role in the stability of rural and coastal communities in the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States. It is a vital source of food and contributes to livelihoods sustainability, food and nutrition security and foreign exchange earnings. These benefits are being eroded due to unsustainable practices and policies ultimately leading to dwindling resources; declining catches from the oceans, lakes, rivers and floodplains and illegal unregulated and unreported fishing. The aquaculture sector is also poorly developed. Limited scientific and technical capacity and involvement of the scientific community in guiding policy further exacerbate the situation. Opportunities exist to use more science, technology and innovation to improve the contribution of fisheries to achieving sustainable social and economic development. However, special effort must be directed towards improving endogenous scientific and technical capacity to trigger the development and application of more effective and efficient technologies, policies, legislation and fisheries and aquaculture management plans.

2.0 Why Safeguard Fisheries Resources?

Many African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries depend on fisheries for food and social and economic development. In 2000, fish and fishery products constituted 15.3% of the total animal protein consumed by people globally (FAO, 2003). The annual per capita fish intake for selected ACP countries ranges between 6.6 Table 1 Yearly per capita intake (kg/year) of fish and fishery kg in Malawi to 169.2 kg in Samoa as products in selected ACP countries shown in Table 1. Over the period 1995 – Country Year/per capita intake 2004 there has been an 8 fold increase in 1999 2000 2001 2002 the number of fish farmers recorded for Angola 27.2 27.3 31.3 30.3 Belize 22.9 27.9 30.8 30.0 Africa (Table 2). The sector also provides Fiji 47.5 67.8 67.3 66.6 income for over 10 million people engaged Ghana 66.9 62.1 64.0 62.6 in fish production, processing and trade Guinea 24.9 23.5 22.1 21.8 and is a leading export commodity with an Jamaica 43.3 40.0 34.1 33.8 Kenya 11.2 11.3 8.2 8.1 annual export value of US$2.7 billion Malawi 7.8 7.8 6.7 6.6 (NEPAD, 2005). In some Caribbean Senegal 50.5 56.6 57.3 56.0 countries, fisheries accounts for more than Samoa 113.2 170.6 170.1 169.2 World average 27.8 27.9 28.4 28.1 5% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - Source: World Resource Institute (2004) and FAO (2004)

1 ACP Fisheries Policy Brief Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources – Role of Science, Technology & Innovation

8% GDP in Belize and exports have been growing steadily; up from US$13.8 million in 1986 to approximately US$200 million in 2004. In addition, the combined benefits of dive tourism, recreational fisheries, and shoreline protection provided by the coral reef ecosystems bring an estimated net value of US$3.1-3.6 billion to the Caribbean region every year (Burke and Maidens, 2004; World Resources Institute, 2004).

The ACP island states comprise several highly productive and diverse fragile tropical ecosystems and natural features such as coral reefs and sea grass beds which support several highly productive fish assemblages with high species diversity. The total land area of the Caribbean States is 484,716 km2, whereas the total area of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is 2,205,470 km2. Papua New Guinea, one of the Pacific island states, includes an archipelago of 600 islands and has a combined total land area of 462, 243 km2 and an EEZ of 2,437,480 km2. All the fifteen Pacific island states have a combined total land area of 527,436 km2 - an EEZ covering roughly 20,070,000 km², equivalent to about 18% of all EEZs globally. Pacific Island States depend upon these ecosystems: as a traditional and important source of seafood; as a critical form of revenue (US$60-70 million in access fees); employment (25,000 regional jobs); and income (expenditure by locally based vessels is worth US$130 million) (Gillett et al. 2001, Gillett and Lightfoot, 2002). However, despite roughly US$2 billion worth of tuna being caught in the Pacific each year, the tuna fisheries added only approximately US$97 million to Pacific GDP in 2005, and employed 11,000 Pacific Islanders (Birdsall et al. 2005). Coastal reef fisheries and other small- scale fisheries play a much under-estimated role in food and value production as well as in distributional social effects in the ACP region. These tend to be more energy efficient and less environmentally destructive than more industrial fishing practices particularly bottom trawling.

Over fishing and illegal, unregulated and underreported (IUU) fishing, global warming and sea level rise, marine and freshwater pollution and habitat degradation are putting the future potential contribution of the ACP fisheries sector at risk. They are, among others, driven by growing consumer demand and weaknesses in sector governance. Effective management systems backed up by sound scientific information and policies supporting sustainable use and value addition must be put in place to protect vulnerable aquatic ecosystems and arrest the decline in fisheries resources. The social costs are high and translate into an inability of populations with poor purchasing power, particularly women, Table 2 World fishers and fish farmers by continent to maintain continued access to Year traditional fish resources for food and 1990 1995 2000 2003 2004 livelihood (Williams et al. 2005). WRI (‘000) Africa 1,832 1,950 2,981 2,870 2,852 (2005) demonstrated that stewardship of North and Central 760 777 891 841 864 nature is also an effective means to fight America South America 730 704 706 689 700 poverty; and when poor households Asia 23,736 28,096 34,103 36,189 36,281 improve their management of local Europe 626 466 766 653 656 Oceania 55 52 49 50 54 ecosystems—whether pastures, forests, World 27,737 32,045 39,495 41,293 41,408 or fishing grounds—the productivity of Of which fish farmers these systems rises and economic Africa 3 14 83 117 117 North and Central 3 6 75 62 64 progress ensues as well. America South America 66 213 194 193 194 Asia 3,738 5,986 8,374 10,155 10,837 The numerous challenges facing the Europe 20 27 30 68 73 ACP fisheries sector suggest that there is Oceania 1 1 5 5 4 World 3,832 6,245 8,762 10,599 11,289 need to mobilize the ACP scientific Source: FAO (2007)

2 ACP Fisheries Policy Brief Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources – Role of Science, Technology & Innovation community, policy makers and the international donor community to support the countries in taking the necessary action. The science, technology and innovation system must be strengthened to ensure that the fisheries sector can continue to contribute towards the goal of social and economic development in ACP states. Increased investments for building endogenous scientific and technical capacity are needed to generate the evidence to support political and technical interventions and drive innovations to realize the full potential of the industry.

3.0 The Context and Extent of the Problem

3.1 Over-exploitation of stocks and under-developed aquaculture

According to FAO official statistics, overall global production of fish continues to expand, with more growth approximately 43%, coming from aquaculture, as capture fishery production stagnates (Figure 1). These statistics may be an overestimation because of double reporting by China and global capture fisheries has decreased since early 1990’s. The exploitation of wild fish stocks from the world’s oceans has probably reached its limit, reinforcing the call for more cautious and effective fisheries management to rebuild depleted stocks and prevent the decline of those that have not yet reached their limits (FAO, 2007). In the case of inland fishery resources, there is widespread overfishing, arising from either intensive targeting of individual large-size species in major river and freshwater systems or overexploitation of highly diverse species assemblages or ecosystems. This is further aggravated by massive habitat destruction as a result of engineering interventions on many rivers worldwide. Africa has some of the biggest lake environments in the world and derives an important part of its overall production from freshwater, yet, these are much less studied than the less important lakes in other regions limiting access to accurate data for making realistic projections.

Breton et al. (2006) reported that a number of fish species are overexploited in the Caribbean. For example, queen conch (Strombus gigas), spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), shrimp (including Penaeus subtilis, Penaeus schmitti, Penaeus brasiliensis, Penaeus notialis and Xiphopenaeus kroyeri), shallow shelf reef-fishes (particularly members of the lutjanidae and serranidae families), and large pelagic species are fully developed or over exploited. On the other hand some species e.g. regional off shore pelagic fish such as wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri), dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus), and blackfin tuna (Thunnus atlanticus); deep-slope snappers and groupers, and some small coastal pelagic species including members of the carangidae, clupeidae, and engraulidae families are under-utilized.

In Africa, the inland fisheries resources are under threat with assemblage overfishing (decline of individual species of large size) being evident. For example, large species reaching maximum lengths of around 60 cm, such as Lates niloticus (Nile perch), Heterotis niloticus, and Distichodus, were a significant fraction of the catch in the 1950s in Oueme River (Republic of Benin), but these had either disappeared from the river or reduced their size at maturity by 1970s (Allan et al. 2005). At the same time, these larger species have been replaced by smaller species such as Labeo, Clarius, Heterobranchus, Schilbe and Synodontis of maximum length of about 40 cm; and by the 1990s, the fishery became dominated by numerous small species of cichlids and mormyrids attaining maximum lengths of 10 to 30 cm. Similar observations have been made in Lakes Malawi and Malombe (Malawi) where Oreochromis lidole, O. karongae and O. squamipinnis (maximum size of around 38 cm) comprised 75% of the catches in the 1940s but

3 ACP Fisheries Policy Brief Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources – Role of Science, Technology & Innovation started to decline since the early 1980s and collapsed in the 1990s, contributing only 7% of the total catch (Banda et al. 2006). In Lake Malombe, these larger size species have been replaced by smaller cichlids (maximum size around 7-12 cm) mainly Lethrinops, Otopharynx and Copadichromis (Banda et al. 2006). In Lake Victoria, evidence of overfishing of Lates niloticus (Nile perch) has been shown through experimental fishing conducted by the Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project (LVFRP), (Cowx et al. 2003) and catch landings by fishers. Between 1999 and 2001, biomass of Nile perch declined from 1.59 to 0.89 million tons; and combined landings in the three riparian countries (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda) declined from about 400,000 tons in the late 1980s to around 300,000 tons in the early 2000 (Balirwa et al. 2005), mostly as a result of catching large numbers of juveniles (Froese & Binohlan, 2000).

Although over 70% of the population in Pacific Island States (PIS) rely on near-shore (coral reef) fisheries for their subsistence requirement, tuna is the most important commercial species. The tuna fishery is dominated by four major species, namely Albacore (Thunnus alalunga), Bigeye (Thunnus obesus), Skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) and Yellowfin (Thunnus albacares). Gillet (2004) reported that the amount of tuna captured in the region is about ten times all other types of fish combined; and in terms of value the catch is worth over seven times the value of all other Pacific Island fish catches combined. However, over-capacity and use of aggregating devices are a growing concern particularly for Thunnus albacares (Yellowfin) and Thunnus obesus (Bigeye) (Hanich & Tsamenyi, 2006). Economic studies have also shown that fishing effort is significantly above optimal levels, thereby reducing the profitability of the fishery (Bertignac et al. 2001). Therefore, the Scientific Committee of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission recommended in August 2005 that fishing capacity for bigeye and yellowfin should be reduced by roughly 20% (Hanich & Tsamenyi, 2006).

3.2 Inadequate research and human and institutional capacity

Although many ACP countries have made significant strides in marine and fisheries science, they still lack the critical mass of technical and scientific expertise to monitor national jurisdiction as well as transboundary resources and to generate, use and interpret data on the biology, ecology and population dynamics and status of at least the most commercially important fish species and the extent of habitat degradation. The institutional capacity to manage the resources, especially the less important commercial varieties, is Fig. 1 World Fish Production (FAO 2007) also limited.

Forty-two percent of the African research institutions are weak in fisheries and aquaculture leading to a lack of a common and strategic understanding of the challenges being faced by the sector and appreciation of the importance of fisheries and aquaculture research for development (FARA, 2006). Three factors constrain research and development, namely insufficient funds, lack of core research staff and weak research infrastructure (FAO, 2007). Some ACP countries have

4 ACP Fisheries Policy Brief Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources – Role of Science, Technology & Innovation made progress in addressing their research needs. For example, future research areas identified for Papua New Guinea include bycatch studies of the prawn fishery and mapping of prawn fishing grounds of the Gulf of Papua; culture of indigenous fish species; study of the deep water reefs and further tagging studies to determine the movements of the bigeye tuna species. However, the knowledge gap that exists is not confined to the physical and ecological dimensions of the resource system. Human dimension, that is, the cultural, social, economic, anthropological, historical and traditional aspects are also poorly understood. Models for research and effective resource management in ACP countries must therefore adequately take into account the human dimension and be consistent with the culture and aspiration of the fishing communities. Breton et al. (2006) in their book, Coastal Resource Management in the wider Caribbean, argue convincingly for more attention to be given to reaching a better balance between natural and social sciences in the management of natural resources and of deepening understanding of the local-human contexts in which it takes place in light of the increasing tendency towards decentralization and empowerment of local organizations. This will make the research more directly policy relevant.

The inability to generate, translate and utilize scientific information for decision-making and policy formulation therefore hampers the ACP countries from improving fisheries conservation and management, with wider implications for value addition, trade and socio-economic sustainability. Hodge (2006) made a case for the role of human capital and institutions in shaping the evolution of systems of innovations in Lake Chad, by noting that the problems of Lake Chad may not effectively be solved without a supportive knowledge and innovation system and the organisational capacity to diffuse technologies. Hodge (2006) further calls on African fisheries management institutions to learn from the USA’s Land/Sea Grant systems, by strategically directing investment for strengthening and/or building new institutions that can promote technology transfer and innovations by formalizing practical linkages of outreach to institutions of higher learning and research. The European Commission also saw the need to assist ACP countries in strengthening their capacity to formulate and implement fisheries development policies and better manage their aquatic resources through improved monitoring and control of fishing activities and the provision of scientific information on the status of resources (CEC, 2002). Within the framework of the European Partnership Agreements, ACP States can negotiate fisheries agreements that reinforce cooperation on sustainable use of fishery resources and transfer of technology, research and training. This complements provisions made in Articles 23, and 53 of the ACP-EU Cotonou on Fishery Agreements and Article 32 on Environment and Natural Resources.

ACP countries need to effectively address these constraints by, inter alia, creating and or adapting institutional models and building the scientific capacity that are relevant to their specific context. ACP researchers and managers should also be encouraged to publish more systematically and where possible insert the results of their work in public webarchives, such as www.fishbase.org, thereby contributing to the body of readily accessible knowledge, and gaining additional national and international recognition.

3.3 Legal and policy framework

The targets for fisheries set out in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPol) of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) of Fisheries include: maintaining or restoring

5 ACP Fisheries Policy Brief Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources – Role of Science, Technology & Innovation stocks to levels that can produce the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) on an urgent basis or where possible, not later than 2015; maintaining the productivity and biodiversity of marine coastal areas and; implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Regional initiatives and agencies exist to complement national efforts. For example, the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) and NEPAD Fisheries and Biosciences Programmes, have been set up to coordinate, provide advice and promote sustainable management of fisheries resources. Their programmes are aligned with the framework of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the UN Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. However, many ACP countries may not achieve the goals as attempts to translate international commitments on environment and sustainable development into national policies, and legal and regulatory frameworks are hindered first and foremost by the lack of data, information and S&T capacity.

3.4 Threat from climate change

Fishing and fish farming communities in the ACP region are generally impoverished and ill- prepared to adapt to the potential negative impact of climate change on their way of life. The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change states, “For fisheries, information on the likely impacts of climate change is very limited.” Changes in temperature and rainfall threaten fisheries and aquaculture by directly influencing the geographical distribution pattern and quantity of fish produced and indirectly by affecting the prices of fish and/or the cost of production under extreme climate events. Sea level rise and increase in the frequency and intensity of severe weather systems such as hurricanes, further threaten low lying coastal communities. Knowledge on the response of the marine and inland ecosystems and fish population e.g. changes in productivity and migratory patterns would help the ACP region in developing appropriate adaptation and mitigation strategies.

4.0 Policy recommendations

4.1 Sustainable fisheries resource management

Countries should manage their fisheries with the best available scientific information, while adopting a conservative, precautionary and adaptive approach to resource management. It is clear that currently many ACP countries do not have the human and institutional capacity to generate scientifically sound policies and management plans for their fisheries. Therefore, it is imperative that ACP countries in collaboration with donor organisations dedicate more financial resources towards building the requisite human and institutional capacity in fisheries and marine science, value addition and governance. Such capacity must be directed at understanding the biology and ecology of economically important fish species in order to generate the relevant technologies and innovative approaches for effective fisheries management. Capacity must also be strengthened in the social sciences, food sciences, engineering, trade relations, and monitoring, surveillance and enforcement systems.

Traditional centralized management of fisheries has been reported to be failing and new evidence in both small and large-scale fisheries indicate that where fisheries decision-making is participatory in character and is seen to be fair and transparent, management measures are implemented more fully, with less recourse to costly external enforcement measures. There is

6 ACP Fisheries Policy Brief Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources – Role of Science, Technology & Innovation need to strengthen the capacity of research and training institutions in the ACP region to undertake relevant research in community-based and co-management approaches, and share existing knowledge to identify and develop suitable models for strengthening the participation of fishers and other legitimate stakeholders in planning, decision making and managing fisheries. 4.2 Sustainable aquaculture growth and expansion There are limits to the quantities of fish that can be extracted from the natural resource systems. It is apparent that in the not too distant future, aquaculture could surpass capture fisheries, unless the natural productivity of degraded ecosystems can be rebuilt. In any event, there is optimism that ACP countries could become key players in the global aquaculture movement if the necessary marketing, technical, institutional and scientific preconditions are put in place. Supportive and enabling policies are needed to guide and facilitate its expansion, taking into account socio-economic and environmental sustainability issues. Aquaculture must be well linked with agricultural production systems to achieve synergies, improve yields and realize greater efficiencies in the use of land, water and labour (Fig. 2). Drawing on lessons from Asia, critical investments must be channelled towards, inter alia, research on aquaculture factor productivity, strategies Fig. 2: Small Scale Fish Farming in Malawi for seed supply, including selective breeding, nutrient conversion, environmental impact and economics. Networking and information sharing among researchers, training and outreach institutions, based on the model developed by the Network for Aquaculture Centres in Asia (NACA) should be considered for the ACP region. 4.3 Market access: fish without borders Africa ranks 4th to 5th among continents exporting fishery products to the EU (Table 3). In the ACP States, there is evidence that domestic trading is more innate to fishery than it is to livestock and other agricultural products. For the ACP region to capitalize on the growing domestic and export markets, regionally and globally, investments are needed to empower small and medium fishing enterprises, strengthen food safety systems and facilitate greater product development, diversification and value addition. Further investment is also needed to harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures and standards and build capacity to negotiate regional and multilateral trade agreements (e.g. the Economic Partnership Agreements (EPA) between ACP States and the EU).

Table 3. Performance of continents in exporting fishery products to the European Union 1999 2000 2001 2002 Border Rank Border Rank Border Rank Border Rank case / case / case / case / 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes To EU Oceania - 1 - 1 5.9 5 - 1 North America - 1 1.0 3 1.1 2 0.7 2 Europe (not EU) 0.1 3 0.3 2 0.3 1 1.0 3 Central and 1.8 4 4.8 4 2.8 3 5.9 4 South America Africa 7.0 5 5.7 5 4.4 4 6.2 5 Asia 12.9 6 13.9 6 16.4 6 51.5 6 Source: FAO (2005)

4.4 Fueling the synergies with the fisheries industry

The price of diesel rose over 100 percent between Box 1. Fueling global fishing fleets January 2004 and 2008, severely affecting the Over the course of the 20th century, fossil fuels became the dominant energy input to most of the world’s fisheries. By profitability of the fishing industry. With growing integrating data representing more than 250 fisheries from calls to cut the emission of greenhouse gases, there around the world with spatially resolved catch statistics for 2000, we calculate that globally, fisheries burned almost 50 is an urgent need to identify and use alternative billion L of fuel in the process of landing just over 80 sources of energy and explore passive gears. million t of marine fish and invertebrates for an average rate of 620 L t-1. Consequently, fisheries account for about Research must focus on improving fuel efficiency of 1.2% of global oil consumption, and directly emit more fishing vessels and developing competitively priced than 130 million t of CO2 into the atmosphere. From an efficiency perspective, the energy content of the fuel fuel efficient bio-fuels to provide power for cooling burned by global fisheries is 12.5 times greater than the and storage facilities or running motorised fishing edible protein energy content of the resulting catch. vessels and contribute to reducing Carbon Dioxide Source: Tyedmers, P.H, Watson, R. and Pauly, D. (2005) (www.seaaroundus.org) (CO2) emissions (Box 1). 4.5 Capacity strengthening and inter-regional networking and information sharing In order to improve the efficiency of investment in fisheries and aquaculture, there is need to shorten the learning cycle at all levels. The ACP states must build a cadre of professional staff in key institutions who are equipped with the knowledge and skills required to generate, adapt and use appropriate technologies effectively under the specific ecological, economic, social and institutional contexts. The ACP states should also develop the capacity of national and regional institutions to deliver fisheries and aquaculture training and continuing development programmes for professionals. Furthermore, there is an urgent need to establish scientific mentoring, including networks between and among professionals at national, regional and global levels. Lastly, there is need to improve the linkages between research, planning and policy at national and regional levels for science-based fisheries and aquaculture development. 4.6 Gender issues and sustainable fisheries and aquaculture development Considering that the United Nations global data on women demonstrate that in developing countries women produce half of the total agricultural products (including fisheries and aquaculture) in most countries, there is need to engender fisheries policies, in general and for research to develop fishing, farming and post-harvest technologies which enhance the participation of women in the sector. There is need for deeper interaction between research, policy makers, men and women particularly in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture communities in order to mobilize the full range of ecological, social, economic and institutional knowledge and competencies in support of the global target set by the JPol of the WSSD, particularly focusing on gender perspective (Williams et al. 2005). 4.7 Responding to climate change Scientists in the ACP region need to increase their understanding and knowledge of the impact of climate change on the fisheries and aquaculture industries. Research on the impact of changes in sea/lake/river/floodplain temperatures should not only focus on higher-value commercial species, but should also pay attention to species which local riparian communities depend on for food and livelihood. Furthermore, strong research focus must be directed at helping fishers become better able to cope with external shocks, and reducing their reliance on a limited range of species. Governments, individually or regionally, need to put in place strategies to understand impacts and

8 ACP Fisheries Policy Brief Safeguarding the ACP Fisheries Resources – Role of Science, Technology & Innovation predict changes as well as mitigating measures for fishing communities to adapt to climate change. This can only be achieved by climate-proofing fisheries development programmes through close collaboration with the scientific and fisher folk communities.

5.0 Conclusions Reports by FAO (ref. 2007-SOFIA) noted that population and income growth, together with urbanization and dietary diversification, are expected to create additional demand and to continue to shift the composition of food consumption towards a growing share of animal products, particularly fish. In the ACP region, fish remains an important source of high-quality protein and as such policy-makers need to take the strategic decision to increase investments in science, technology and innovation infrastructure for sustainably managing the aquatic habitats and ecosystems and for developing new and more efficient methods of producing, utilizing, selling and distributing fish and fishery products to satisfy growing demand in national and international markets.

Policy-makers in the ACP region need to adopt a number of steps to fully benefit from science, technology and innovation. First, states should mainstream fisheries and aquaculture within their development agendas; second, national and regional fisheries development programmes must be linked to science, technology and innovation policies for improving fisheries and aquaculture; third, regional scientific and political cooperation must be enhanced to allow countries to jointly address generic problems; fourth, curricula review at all levels of training should be promoted to focus on development priorities in fisheries and aquaculture; and, fifth, there must be increased investment in improved information systems to make use of all available, international, regional and local knowledge networks and to contribute to them. Finally, improved human and institutional capacity is imperative for sustainable fisheries and aquaculture development as quality human and physical resources will trigger the development of more efficient technologies, and effective legislative and governance systems and thus lead to improved quality of life and standard of living in ACP States.

References

Allan, J.D., Abell, R., Hogan, Z., Revenga, C., Taylor, B.W., Welcomme R.L. and Winemiller, K. 2005. Overfishing of inland waters. BioScience, 12: 1041-1051.

Balirwa, J.S., Chapman, C.A., Chapman, L.J., Cowx, I.G., Geheb, K., Kaufman, L., Lowe- McConnel, R.H., Seehausen, O., Wanink, J.H., Welcomme R.L. and Witte F. 2003. Biodiversity and fisheries sustainability in Lake Victoria Basin: An unexpected marriage? BioScience 8:703- 715.

Banda, M., Jamu, D., Njaya, F., Makuwila, M. and Maluwa A. (eds.). 2006. The Chambo Restoration Strategic Plan. Penang, Malaysia: WorldFish Center Conf. Proc. (71): 112p.

Bertignac, M., Campbell, H., Hampton, J. and Hand, A. 2001. Maximising Resource Rent from the Western and Central Pacific Tuna Fisheries. In Marine Resource Economics. Vol. 15. pp151- 177.

Birdsall, N,. Rodrik, D. and Subramanian A. 2005. “How to Help Poor Countries”, Foreign Affairs 84(4), pp.136–52.

Breton Y., Brown, D., Davy, B., Haughton M. and Ovares, L. (eds.). 2006. Coastal Resource Management in the Wider Caribbean. Resilience, Adaptation and Community Diversity. IDRC. Ian Randle Publishers, Kingston, Jamaica

Commission of the European Communities. 2002. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament. Fisheries and Poverty Reduction. COM (2002) 724 Final, Brussels.

Cowx, I.G., Muhoozi, L., Mkumbo, O., Getabu, A. and Okaranon, J. 2003. Evidence of overexploitation of the fisheries resources of Lake Victoria, with special reference to Ugandan waters.

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FARA. 2006. An assessment of the requirements for efficient effective and productive national agricultural research systems in Africa.

FARA. 2007. Regional Stakeholder Consultation: Research coordination in support of the AU/NEPAD Action Plan for the Development of African Fisheries and Aquaculture. FARA Secretariat, Accra, Ghana, 6-7 November 2006. Available online at http://www.fara-africa.org/

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Froese, R. and Binohlan, C. 2000. Empirical relationships to estimate asymptotic length, length at first maturity and length at maximum yield per recruit in fishes, with a simple method to evalutate frequency data. J. Fish Biol. 56:758-773

Gillett, R., McCoy, M., Rodwell, L. and Tamate, J. 2001. Tuna. A Key Economic Resource in the Pacific Island Countries. A Report Prepared for the Asian Development Bank and the Forum Fisheries Agency.

Gillett, R. 2004. Tuna for tomorrow? Some of the science behind an important fishery in the Pacific Islands. Asian Development Bank & Secretariat of the Pacific Community 20p.

Hanich, Q. and Tsamenyi, M. 2006. Exclusive economic zones, distant water fishing nations and Pacific Small Island Developing States: Who really gets all the fish? A paper presented at the Sharing of the Fish Conference 06. Perth, Western Australia.

Hodge, S. 2006. Knowledge innovation systems and technology diffusion strategies for ecosystems management in Africa – Case study: Lake Chad Basin Commission. Africa Policy Journal. Online journal available on: http://www.ksg.harvard.edu

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Welcomme, R.L. 2006. Role of fisheries in improving water productivity in rivers and floodplains. Challenge Programme on Water and Food – Aquatic Ecosystems and Fisheries Review Series 3. Theme 3 of CPWF, c/o WorldFish Centre, Cairo, Egypt 136p.

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Further reading Allison E.H., Adger N.W., Badjeck M-C, Brown K, Conway D, Dulvy N.K., Halls, A., Perry, A., and Reynolds, J.D. 2005. Effects of climate change on the sustainability of capture and enhancement fisheries important to the poor: Analysis of the vulnerability and adaptability of fisherfolk living in poverty. Department for International Development (UK) project number: R4778J. Available online at http://p15166578.pureserver.info/fmsp/r8475.htm

Chuenpagdee, R., Liguori, M.L.D. and Pauly, D. 2006 Bottom-up global estimates of small-scale fisheries marine fisheries catches. Univeristy of British Columbia, Fisheries Centre Research Reports, 14(8):105p. Available on line at http://ww.fisheries.ubc.ca/publications/reports/ferr.php

Froese, R. 2005. Keep it simple: three indicators to deal with overfishing. Fish and Fisheries, 5:86-91. Available online at http://filaman.uni-kiel.de/ifm-geomar/#publications

Palomares, M.L.D., Samb, B., Diouf, T., Vakily, J.M., and Pauly, D. (eds.) 2003. Fish biodiversity: Local studies as basis for global inferences. Brussels, ACP-EU Fisheries Research Report. (14):282 p. Available online http://cordis.europa.eu/inco/fp5/library_en.html

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Web resources: www.fishbase.org; www.incofish.org; http://knowledge.cta.int ; www.worlfishcenter.org; www.nepad.org; www.oecd.org http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD-?English/POIToc.htm http://www.spc.int/oceanfish/ http://cordis.europa.eu/inco/fp5/library en.html

1Dr. Sloans Chimatiro, Senior Fisheries Advisor, NEPAD, South Africa; 2Milton Haughton, Deputy Executive Director, Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism, Belize;, 3Dr. Mariama Barry, CRODT/ ISRA, Senegal; 4Martha Byanyima, Regional Coordinator, EU/ACP Strengthening of Fishery Products Health Conditions (SFP), Uganda; 5Augustine Mobiha, Executive Manager, Fisheries Management Division, Papua New Guinea; 6Dr. Francis Kofi Ewusie Nunoo, Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, University of Ghana, Ghana; edited by J.A. Francis6, Senior Programme Coordinator, S&T Strategies, CTA, The Netherlands & Reviewed by Dr. Cornelia Nauen, European Commission, Belgium. The authors and editors acknowledge the contributions of the ACP and EU experts who participated in the peer review process.

Reviewed by the Advisory Committee on S&T for ACP Agricultural and Rural Development at the 6th Meeting, CTA Headquarters, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Approved - March 2008.

Disclaimer: The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of The Technical Centre fro Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP- EU (CTA).

Publisher: CTA Coordinating Editor: Judith Francis, CTA CTA is an institution of the ACP Group of States (Africa, Caribbean and Pacific) and the EU (European Union), in the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is financed by the EU.

ACP policy brief No 4/2008 ISSN: 1876-0953